ANGLES

1) ANGLES
Angle facts
An angle is formed where two straight lines meet. We measure them in degrees and
there are 360 degrees in a full circle.
We can use the following facts to work out angles we don't know:
1. Angles around a single point add up to 3600.
2. Angles on a straight line add up to 1800. So the missing angle below must be 400.

3. Vertically opposite angles are equal. (This is when two straightlines cross!).

4. Angles in a triangle add up to 1800. (See 'Polygons').

5. Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 3600. (See 'Polygons').

Parallel lines
When a straight line crosses two parallel lines there are more angle
factswe can look for and use!

1. Corresponding angles
are equal - these are angles in a letter 'F'.
X

2. Alternate angles

are equal - these are angles in a letter 'Z'.

X

3. Supplementary angles
add up to 1800 - these are angles in a letter 'U' or 'C' (when the 'U' and the 'C'
are made of three straight sides, of course).

X
X

When you've learnt all the above facts, the difficult thing is spotting them in the first
place! You need to try out your knowledge by practising questions and ignoring any
lines that are 'in the way'! Geometry problems will now be a doddle!

2) BEARINGS
Bearings are simply a way of giving directions (a bit more accurately than just
relying on North, South, East and West!).
If they are given with a distance as well then you have an exact position.
Note:
1. Bearings are always measured from North, which is 0000 (or 3600). Always draw
a North line at each pointto give a guide for your protractor.
2. They are always measured clockwise and must have three figures. So East is
0900, South is 1800 and West is 2700.

Finding a position
If you are given the bearing and position of something from a point and asked to
mark it in (after which you may be asked to measure something else) then here's
what you do:
1. Draw a North line at the point you are measuring from.
2. Put your protractor on this point and line up 00 with the North line. Always lean
right over the paper when you're doing this even though you might think you look a
bit stupid!
3. Read round the protractor clockwise until you reach the angle you want and
mark it with a pencil.
4. Draw a pencil line from the point you are measuring from right through your angle
point.
5. Check your scale (if there is one) and measure the distance you need along this
line. Put a cross to show your position.
Don't rub any of your pencil lines out. These help to show what you've done.

Here's the kind of diagram you might have for a ship which is 8 km away from a
lighthouse on a bearing of 1250using a scale of 1 cm = 1 km.

Measuring bearings
To measure the bearing of something, call it B, from something else, call it A, here's
what you do:
1. Draw a North line at A (because that's where you're measuring from).
2. Draw a pencil line connecting A to B. This acts as a guide for your protractor!
3. Place your protractor on A and line up 00 with the North line.
4. Read round clockwise until you reach the line going to B. There's your Bearing!
Don't forget to write it with three figures (if the angle is only two digits put a zero
in front!).

ROUNDING
Decimal Places
Often you are asked to write an answer to a given number of decimal places (be
careful to read the question properly!).
What you need to do:
1. Count the number of decimal places you need.
2. Look at the next digit. If it's 4 or below just write down the answer with the right
amount of decimal places. If it's 5 or above write down the number but put your last
decimal place up by one.
For example: 2.3635 to two decimal places

For example: 53.586 to two decimal places

What if the last digit is a 9?

A 9 goes up to a 10 so you need to put a zero in the last column and add one to the
previous number.
For example: 8.6397 to three decimal places

Significant Figures
These involve all digits, not just decimal places. Zeros are only "significant" if they
separate two other non-zero digits!
What you need to do:
1. Start counting at the first non-zero digit until you have the number of digits that
you need.
2. Look at the next digit. If it's a 4 or below just write the number down leaving the
last digit the same. If it's a 5 or above put the last digit up by one.
3. If you are rounding whole numbers (i.e. to the left of the decimal point) put
zeros in all the other columns after your last digit until you reach the decimal point.
e.g. 12 736 to three significant figures is 12 700
e.g. 6530 to one significant figure is 7000
e.g. 0.576 to two significant figures is 0.58

ESTIMATING
Arithmetic Operations
You should always do a quick estimate in your head when doing arithmetic so you
can see if your answer is reasonable.
Sometimes an exam question will test your ability to do this!
Generally, you should round each number involved to one significant figure
(see Rounding Learn-it) and then it's easy to estimate by using the single digits and
moving the point around.
Let's have a look at one:

936 x 27 - this is difficult to do in your head but if we round both numbers to one
significant figure it becomes900 x 30.
Now this is easy to do in your head by doing 9 x 3 = 27 then moving the point 3
times (putting three noughts on!) giving the answer 27 000 which is a good
estimate of the real answer 25 272.
Here's some more!
45 x 72 becomes 50 x 70 which is 3500
317 x 23 becomes 300 x 20 which is 6000
Check these are reasonable estimates of the real answers!

Error
It is important to remember that most measurement is approximate.
If you say your garden is 8 metres long you are rounding to the nearest metre and it
could be anything from 7.5 to 8.5 metres long.
Upper and Lower Bounds
The real value can be as much as half the rounded unit above or below the value
given.
So, if you are given 5.4cm the upper bound is 5.45cm and the lower bound is
5.35cm.
For 6.0kg you need to go 0.05kg either way so the upper bound is 6.05kg and
the lower bound is 5.95kg.
Maximum and Minimum Values
For calculations you must use the upper or lower bounds of each measurement
depending on what calculation you are doing.
Addition - For the maximum use the upper bound of each measurement, for the
minimum use the lower bound of each measurement.
For example:

If a piece of wood measuring 15cm is joined to another piece measuring 12cm you
can see the maximum and minimum values of the addition by clicking below.
Subtraction - For the maximum you need the biggest difference between the two
measurements i.e. the upper bound of the first number and the lower bound of the
second and for the minimum it's the other way round.
For example:
David and Steven were given seeds to plant in Biology and decided to see whose
would grow the highest. After two weeks they measured them to the nearest
centimetre and David's had grown to 11cm whereas Steven's had grown to
15cm. What are the maximum and minimum values of Steven's victory?
Multiplication - Same as for Addition
Division - Same as for Subtraction
Tip!
If it is a complicated calculation e.g. (32.3 x 42.6) - 12.7 then remember the rules for
each separate operation. For a maximum this would be (32.35 x 42.65) - 12.65
(Notice the lower bound was used for 12.7 as it was a subtraction).

