Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

MSc Energy Supply

Renewable Energy
Group Assignment on
Solid Biomass

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

2nd December 2008

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................1
BIOMASS TECHNOLOGIES................................................................................................................2
THERMAL SYSTEMS...............................................................................................................................2
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS...........................................................................................................................3
Anaerobic digestion.........................................................................................................................3
Fermentation....................................................................................................................................3
Bio fuels...........................................................................................................................................3
MAXIMISING BIOMASSS CONTRIBUTION TO THE FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION...4
1.
2.
3.

Minimization of conversion losses.........................................................................................4

Final energy yields per hectare - as high as possible............................................................4
Low production cost...............................................................................................................4

GLOBAL BIOMASS AVAILABILITY..................................................................................................5

MARKET DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE......................................................6
MAIN USES REGARDING WORLD SCENE.....................................................................................8
POWERING TRANSPORT..........................................................................................................................8
HEAT......................................................................................................................................................8
ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION....................................................................................................................8
ADVANTAGES TO BIOMASS..............................................................................................................9
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS......................................................................................................12

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Introduction
Energy supply is the subject of major universal concern. Volatility in the
oil and gas markets, threats to a secure and stable supply and climate
change have all pushed it up the international agenda. In its February
2007 report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
warned that global emissions must peak no later than 2015 and rapidly
decrease after that in order to avoid dangerous climate change. Moving
to an emissions pathway that will hold temperature increases and other
impacts to a minimum will require a colossal effort. The technology is
currently available to do this. The renewables industry is ready for take
off and opinion polls show that the majority of people support this move.
There are no real technical obstacles in the way of an Energy Revolution,
and now with the required political support in place we can start
rebuilding the energy sector. In this report we will concentrate on the
future potential of Solid Biomass to the Global Renewable Energy
Revolution.
Biomass is a broad term used to describe material of recent biological
origin that can be used as a source of energy. This includes wood, crops,
algae and other plants as well as agricultural and forest residues.
Biomass can be used for a variety of end uses: heating, electricity
generation or as fuel for transportation. The term bio energy is used for
biomass energy systems that produce heat and/or electricity and bio
fuels for liquid fuels used in transport.
Today, renewable energy sources account for 13% of the worlds primary
energy demand, Figure 11 below. Biomass, which is mostly used in the
heat sector, is the main renewable energy source. The share of renewable
energies for electricity generation is 18%. The contribution of renewables
to heat supply is around 24%, to a large extent accounted for by
traditional uses such as collected firewood.

World Energy Outlook 2006, P. 66. [Online]. Available:

http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Figure 1: World Primary Energy Demand in Reference Scenario (Mtoe)

Biomass Technologies
A number of processes can be used to convert energy from biomass,
Figure 22 below. These divide into thermal systems, which involve direct
combustion of solids, liquids or a gas via pyrolysis or gasification, and
biological systems, which involve decomposition of solid biomass to liquid
or gaseous fuels by processes such as anaerobic digestion and
fermentation.

Potential Contribution of Bioenergy to the World's Future Energy Demand. P. 4.

[Online]. Available: http://www.ieabioenergy.com/LibItem.aspx?id=5584

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

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Energy Supply

Figure 2: Main conversion options for biomass to secondary energy

carriers [WEA, 2000]

Thermal systems
Direct combustion is the most common way of converting biomass to
energy, for heat as well as electricity. Worldwide it accounts for over 90%
of biomass generation. Technologies can be distinguished as fixed bed,
fluidised bed or entrained flow combustion. In fixed bed combustion, such
as a grate furnace, primary air passes through a fixed bed, in which
drying, gasification and charcoal combustion takes place. The
combustible gases produced are burned after the addition of secondary
air, usually in a zone separated from the fuel bed. In fluidised bed
combustion, the primary combustion air is injected from the bottom of the
furnace with such high velocity that the material inside the furnace
becomes a seething mass of particles and bubbles. Entrained flow
combustion is suitable for fuels available as small particles, such as
sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the
furnace.
Gasification Biomass fuels are increasingly being used with advanced
conversion technologies, such as gasification systems, which offer
superior efficiencies compared with conventional power generation.
Gasification is a thermochemical process in which biomass is heated with
little or no oxygen present to produce a low energy gas. The gas can then
be used to fuel a gas turbine or combustion engine to generate electricity.
Gasification can also decrease emission levels compared to power
production with direct combustion and a steam cycle