Trial and Improvement

Sometimes we have to find the answer to something by simply guessing! We may
then try another guess to see if it is better and so on until we are happy with our
answer.
This is called Trial and Improvement and there are two main rules:
1. Use tables to display your guesses and the answer they gave.
2. Be methodical. Don't guess randomly!
For example:
a rectangle has an area of 100cm2 and its base is 1cm more than it's height. Find its
height to 2 decimal places.
Start with whole numbers.

Height (cm)

Base (cm)

Area (cm2)

10

90

10

11

110

Now we know the height must be between 9 and 10 so we move on to the first
decimal place. We can start with 9.5 if we want!

Height (cm)

Base (cm)

Area (cm2)

9.5

10.5

99.75 (too low!)

9.6

10.6

101.76 (too high!)

Now we know the height is between 9.5 and 9.6 so we can move to the second
decimal place.

Height (cm)

Base (cm)

Area (cm2)

9.55

10.55

100.7525 (too high!)

9.54

10.54

100.5516 (too high!)

9.53

10.53

100.3509 (too high!)

9.52

10.52

100.1504 (too high!)

9.51

10.51

99.9501 (too low!)

Now we know it's between 9.51 and 9.52. We only want two decimal places so the
answer has to be one of these!
We try the middle i.e. 9.515. The answer is too high so we now know it is nearer
to 9.51
To two decimal places the height is 9.51cm.
Try to guess Tom's height:
Tom's is somwhere between 100cm and 200cm tall. Enter your guess in the
box and click on the 'GO' button.
After each guess you can see if it is too low or too high, use this to narrow
down your guesses.
See how many tries it takes you.

CALCULATOR
It is vital that you get to know exactly how your calculator works so you don't waste
unnecessary time in the exam. Don't rely on borrowing one as you may not be
familiar with it (and you might annoy your maths teacher!).
Your calculator must be a scientific one and you should have an instruction booklet
with it.
Below is diagram of a calculator. Roll over each button to see what it does:

For the rest of this section it might be handy if you have your calculator and
instruction booklet close at hand.

Brackets and Memory

Firstly, your calculator will do things in a certain order regardless of how you type
them in.
For instance, 3 + 2 x 5 comes to 25.
Try typing it into your calculator (only pressing = at the end).
Did you get the answer 13?
If you did it's because your calculator will have worked out 2 x 5 first then added 3.
Your calculator operates what we call BODMAS:

This is the order in which it will do operations. So be careful!

Avoid making mistakes by:
1. Using the Memory function to store stages in your working out before using them
again.
2. Using the Bracket buttons.
3. Pressing the '=' sign after each operation.
Find out where all these things are on your calculator! Here's an example:
Work out...

Now, you want everything on the top to be divided by 4.1 so you must press'=' after
you have typed in the top of the fraction.
You can either work out the bracket first then add 5.8 or use the brackets on your
calculator and type it straight in! You should get 8.7 for the top. Now divide it by 4.1
to get 2.12195122
Try it!
Now try:

You should get 3.564 (to 3 decimal places). If you didn't, try it again using the
information above.

If you didn't, try it again using the information above.

Did you put the bottom of the fraction in brackets or use the memory?

Powers and Roots

Your calculator should have special buttons which 'square' and 'square-root'. Find out
where they are!
However, sometimes you may need to find higher powers or roots and you have to
use a different button for that. Here's what the buttons may look like (although they
might be above other buttons so you have to use Shiftor 2ndfn to get to them):

As you can see from the example above, to do 26, type in 2, press your power button,
type in 6 and press '='.
You should get 64.
To do the 4th root of 81, type in 81, press your root button, type in 4 and press ?=?.
You should get 3.
If you can't get the answers above, consult your instruction book on how to do it on
your machine as it might be different!

Standard Form
You can find out more about Standard Form in the section on 'Indices'.
Your calculator Standard Form buttons will probably say EXP or EE. If you can't find
this, have a look at your instruction book.
Now, as you should know, Standard Form is a number between 1 and 10 multiplied
by 10 to a power. Your calculator may not indicate the 'x 10' bit. If it doesn't it will
show the number then the power of 10 smaller and to the right.

Don't mistake this as meaning the power is for the number on the screen. It isn't. It's
a power of 10!
The button EXP or EE means 'x 10?' so to do 3.5 x 108 you type 3.5, press EXP then
type 8.
You can now do arithmetic using Standard Form:
For example: try (4.5 x 107) x (3.1 x 109)
You should get 1.395 x 1017

Fractions
As you probably know, fractions are divisions and you can do them on your calculator
by using the divide button.
However, your calculator will then work in decimals which are sometimes not as
accurate and, anyway, we might need to write the answer as a fraction.
Most calculators will have their own fraction buttons. They may look like this:

They are incredibly useful for doing fraction work and may even change top-heavy
fractions into mixed numbers and vice versa.
Learn how to use them and what the fractions look like on your screen.
You can check you are OK by using the following examples if you wish -just
type in the number you get in the space with a question mark:

GCSE Maths Formula Sheet

Rules of Indices
Rule 1: When you multiply indices of the same number you add the powers.
For example: 54x 53= 54+3= 57
Rule 2: When you divide indices of the same number you subtract the powers.
For example:

Rule 3: Indices outside a bracket multiply.