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

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Energy Supply

Pyrolysis is a process whereby biomass is exposed to high temperatures

in the absence of air, causing the biomass todecompose. The products of
pyrolysis always include gas (biogas), liquid (bio-oil) and solid (char),
with the relative proportions of each depending on the fuel
characteristics, the method of pyrolysis and the reaction parameters,
such as temperature and pressure. Lower temperatures produce more
solid and liquid products and higher temperatures more biogas.

Biological systems
These processes are suitable for very wet biomass materials such as food
or agricultural wastes, including farm animal slurry.

Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion means the breakdown of organic waste by bacteria in
an oxygen-free environment. This produces a biogas typically made up of
65% methane and 35% carbon dioxide. Purified biogas can then be used
both for heating and electricity generation.

Fermentation
Fermentation is the process by which growing plants with a high sugar
and starch content are broken down with the help of micro-organisms to
produce ethanol and methanol. The end product is a combustible fuel that
can be used in vehicles.
Biomass power station capacities typically range up to 15 MW, but larger
plants are possible of up to 400 MW capacities, with part of the fuel input
potentially being fossil fuel, for example pulverised coal. The worlds
largest biomass fuelled power plant is located at Pietarsaari in Finland.
Built in 2001, this is an industrial CHP plant producing steam (100
MWth) and electricity (240 MWe) for the local forest industry and district
heat for the nearby town. The boiler is a circulating fluidised bed boiler
designed to generate steam from bark, sawdust, wood residues,
commercial bio fuel and peat. A 2005 study commissioned by Greenpeace
Netherlands concluded that it was technically possible to build and
operate a 1,000 MWe biomass fired power plant using fluidised bed
combustion technology and fed with wood residue pellets42.

Bio fuels
Converting crops into ethanol and bio diesel made from rapeseed methyl
ester (RME) currently takes place mainly in Brazil, the USA and Europe.
Processes for obtaining synthetic fuels from biogenic synthesis gases
will also play a larger role in the future. Theoretically bio fuels can be
produced from any biological carbon source, although the most common

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

are photosynthetic plants. Various plants and plant-derived materials are

used for bio fuel production. Globally bio fuels are most commonly used
to power vehicles, but can also be used for other purposes. The
production and use of bio fuels must result in a net reduction in carbon
emissions compared to the use of traditional fossil fuels to have a positive
effect in climate change mitigation. Sustainable bio fuels can reduce the
dependency on petroleum and thereby enhance energy security.

Maximising Biomasss contribution to the

final energy consumption
In order to maxamise Biomasss contribution to the final energy
consumption there are a number of principles to be considered3:
1. Minimization of conversion losses
Depending on what is the final energy product -heat, electricity or
biofuels, the efficiency varies between 90% (heat in modern installations)
and 25% (electricity production alone in old installations). Therefore, the
basic principle is to use the biomass resources as efficiently as possible.
2. Final energy yields per hectare - as high as possible
The final energy output per hectare varies between 1,0 toe per hectare to
6,0 toe per hectare depending on the plant cultivated and the conversion
technology chosen. Therefore, the principle is to prioritize those energy
crops and conversion chains that maximize the output of final energy per
hectare.
3. Low production cost
The price of final energy (heat, electricity, biofuels) varies depending on
what primary fuels (wood chips, pellets, wheat, corn, etc) was used to
produce it. Therefore, the principle is to give priority to the most
competitive options (calculated without support).
Considering all these principles, it is obvious that in the future the heat
followed by liquid fuels should be prioritized. The production of electricity
alone is the least favourable option due to the high cost and low
efficiency. However, cogeneration (heat and electricity) is possible.
Biomass production should be sustainable, maintaining the fertility of the
land, biodiversity and taking social aspects into account.
In the context of fuels, biomass is taken to mean any recently grown solid
organic matter suitable for burning. This includes wood, grass, and straw.
The advantages of biomass over fossil fuels are that:
3