For example: (32)4 = 32 x 4 = 38
Rule 4: Negative indices mean reciprocal, i.e. 'one over....' or 'put on the bottom
of a fraction'.
For example:

Rule 5: When the power is a fraction the top of the fraction (numerator) is a power
and the bottom of the fraction is a root.
For example:

Rule 6: Anything to a power of 1 is just itself and we normally don't bother putting
the 1 there.
For example: 51 is just 5.
Anything to a power of 0 is equal to 1, it doesn't matter what number it is!
For example: 100 = 1, 20 = 1, x0 = 1, etc.

The nth Term

nth term = dn + (a - d)
For example: 6, 11, 16, 21, ... for this sequence d = 5, a = 6

Angle Formulae
Rule 1: Angles around a single point add up to 360.
Rule 2: Angles on a straight line add up to 180.
Rule 3: Vertically opposite angles are equal. (This is when two straight lines cross!).
Rule 4: Angles in a triangle add up to 180.
Rule 5: Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 360.

Parallel Lines
When a straight line crosses two parallel lines there are more angle facts we can look
for and use!
Rule 1: Corresponding angles are equal - these are angles in a letter 'F'.
Rule 2: Alternate angles are equal - these are angles in a letter 'Z'.
Rule 3: Supplementary angles add up to 180 - these are angles in a letter 'U' or 'C'
(when the 'U' and the 'C' are made of three straight sides, of course).

Sin, Cos, Tan

SOHCAHTOA

Rule 1: Sine is Opposite over Hypotenuse

Rule 2: Cos is Adjacent over Hypotenuse
Rule 3: Tan is Opposite over Adjacent

Pythagoras
Rule:
The square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the
other two sides
or, a2 + b2 = c2

Area
Square: Area = Length2
Rectangle: Area = Length x Width
Right-angled Triangle: Area = x Base x Height
Other Triangle: Area = x Base x Perpendicular Height
Circle: Area = r2
Trapezium: Area = Average of Parallel sides x Distance between them

Surface Area
Curved Surface of a Cylinder: Area = 2 rh
Surface of a Sphere: Area = 4 r2
Curved Surface of a Cone: Area = rl

Volume
Cube: Volume = Length3
Cuboid: Volume = Length x Width x Height

Prism: Volume = Area of Cross-section x Length

Cylinder: Volume = r2h
Sphere: Volume = 4/3 r3
Prism: Volume = 1/3 r2h

Polygons and their angles

For a regular polygon with 'n' sides, External angle:

For a regular polygon with 'n' sides, Internal angle:

Circles
Circumference = 2 r or, Circumference = d
Area = r2

Similarity

Graphs
The equation of a straight line is y = mx + c
The gradient, m:

Quadratic functions are written in the form y = ax2 + bx + c

Cubics are in the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

In a pie chart, to find out the frequency that each section represents measure the
angle for the section then:

Probability
If we call a particular event 'A' then the probability of A happening is:

The 'and' rule:

p (A and B) = p (A) x p (B)
The 'or' rule:
p (A or B) = p (A) + p (B)

Algebraic Graphs
Obviously, to plot co-ordinates on a graph you need x-values and y-values so, unlike
when you are solving equations, we will be using y = .... to give us our co-ordinates.
This means that they are called functions rather than equations.
Key points
1. Always make a table of values before plotting a graph.
2. Always do everything in sharp pencil - sharp for accuracy (very important to
examiners!) and pencil because if you mess it up on an exam paper you must be
able to rub the whole thing out as there won't be another space for you to try again!
3. Make sure your axes are sensibly labelled with appropriate scales.

4. If the points are in a straight line, you must draw a straight line through them to
fill the whole of your graph. Don't just start at the first point plotted and end at the
last.
5. If the points are not in a straight line, draw a smooth curve through them. If
you're not very good at this you must practise to get your technique sorted out!
6. Always label your graph fully - the axes and the line or curve (with it's equation).
7. If there is a rogue point that doesn't look like it follows the line or curve then
you've probably worked it out wrong and need to check it!

Linear graphs
Linear functions can be written in the form
y = mx + c
where y and x are variables, m and c are constants (numbers).
If you write them like this then m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept (point
where it crosses the y-axis). The graphs of Linear Functions are straight lines.

Plotting a graph from an equation

First make a table for x and y. You need to pick 4 or 5 values of x depending on your
scale and use the function to find the corresponding values of y. Usually values
around the origin will do.
Here's an example with the function y = 2x - 1. We will use the x values -3, -2, 0, 2
and 4.
When x = -3, y = -6 - 1 = -7
When x = -2, y = -4 - 1 = -5
When x = 0, y = -1
When x = 2, y = 4 - 1 = 3
When x = 4, y = 8 - 1 = 7

-3 -2 0 2 4

-7 -5 -1 3 7

Now simply decide on your axes, plot the points and draw a straight line
right through them:

Finding the equation of a straight line from the

graph
We know that the equation of a straight line must be able to be written in
the form:
y = mx + c
So, we simply need to find m and c.
To find m:
1. m is the gradient or slope. Pick any two points on your line (but try to make them
whole numbered co-ordinates so they're easy to use). Then:

Make sure you specify whether the change is negative or positive.

2. Simplify your fraction. Often it will be a whole number anyway!
To find c:
1. c is simply the place where the line crosses the y-axis.
2. Put m and c into y = mx + c and you're finished.
The graph below is of y = 2x + 4. See if you can work it out for yourself using the
method outlined above.

Quadratic graphs
Quadratic functions can be written in the form:
y = ax2 + bx + c
where a, b and c are constants and 'a' doesn't equal zero.

Plotting a graph from the equation

Quadratic graphs are always parabolas ('U' shapes).
As they are curved, you need to plot a few more points than you do with the linear
graphs. The U-shape could be anywhere on the graph depending on the values of a,

b and c, so you may need to try a few values of x out until you have an idea of where
it is.
Below we've done a table for the function y = x2 - 4x - 5 taking values of x from -8
to 8:

-8

-6

-4

-2

91

55

27

-5

-9

-5

27

The really important bits of a quadratic are:

Where it turns (the bottom of the 'U')
Where it crosses the x-axis (if it does!)
So we just need to make sure that these are on our graph. Looking at our coordinates it appears that this happens somewhere between x = -2 and x = 6 so
there's no need to go down as far as x = -8.
All we need to do now is draw the axes, plot the points and draw a smooth
U-shape through them:

Solving a Quadratic Equation using the graph

Now, if you've read the section on solving quadratics (see Equations and
Inequalities) then you'll know that as well as factorising and using the quadratic
formula, another way to solve them is by using the graph.

And the nice thing is it's really simple.

The solutions of a quadratic are where the graph crosses the x-axis!
This gives you the two x-values you need.
Now you can also see why some quadratics have 2 solutions (U-shape crosses the xaxis and comes back up), some have 1 solution (U-shape just touches the x-axis at a
single point) and some have no solutions (U-shape is above the x-axis and doesn't
cross it).

Cubic and reciprocal graphs

You need to be able to:
1. Plot and draw these.
2. Recognise the shapes.
3. Read the solutions from the graph (cubics only).
Cubics can be written in the form:
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
Reciprocals are where the x is on the bottom of a fraction.
The simplest cubic is y = x3
You can see below what it looks like:

The simplest reciprocal is:

and it looks like this. It never touches the axes but gets closer and closer.The axes
are known as asymptotes.

To plot them, do the same thing as for cubics (remembering the different shapes of
cubics and reciprocals).
Table - Axes - Plot - Draw - Label
Try and think of an easy way to remember this!
The solutions of a cubic are where it crosses the x-axis and it can have up to 3 like
the one shown below that has the solutions x = -4, x = 2and x = 5.

Graphs of simultaneous equations

As all simultaneous equations you come across at GCSE are linear (can both be
written in the form y = mx + c) their graphs will be straight lines.
The solution (x-value and y-value) is where the straight lines intersect (cross each
other).
So instead of solving them using Algebra you can read their solution straight from
the graph!
So, for the simultaneous equations: x + y = 10

x + y = 10

y - 2x = 1

the solutions can be read from the graph below as x = 3, y = 7

Inequalities - Regions on a graph

In an inequality, if you imagine that the inequality sign was an '=' sign then you've
got a linear equation. We told you earlier that if you draw the graphs of a linear
equation you get a straight line.
The only difference now is that the graph of the inequality includes the whole area
(or region) on one side of the straight line which you can shade in with your pencil.
To find out which side of the straight line you need:

1. Choose any point on the graph but not on the line as a test point (the origin is
usually a good one unless it is on the line).
2. Put the x and y values of the point into the inequality. If the inequality works (is
true - for example 2 > 7 would not be true) then that's the side of the line you want.
If not then you want the other side.
Here's an example using the inequality
2x + y > 7.
First, make a table of values to draw the line
2x + y = 7.
Remember: you only need 4 or 5 values of x.
When x = -4, y = 15
When x = -2, y = 11
When x = 0, y = 7
When x = 2, y = 3
When x = 4, y = -1

-4

-2

15

11

-1

Now plot the points and draw the line - make it dotted as the inequality is
'greater than' and not 'greater than or equal to'.
Choose a test point. We are going to choose (0, 0).
Put the x = 0 and y = 0 values into the inequality 2x + y > 7 to give 0 > 7 which is
clearly not true so we want the other side of the line (see below):

Real-life Graphs
Travel graphs
The two types of graphs you will meet are distance/time and speed/time.
Time is almost always plotted on the x-axis!

Distance/time
If you show a graph of a journey showing distance travelled (on the y-axis)
against time (on the x-axis):
1. The gradient (or slope) of the graph represents the speed.
2. A horizontal section indicates that you have stopped.
3. A section sloping up means you are going away.
4. A section sloping down means you are coming back.
5. The steeper the line, the faster you are going.

Speed/time
1. The gradient (or slope) of the graph represents the acceleration.
2. The area under the graph (for any section) is the distance travelled (in that
section).

3. A horizontal section indicates constant speed (no acceleration).

4. A section sloping up means accelerating.
5. A section sloping down means slowing down.
6. The steeper the line, the quicker the acceleration.

Graphs to represent data

Graphs used to represent data include:

Bar charts (sometimes called frequency diagrams)

Line graphs

Frequency polygons

Cumulative frequency graphs

Scatter diagrams
These are all covered in the section Representing Data.

Indices
Powers and Roots
A power tells you to multiply a number by itself.
For example, 53 means 5 x 5 x 5 which is 125.
24 means 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 which is 16.
It is a short way of writing out calculations.
For example, 33 x 42 = 3 x 3 x 3 x 4 x 4 = 432
A root is the opposite of a power.
For example:

- means 'what number do you square to get 4?'

The answer is 2.
- means 'what number do you cube (multiply by itself 3 times) to get 27?'
The answer is 3.