European Biomass Association principles on biomass deployment. [Online]. Available:

http://www.aebiom.org/article.php3?id_article=63

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Biomass, being a carbon-based (i.e. organic) material, produces carbon

dioxide when burnt. However the carbon was extracted from the
atmosphere by the growing plant. It is recycled back into the atmosphere
on a very short timescale so that there is no net increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide. The energy so produced is renewable and sustainable
provided that the source plant is replaced.
There is likely to be some energy consumed in its production and delivery
that originates from fossil fuels so that there is a net carbon dioxide
emission in practice. This is usually relatively small. Biomass can also be
thought of as a short-term solar energy store. The solar energy drives the
photosynthesis process whereby the atmospheric carbon dioxide is
absorbed and converted into plant tissue.

Global Biomass Availability

There are a number of factors which influence the availability of biomass
for energy purposes. The worldwide biomass system is complex and
therefore availability is difficult to quantify, particularly when biomass is
in direct competition with land for food, fodder, materials and energy. The
availability of biomass for energy is also influenced by population growth,
population diet, availability of water, agricultural density and nature.
Given all these factors a scenario4 based approach is the most useful way
to look at future availability. Projections of the volume of additional
biomass that could be made available for energy purposes varies
significantly with different assumptions about the rates of technology
development and the levels of international trade in food along with
different assumptions on population growth and diet.
A scenario which includes high population growth, a meat intensive diet,
little improvement in agricultural intensity and high demand for biomass
for competing uses or as a carbon sink will add very little to the overall
biomass potential. By contrast, in the most optimistic scenario for
bioenergy, where population growth is low, diet becomes lessmeatintensive, agricultural intensity increases significantly and there is less
competition for resources, then bioenergy could increase very
significantly, providing over 1000 EJ/year5.
Other factors which need to be considered when generating different
scenarios:
4

Potential of biomass energy out to 2100, for four IPCC SRES land-use scenarios, Biomass
and Bioenergy Journal, Volume 29, Issue 4. [Online]. Available:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V22-4GR33NT1/2/e89e80c68817198897fecc3d99a26f71
5
The Availability of Biomass Resources for Energy: Summary and Conclusions. [Online].
Available: http://www.ieabioenergy.com/LibItem.aspx?id=5796

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

1. Will water availability be the same as today, or will it be limited?

2. Biomass utilisation should be done in a balanced and integrated
way, looking at systems which optimise the production of food and
fodder as well as fuel.
3. There may be potential to develop aquatic biomass (algae) as a new
resource in the oceans.
4. Priority must be given to the supply of food, if the price of
bioenergy created competition between food and energy supply it
would possibly affect food supply.
Globally, suitable abandoned cropland and pastureland amounts to
approximately 1.5 million square miles. Realistically, energy crops raised
on this land could be expected to yield about 27 exajoules of energy each
year6. This is a huge amount of energy, an exajoule is a billion billion
joules which is equivalent to 172 million barrels of oil. But this biomass
yield could satisfy only about 5% of global primary energy consumption
by humans, which in 2005 was 483 exajoules.
Figure 37 below gives an overview of the global potential of biomass for
energy (EJ per year) to 2050, it pulls together data extracted from 3
research papers 8 9 10 covering a number of categories and the main
preconditions and assumptions to determine these potentials

Biomass energy: the scale of the potential resource, Trends in Ecology & Evolution
Journal, Volume 23, Issue 2. [Online]. Available:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VJ1-4RN4H731/2/a4184f7a660bb4456f66e8a0d018229f
7
Potential Contribution of Bioenergy to the World's Future Energy Demand. P. 3. [Online].
Available: http://www.ieabioenergy.com/LibItem.aspx?id=5584
8
Potential of biomass energy out to 2100, for four IPCC SRES land-use scenarios, Biomass
and Bioenergy Journal, Volume 29, Issue 4. [Online]. Available:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V22-4GR33NT1/2/e89e80c68817198897fecc3d99a26f71
9
A bottom-up assessment and review of global bio-energy potentials to 2050. [Online].
Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V3W-4M0S31R1/2/2c7f6d67f492cec253b0bd2c20b68523
10
The contribution of biomass in the future global energy supply: a review of 17 studies.
[Online]. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V39-4C5FS8NPK/2/52645062fc2137f81644b9f99d1feef7