Rules of indices
There are several rules that you will need to know.
Rule 1
When you multiply indices of the same number you add the powers.
For example: 54 x 53 = 54 + 3 = 57
Rule 2
When you divide indices of the same number you subtract the powers.

Rule 3
Indices outside a bracket multiply.
For example: (32)

= 32 x 4 = 3 8

Rule 4
Negative indices mean reciprocal, i.e. 'one over...' or 'put on the bottom of
a fraction'.

Rule 5
When the power is a fraction the top of the fraction (numerator) is
a power and the bottom of the fraction is a root.

Rule 6
Anything to a power of 1 is just itself and we normally don't bother putting
the 1 there i.e. 51 is just 5.
Anything to a power of 0 is equal to 1, it doesn't matter what number it is!
i.e. 100 = 1, 20 = 1, x0 = 1, etc.
There you go! There's your rules. Now practice using them by doing some
questions!
Drag and drop the appropriate rule onto the formula you would use it to
solve:

Indices in Algebra
The rules of Indices also work in Algebra (after all the letters
or variables represent numbers anyway!).
So with algebraic fractions you can take the powers at the bottom from the
powers at the top and simplify the expression (a bit like cancelling the
powers on the top and bottom of the fraction).
What are we talking about? Good question! So here's an example.
Click the Play and Next buttons to see how it is done:

Standard Form
Introduction
Standard Form (or Standard Index Form to give it its proper title!) is a way of
writing very big or very small numbers in a nice short way by using powers of 10.
This is because when you multiply by 10, 100 (102) or 1000 (103) and so on the effect
is that the decimal point moves.
To be technical about it, every number can be written as a x 10n where a is a
number between 1 and 10 and n is an integer (whole number including negative
whole numbers)!
For example:
6 000 000 000 can be written as 6 x 109
0.32 can be written as 3.2 x 10-1 (Note the negative power of 10 because you want
the point to move to theleft and not to the right).
What you need to do:

1. Look at your number written in full and put the decimal point straight after the
first non-zero digit.
2. Count how many times it needs to move to get back to where it was. This gives
you your power of 10.
Take this example...
To write 5480000 in standard form, move the decimal point until it is after the 5,
counting how numbers it hopped over on the way. That number is then the number
you have to raise 10 to to give you the standard form. Click 'Play' below to see
this in action.

Now you can put numbers into your calculator that wouldn't even fit on the screen
before!

Calculating with standard form

As numbers written in Standard Form are still numbers you can multiply them, divide
them, etc. The rules of indices can provide some shortcuts!
For example:
(2 x 107) x (4 x 109) can be rearranged to (2 x 4)x (107 x 109) giving 8 x 1016
Important: The number at the front must be between 1 and 10 so be
careful! You may need to adjust it a bit by moving the point and changing
the power of 10 to make up for your change.
For example:
(5 x 106) x (7 x 1012) = (5 x 7) x (106x 1012) = 35 x 1018

But the answer is not in Standard Form and the question may ask you to give
your answer in Standard Form. Don't worry! It's not a problem.
Move the point over the 5 to get 3.5 then increase the power of 10 by one to get it
back where it was before you moved it. This gives the answer 3.5 x 1019.

Area and Perimeter

Area is the space inside a plane (2-dimensional) shape and is measured in squares.
Perimeter is the distance around the outside of a plane shape and is a length.

Areas of common shapes

Volume of common shapes

Dimensions
Some equations give you a length, for example circumference of a circle. Some give
you an area, for example the surface area of a sphere. And some give you a volume.
You cannot mix dimensions. For example, you cannot add a length to an area or an
area to a volume.
What you need to be able to do is recognise whether an equation is giving you
a length, an area, a volume or is actually total rubbish (because it is adding or
subtracting different measurements).

In equations, lengths are represented by letters (variables). However, letters can also
represent constants (which means that they are always the same number) and
constants have no dimensions. Also, numbers have no dimensions unless you are
told otherwise!
How to tell!
1. If the equation is a length then only one letter (variable) represents a length.
However, lengths can be added and subtracted from each other and still give a
length. For example, 10cm + 15cm is 25cm which is still a length.
2. If the equation is an area then it must be length x length. Again, it's still
an area if areas are added or subtracted from each other.
3. If the equation is a volume then it must be length x length x length.
4. Be careful if they use brackets. To be safe, multiply out the brackets before
making your decision.
5. Also be careful with fractions as the dimensions are allowed to cancel. So,
a volume over a length will give anarea, and an area over a length will give
a length.
Tip!
If the question on an exam paper asks you to tick boxes, only tick the ones you
are sure of - Do Not Guess!This is because a wrong tick will cancel out one of the
right ticks as well - sorry, that's just how they mark the papers!
If x, y, and z represent lengths and a, b and c are constants, here's some
examples:
x2y
This is a volume because it's length x length x length.
3ax2
This is an area because it's length x length and neither 3 nor a have any
dimensions.
4ax + 3y

This is a length because it is two lengths added together.

This is a length because it is an area over a length.

Now test yourself on this idea. Below are a number of different equations.
Decide if they represent a length, area or a volume, then drag the correct
anwer to the equation:

Accuracy
The basic thing to remember is:
Measurement is always approximate.
Whatever the measurement has been rounded to it could be half a unit either way.
For example, if a sprinter is timed as doing 100 metres in 10.8 seconds his time has
been rounded to the nearest tenth of a second, which means it could have been
anywhere between 10.75 and 10.85 seconds.

Metric and Imperial

Basic facts
Although we have been using the metric system for ages a lot of people in Britain
(but very few on the continent) still work in Imperial units. For instance, there's a
good chance that you know your weight in stones and your height in feet and not
kilograms and metres!
Due to this you still need to know both systems and be able to
convert(approximately) between them.

Metric
Here are some basic facts that you should know:

Length

1cm = 10mm

1m = 100cm

1km = 1000m

Mass:

1kg = 1000g

1 tonne = 1000kg

Volume:

1 litre = 1000ml = 1000cm3

Note to remember:

1m = 100cm

1m2 = 10 000cm2

1m3 = 1 000 000cm3

Imperial
Here are some more facts that you should know:

Length:

1 foot = 12 inches

1 yard = 3 feet

1 mile = 1760 yards

Length:

1 pound = 16 ounces

1 stone = 14 pounds

1 ton = 160 stones (or 2240 pounds)

Note: the different spellings of tonne (metric) and ton (imperial).

Volume:

1 gallon = 8 pints

Conversion

You need to know the approximate conversions between some of the metric and
imperial units. Here are the main ones:

Kilometres and Miles:

Miles to Km - Multiply by 1.6
Km to Miles - Multiply by 0.62

Kilograms and Pounds:

Kg to Pounds - Multiply by 2.2
Pounds to Kg - Multiply by 0.45

Litres and Gallons:

Litres to Gallons - Multiply by 0.22
Gallons to Litres - Multiply by 4.55

Metres, centimetres, feet and inches:

Inch to Cm - Multiply by 2.54
Cm to Inch - Multiply by 0.39

Now try some conversions for yourself

Locus
A locus is simply a set of points that satisfy some sort of condition. Here are some
common loci that you need to be able to draw...

Distance from a point

The set of points, which are the same distance from a single point, is a circle.
For example: Use a pair of compasses. Draw the locus of points that is 5cm away
from the cross marked.

Distance from two points

The set of points that are the same distance from two points is a perpendicular
line straight down the middle! You can draw this by finding the middle with your
ruler then drawing a line at 900 or you cantry this clever wayjust using compasses:
1. Set your compasses so that they are roughly the same as the distance between
the points (or less if you don't have a lot of room!).
2. Put the point of the compasses on the first cross and do two arcs - one above the
points and one below.
3. Put the point on the second cross and do the same thing so that you cross the first
arcs (making sure you keep the compasses the same distance apart).
4. Now simply draw a line straight down the middle through the points where the
arcs cross.
Note: Don't rub the arcs out, so the examiners will be able to see what you've done!
Click 'Show Me' below and the diagram will show you each step:

Distance from two lines

When two lines meet, you get an angle. The set of points that are the same distance
away from both lines is a straight line down the middle which bisects (cuts in half)
the angle. Again, you could draw this line down the middle by using a protractor to
measure the angle and halve it but, yes you've guessed it, there's a clever way!

1. Get a pair of compasses and place the point where the two lines meet. Draw little
arcs that cross each of the lines.
2. Now, keeping the compasses set, put the point on each line where your arc has
crossed it and draw another little arc in-between the two lines. You should now have
another two little arcs in the middle.
3. Draw a straight line from the angle through the point where your little arcs cross
and you've done it!
Confused? Click 'Show Me' below and the diagram will show you each step:

Using Fractions
You need to be able to:
1. Cancel fractions down.
2. Change improper (top-heavy, e.g. 3/2) fractions into mixed numbers (e.g. 1 )
and vice-versa.
3. Multiply and divide fractions.
4. Add and subtract fractions.
5. Find fractions of quantities.
6. Use ratio.
Your calculator should have a fraction button which does all of the above easily
- learn how to use it properly!
However, now there is a non-calculator exam paper you also need to be able to do all
of the above by hand.
We will assume you can do 1 and 2. For the rest just follow these simple tips:
Important: Always change any mixed numbers into improper fractions
before you start then cancel the answer down to it's simplest terms and
change back to a mixed number if you need to!
Multiplying

Multiply the tops (numerators) together and multiply the bottoms (denominators)
together.
Dividing
Turn the second fraction upside-down and multiply as above.
Adding and subtracting
Find the lowest common denominator. This is the lowest number that the
denominators will both go into. Then multiply the top and bottom of each fraction by
the same number (the number used for each fraction may be different!).
Now simply add (or subtract) the tops keeping the denominator the same!
Here's an example:

Looking at the above example, the lowest common denominator of 6 and 8 is 24.
You need to multiply 6 by 4 to get 24. That's why you have to multiply the topand
bottom of the first fraction by 4.
You need to multiply 8 by 3 to get 24. That's why you have to multiply the top and
bottom of the second fraction by 3.

Finding fractions of quantities

Multiply the quantity by the top of the fraction and divide it by the bottom of the
fraction.
Example:

Note: You can divide by 8 first then multiply by 3 if you want!

Ratios
Ratios behave like fractions. You can cancel them down if you like.
If you want to divide a quantity in a ratio it's the same as finding a fraction of
something as we've shown aboveexcept the bottom of the fraction (what you want
to divide the quantity by) is the total of all the numbers in the ratio.
See what we mean with this one!
Divide 35kg in the ratio 2:5.
This means for every 2kg you put on the left put 5 on the right!
2 + 5 = 7 so we divide 35 by 7 giving 5.
Now put 2 x 5 on the left and 5 x 5 on the right giving 10 : 25

Using Decimals
Again your calculator will do this easily but you also need to be able to do it by hand!

To add and subtract numbers with decimal points in them, put them in columns with
the decimal points above each other and add or subtract as you would with whole
numbers.
To multiply, ignore the decimal points and multiply as you would with whole
numbers. When you have the answer count the number of digits after the decimal
points in the question and put the point in your answer so you have the same
amount of digits after the point.
To divide, move the point the same number of places in both numbers so the second
one is no longer a decimal then divide as normal!