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Figure 3: Overview of the global potential of biomass for energy to 2050

Market development and international trade

Biofuel and biomass trade flows are modest compared to total bioenergy
production but are growing rapidly. Trade takes place between
neighbouring regions or countries, but increasingly trading is occurring
over long distances.
The possibilities for exporting biomass-derived commodities to the
worlds energy markets can provide a stable and reliable demand for
rural regions in many developing countries, thus creating an important
incentive and market access that is much needed. For many rural
communities in developing countries such a situation would offer good
opportunities for social-economic development. Sustainable biomass
production may also contribute to the sustainable management of natural
resources.
Importing countries on the other hand may be able to fulfil costeffectively their GHG emission reduction targets and diversify their fuel
mix.
Given that several regions of the world have inherent advantages for
producing biomass and biofuels in terms of land availability and
production costs, they may gradually develop into net exporters of
biomass and biofuels.

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

International transport of biomass is feasible from both the energy and

the cost points of view. The import of densified or pre-treated
lignocellulosic biomass from various world regions may be preferred,
especially for second generation biofuels, where lignocellulosic biomass
is the feedstock and large-scale capital intensive conversion capacity is
required to achieve sound economics. This is a situation comparable to
that of current oil refineries in major ports which use oil supplies from
around the globe.
Very important is the development of a sustainable, international biomass
market and trade. Proper standardisation and certification procedures
are to be developed and implemented to secure sustainable biomass
production, preferably on the global level. Currently, this is a priority for
various governments, market players, and international bodies. In
particular, competition between production of food, preservation of
forests and nature and use of land for biomass production should be
avoided. As argued, this is possible by using lignocellulosic biomass
resources that can come from residues and wastes, which are grown on
non-arable (e.g., degraded) lands, and in particular by increased
productivity in agricultural and livestock production.
Demonstration of such combined development where sustainable biomass
production is developed in conjunction with more efficient agricultural
management is a challenge. However, this is how bioenergy could
contribute not only to renewable energy supplies and reducing GHG
emissions, but also to rural development.

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Main Uses Regarding World Scene

It is important to identify the main uses of biomass with regard to the
world energy solution.
Powering Transport
There is potential for biomass derived Biofuels to replace our dependence
on fossil fuels with regard to transport. This is a main area to consider
because of our dependence on transport. Below we can see that though
Biofuels do not contain the same amount of energy as there equivalent
fossil fuel there is a potential to use these fuels for our transport needs.
Diesel calorific value: 43 MJ/kg, Biodiesel calorific value: 37 MJ/kg
Standard petrol calorific value: 40 MJ/kg, Ethanol calorific value: 27
MJ/kg
However there is still the consideration with regard to land use as, for
example, Biodiesel yield is 1.4 t/ha and Bioethanol yield is 2 t/ha. As
mentioned above the amount of unused agricultural land is approximately
1.5 million square miles (388.5 million hectares), this could produce a
significant amount of biodiesel and bioethanol.
Heat
The heating of homes, businesses and the use of heat in industry is the
most efficient use of biomass energy with the use of;
Boilers
District heating
CHP
CCHP incorporates cooling potential
In typical conventional power generation, much of the total energy input
is wasted. CHP, where the heat produced in electricity generation is used,
can reach efficiencies in excess of 85% However, for buildings such as
offices, the small heating and hot water demand does not normally show
CHP to be cost effective. Where air conditioning is in use, the duty and
operating hours of the CHP can be extended by using the rejected heat to