Changing Between
Percentages are just fractions out of 100.
Decimals are just tenths, hundredths, thousandths etc.
The simple diagram below shows how to change between them!

Amounts as Percentages
To express an amount as a percentage, write it as a fraction of the total amount
and multiply it by 100. Here's an example!
There are 14 boys and 11 girls in a class.
What percentage of the class are boys?
Total in the class = 25 so the fraction of boys is 14/25.

So the percentage of boys in the class is 56%.

Finding Percentages
To find a percentage of a quantity, turn the percentage into a decimal (divide by 100)
and multiply the quantity by this. Here's an example:
Find 55% of 230km.

Increasing and Decreasing

The simple way to increase (or decrease) a quantity by a percentage is to find the
percentage of the quantity that you want to increase (or decrease) it by and add it
on (or take it off).
For example:
Increase 56 by 25%.
25% of 56 is 14
56 + 14 = 70 so the answer is 70.
Quick way!
You can actually do it in one step instead of two!
Here's how.
1. Work out what percentage you will have after your increase or decrease.
2. Change it to a decimal (divide by 100).
3. Multiply!

Have a look at this example:

Decrease 900kg by 35%.
After taking away 35% there will be 65% left.
65% as a decimal is 0.65 so 0.65 x 900 = 585
The answer is 585kg.

Compound Interest
Let's say you have 10 in the bank at 10% interest per annum (that means per
year!).
So at the end of one year you will get 1 interest giving you a balance of 11.
At the end of the second year you now get 10% of 11 i.e. 1.10 so you are getting
interest on your interest (if you see what we mean!). This is called Compound
Interest.

So if you want to find out how a sum of money has grown due to interest added over
a number of years, here's what you do:
1. Add the interest rate on to 100% to get your new percentage.
2. Change it to a decimal. This is now the number you multiply by at the end of each
year.
Example:
A man has 50 in his bank account at the start of the year. The interest rate is 5.3%
per annum. If he leaves his money there, how much will the balance be at the end of
3 years?
Answer:
If you add 5.3% on you will have 105.3%.
As a decimal this is 1.053. So we simply multiply the 50 by this number 3 times as
there are 3 years. In other words we are multiplying by (1.053) 3.
50 x (1.053)3 = 58.37879385
Now remember money has two decimal places so the answer is 58.38.

Definitions and names

A polygon is simply a closed 2-dimensional shape made up of straight lines. The
word itself actually means 'many-sided shape'.
Obviously, the polygon with the least number of sides is the triangle.
Here are the names of all the polygons with up to 12 sides:

Triangles
Triangles can be classified using their sides or their angles.
The angles in a triangle always add up to 1800.

Special types of triangle

Equilateral - All 3 sides equal and all 3 angles equal (to 600).
Isosceles - Two sides the same and the angles at the bottom of those sides are
equal.
Scalene - No sides or angles equal.
You can also classify triangles by their angles :
Acute-angled - All angles are acute (less than 900).
Right-angled - One angle is 900.
Obtuse-angled - One angle is obtuse (greater than 900).

Area
The area of a triangle is

However, you must use the perpendicular height. That means at 900 to the base.

Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals are 4-sided shapes and are probably the most interesting of all the
polygons as there are several ones with special properties and names.
Square:

All sides equal.

All angles 900.

4 lines of symmetry.

Rotation symmetry of order 4.

Rectangle:

Two pairs of equal and parallel sides.

All angles 900.

Two lines of symmetry.

Rotation symmetry of order 2.

Rhombus:

All sides equal.

Opposite sides parallel.

Two lines of symmetry.

Rotation symmetry of order 2.

Basically, a square leaning over. Sometimes referred to as a diamond!

Parallelogram:

Two pairs of equal and parallel sides.

Opposite angles equal.

No lines of symmetry.

Rotation symmetry of order 2.

Basically, a rectangle leaning over.

Trapezium:

One pair of parallel sides.

No symmetry.
Kite:

Two pairs of equal sides next to each other.

One line of symmetry.

No rotation symmetry.

Angles
There are two types of angle when dealing with Polygons - internal and external.

You need to be able to work them out for regular polygons (that's polygons which
have all sides equal and all angles equal).
The easiest thing to do is work out the external angle. The internal angle is then
just the difference between that and 1800.
The external angle is the angle that you must turn for each new side. When you have
drawn the whole shape you will be back where you started so you must have
travelled 3600. Therefore, the external angle is simply 3600divided by the number of
sides (or the number of "turns").
For a regular polygon with 'n' sides, External angle:

So to work out the internal angle we just subtract that from 180 0.

For a regular polygon with 'n' sides, Internal angle:

For example:
For a pentagon...

Here's a useful table with them all in:

Polygon:

Number of sides:

External angles:

Internal angles:

Triangle

120

60

Square

90

90

Pentagon

72

108

Hexagon

60

120

Heptagon

51.4

128.6

Octagon

45

135

Nonagon

40

140

Decagon

10

36

144

Undecagon

11

32.7

147.3

Dodecagon

12

30

150

Circles
Circles are amazing shapes. Every single point on a circle is the same distance from
the centre. Also they are heavily involved with the irrational number which we call pi.
Pi has a never-ending decimal tail that never shows a pattern.

Circumference
The diameter fits around the outside 3 and a bit times ():

Or, if you want to use the diameter:

There will be a button on your calculator.

Area
Again, pi is involved in the area formula:

Simple probability
Probability is the 'chance' of something happening.
It is almost certain to come up in your exam! (Nothing is ever completely certain!)
Key points:
1. We call 'something happening' an event. For example, getting a 6 with the roll of
a dice.
2. Probability should always be written as a fraction, decimal or percentage never
'1 in 10' or '3 chances out of 5'.
3. The probability of something happening must be between 0 and 1 (unlessyou are
using percentage - 0 to 100).
4. The sum of the probabilities of every possible outcome is 1.
5. The probability of something not happening is 1 minus the probability of it
happening.
If we call a particular event 'A' then the probability of A happening is:

For example:
p (getting an even number when you roll a dice) =

And p (not A) = 1 - p (A)

For example:
If p (rolling a 6 on a dice)

Then p (not rolling a 6)

Experimental probability
In practice, a coin will not always land 'Heads' exactly half the times you throw it
(although theoretically it should!).
If you do something a certain number of times and record the results you can write
down estimates for the probabilities of each outcome.
These estimates are also known as Relative Frequencies.
Here's an example:
A ball was drawn out of a bag containing coloured balls 200 times. Each time the ball
was replaced. The results are shown below...

Work out all the probabilities and write them in the boxes:
You don't need to bother cancelling the fraction down to its simplest terms in this
type of question. You will still get full marks.
Why take the risk?

Rules of Probability
The 'and' rule
When you want the probability of two or more things happening you multiply
their probabilities together.
For example:
For two events A and B,
p (A and B) = p (A) x p (B)
For example, the probability of rolling a 6 on a dice and getting Heads on the toss of
a coin is:

An important condition
The events must be independent.
This means that one of them happening must not change the probability of the
other one happening.
For example:
If you pick a card from a pack of 52, p(King)=

If you pick two cards one after the other and want to know the probability of two
kings but don't put the first card back, then you cannot use the 'and' rule because
there are only 51 cards the second time (the probability has changed).
Another example: Say you wanted to find the probability of it raining and finding
someone carrying an umbrella. These two events are said to be dependant i.e. if it
is raining it is more likely that you will find someone carrying an umbrella.
So the probability of finding an umbrella carrier changes. You could not use the
'and' rule in this example as the two events are not independant.

The 'or' rule

If you want one outcome or another outcome then you add their probabilities
together.
For example:
For two events A and B,
p (A or B) = p (A) + p (B)
For example:
The probability of getting a 6 or a 5 on the roll of a dice is:

An important condition
The events must be mutually exclusive.
This means that they must not be able to happen at the same time as each other.
For example, the probability of drawing a King or a Club from a pack of 52 cards
cannot be done by adding their probabilities because a King can also be a Club so
you would have counted one of the Kings twice - they are notmutually exclusive.
Below is a quick test to check that you understand all the rules. Drag and
drop the four panels into the correct gaps and then mark your answer to
see how you got on:

Tree Diagrams
If you can master Tree Diagrams you've got probability sorted!
Here's a diagram to help you understand them:

Here's an example:
A bag contains 6 red marbles and 4 blue marbles. A marble is drawn at random and
not replaced. A second marble is then drawn.
Below is a tree diagram to show the probabilities, click on the question
marks to reveal them:

Gathering data
There are two types of number data: Discrete and Continuous.
Discrete data can only take specific values and not the values in-between. For
example, number of children in a class or shoe size.
Continuous data can take any value within your range of accuracy. For example,
height or weight.

When you have a load of numbers in front of you it is known as raw data. This topic
is about organising that raw data so it becomes easy to extract information from it.
The simplest way to collect data is to use a tally chart. If you are given a load of
numbers in an exam and asked to design a table to tally them this is the design of
table you should use:

Data Value (or group):

Tally:

Frequency:

Another way to collect data is using questionnaires.

There are two main points to remember about the questions in a
questionnaire:
1. They must be specific and have specific answers. So,
'How do you feel about football?'

would not be a good question, whereas,

'Do you like watching football (Yes/No)?'

would be better.
2. They must be fair and not leading questions. For instance,
'Do you agree that the BBC has the best sports coverage?'

is not a good question, whereas,

'Which channel has the best sports coverage?' (with a list of options)

is a lot better.
Once you have gathered and organised your data you can begin analysing it.

Analysing data
The 4 main values used in analysing data for GCSE are Mean, Median,
Mode and Range.
Before you work anything out, however, you must remember this golden rule:

Always rearrange the data in ascending order! .

Then learn these definitions:

Mean is the total of all the items divided by the number of items.

Median is the middle value.

Mode is the most common value.

Range is the difference between the smallest and the biggest value.
The mean gives you an idea of the average value but is not a good measure of
average if there are any extreme values (a lot bigger or smaller than the others).
The median can be used if there are any extreme values as it is not affected by
them. The value at the end could be anything as far as the median is concerned, the
middle value is still the same. The other benefit about the median is that you know
exactly half the values are above it and half are below.
Note: if there are an even number of items then there will be two middle values so
the median will be halfway between them.
The mode is only useful in certain circumstances. For example, voting for
something.
The range must be given as a single number and not written as '.... to ....'.
Check you've learnt this properly by dragging the correct type of value on
to the question marks in the panels below. Mark your answer to see how
you did:
Comparing two sets of data
When doing this, either compare their means and their ranges or their medians
and their ranges. Simply state the values. Do not make wild and waffly statements
about what you think is going on. It is best to deal in facts.
Grouped data
Grouped Data is slightly different because, as the data has been put into groups, you
don't know what the original individual values were.
Mean - assume all the items in a group take the mid-point of the group so for each
group you do mid-point x frequency. Add them all up and divide by the Total
Frequency.

Median - you cannot find the median, only the group that it is in. (You can, however,
get an estimate of the Median using a 'Cumulative Frequency' graph).
Modal group - the group with the highest frequency.