10

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

fire absorption chillers. This is referred to as tri-generation or combined

cooling, heating and power (CCHP).
Unfortunately, the coefficient of performance of absorption chillers is very
low compared to modern vapour compression machines so that in newbuild installations, gas-fired tri-generation will result in only small or no
reductions in CO2 emissions. However, a CHP or tri-generation fired on
biomass could result in significant savings.
Electricity Production
The production of electricity from traditional means is the least efficient
use of biomass due to the inefficiency of the thermal process which has a
maximum efficiency of 60% when using a combined cycle gas turbine and
excluding other losses due to transmission and inefficient conversion at
power at the usage point especially when using electricity in heating
processes.
However, there is the possibility of using biomass to provide base load
power to offset intermittence of other sources of renewable energy such
as such as wind and wave energy as well as hydro power in dry years.

Advantages to Biomass
Globally significant environmental benefits may result from using wood
for energy rather than fossil fuels. The greatest benefit is derived from
substituting biomass energy for coal. The degree of benefit depends
greatly on the efficiency with which the wood is converted to electricity. If
the efficiency of conversion of wood to electricity is similar to coal
conversion to electricity then the benefits are several.
There are many environmental, economic and social benefits associated
with the development of biomass as an energy source:

Health benefits can result with decreases with respiratory diseases

and deaths. Airborne pollutants such as toxic heavy metals, ozoneforming chemicals, and releases of sulphur that contribute to acid rain
will be reduced.

Sustainable biomass is carbon neutral and could produce annual net

reduction in CO2 emissions (there is no net increase in CO2, the main
greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere) and can save millions of tonnes of
CO2 emissions per annum.

11

Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Fig 11. Average CO2 emissions for fossil fuels and biomass

Biomass can offer an alternative for the disposal of waste (commercial,

non-commercial and agricultural waste); reducing waste delivered to
lad fills. Beneficial environmental impacts from the use of biomass
include improving sewage treatment prior to discharging effluent and
sludges to waterways or oceans; avoiding methane emissions from
landfills and reducing odours from direct application of animal wastes
to land by first processing in a biogas plant.

Secure energy supply - as an indigenous and self-sufficient source of

energy, there is no risk of cut off in supply. This is a complex subject
revolving around future oil supplies, technical power system outages,
sabotage and terrorism, geopolitics, weather patterns etc. Bioenergy
(and other renewable energy) projects can assist in reducing the risks
of these various energy supply constraints which can have serious
political consequences. However they also carry their own risks of
insecurity, variability and unreliability. To enhance the security of
power generation systems, bioenergy power and cogeneration plants
built reasonably close to the demand load will reduce transmission
losses and can at times strengthen the local electricity distribution
grid by providing additional and alternative resources. Security of
supply can also be improved by greater diversification of the portfolio
mix.

Environmental gains
Biomass is sustainable and does not deplete future resources.
Energy forestry crops have a much greater diversity of wildlife
and flora than arable or pasture land and careful design of
energy crops will enhance local landscapes and provide
recreational facilities.
Protection of water quality
Reduction of floods during wet seasons and maintenance of
water supplies during dry seasons
Erosion prevention
Improvement of local microclimate through evaporative cooling
and humidification
Wind breaks and shelters that reduce erosion and conserve
water, particularly in dry regions
Reduction of fire danger
Reduction in use of fertilizer and agricultural chemicals

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Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Improvement of soil properties

Protection of wildlife and other components of biodiversity

The ash and waste products from burning will, in most cases, be
sufficiently benign to return to the soil. There will be a considerable
reduction in net carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to the
greenhouse effect. For example, one dry tonne of wood will displace
15 GJ of coal. The 15 GJ of coal will have the equivalent of 0.37 tonnes
of carbon assuming the wood is converted at an efficiency of 25%.

Factor

Wood

Coal

Energy density (GJ/Dry tonne)

19.8

29.3

Heat rates (kJ/kWh)

7,200-

10,90

Feedstock carbon (kg C/GJ)

50

70

% Carbon

25.3

24.1

Input carbon (kg C/GJ)

1.34

0.53

Total carbon (kg C/GJ)

26.62

24.65

1 dry tonne of wood displaces 370 kg of coal carbon

Note: Feedstock carbon is the carbon embodied in the biomass or the
carbon sequestered by plant growth. Input carbon is the carbon
embodied in the factor inputs (e.g., diesel fuel) used to grow, harvest, and
transport the biomass
Table 12. Example carbon offsets from short-rotation energy used
for power production and displacing coal.
Source: Biomass Fuel from Woody Crops for Electric Power Generation
ORNL-6871, September 21st, 1995.

There is little doubt that biomass can provide useful employment both
for agricultural workers, possibly in the off-season when some
harvesting or processing of energy crops can be carried out, and also
for both skilled and unskilled workers at the bioenergy processing
plant. Biomass developments provide a valuable source of
employment. The main employment categories created are:
Fuel supply - cultivation of energy crops, recovery and
transportation of wood wastes, forest residues, agricultural
wastes etc.
Engineering consultants - feasibility studies, design and
engineering/construction management
Environmental services - environmental impact assessments
Construction - roads, buildings, electrical infrastructure etc.
Legal/Financing - planning, contractual and financing
Manufacturing - while there are some manufacturing companies
in Ireland e.g. pellet equipment, there is significant potential for
establishment of manufacturers of the various components of
biofuel systems.
Maintenance, servicing and administration

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Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Source: SEI Factsheet - What is Biomass?

Disadvantages of Biomass

Lack of experience and familiarity with biomass technologies amongst

key players such as policy makers, local authorities, investors and
resource owners inhibits development of biomass systems.
Misconceptions can hinder development of biomass as a renewable
energy source. Consultation and demonstration of successful or best
practice examples of biomass facilities will help to build confidence.

The attitude of the electricity, heat and fuel supply industries to

biomass technologies is poor. These industries prefer to avoid risk, use
familiar energy technologies and maintain the status quo. The lack
certainty of long term fuel supplies and availability can be a significant
barrier to achieving increased deployment if bioenergy developments.

Initial capital costs of solid biofuel systems and the interest associated
with these costs are much higher than for liquid or gas fuelled
systems. This can act as a significant barrier to development of energy
production from biomass. Biomass is not piped directly into buildings
on demand and transportation of fuels is a major consideration.

Uncertainty as to the availability of biomass resources e.g. farmers

doubt the stability of the biofuel market, resulting in a reluctance to
change over to the production of energy crops. The biomass energy
market is much less mature than either the fossil fuel markets.

There is a need for an integrated biomass policy to incorporate the

agricultural, environmental, rural and transport sectors. Energy crops
should be given the same stability as conventional forestry and food
crops and not used as part of set-aside to counter surpluses in food
production.

The low prices of fossil fuels make biomass fuels appear noncompetitive. If biomass technologies were to receive the same level of
subsidies as fossil fuels this would increase their cost competitiveness
considerably.

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Renewable Energy Group Assignment on Solid Biomass

Group A

Energy Supply

Taxes on renewable energy systems. Value Added Taxes on renewable

energy systems and their components reduce the competitiveness of
biomass technologies in relation to fossil fuel technologies. In
countries such as the Netherlands and domestic consumers of green
energy pay a lower VAT rate, which enables renewable energy
technologies to compete well with fossil fuel technologies. The
introduction of tax incentives such as this, as well as the exemption of
biomass-derived fuels from energy taxes in Ireland, will attract
investors. For biofuels, reducing excise taxes, especially if the overall
benefits can be shown to offset the loss in government revenue, may
be applied to the use of fuels with a biofuel component as is already
the case for biodiesel in Germany and bioethanol in France.

Lack of subsidies for research, development and demonstration.

Certain biomass technologies e.g. anaerobic digestion are well
established and therefore require support for demonstration, while
others are at an earlier stage of development e.g. growth of
Miscanthus as an energy crop and require support for research.

Lack of information, education and training, which is fundamental to

overcoming all of the above barriers. Sustainable development along
with comprehensive technical expertise and education will help
elevate misconstrued general opinions. People are generally afraid of
change and stick to what they know best.

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