Section 2: structures and functions in living organisms

a) Levels of organisation
2.1 describe levels of organisation within organisms: organelles,
cells, tissues, organs and systems

Organelles are tiny structures within cells. You can only see
them using a powerful microscope
Some typical organelles found in an animal cell: nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm
Some typical organelles found in a plant cell: nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts
Cells are specialised: to carry out a specific function
therefore structures can vary:
For example in humans, red blood cells are specialised for
carrying oxygen, and white blood cells are specialised for
defending the body against disease.

Similar cells are organised into tissues: a tissue is a group of

similar cells that work together to carry out a particular
function.
For example the xylem tissue (for transporting water and
mineral salts) and phloem tissue (for transporting sucrose and
amino acids)
A tissue can contain more than one cell type
Tissues can be organised into organs
An organ is a group of different tissues that work together to
perform a function
Lungs in mammals and leaves on plants are two examples of
organs, they are both made up of several tissue types
Organs make up organ systems
Each organ system does a different job, for example in
mammals the digestive system is made up of different organs
including the stomach, the intestines, the pancreas and the
liver.

b) Cell structure
2.3 describe cell structures

Nucleus: the organelle that contains the genetic material that

controls the cells activities. It is surrounded by its own
membrane
Cell membrane: thos membrane forms the outer surface of
the cell, and controls the substances that go in and out
Cytoplasm: a gel like substance where most of the cells
chemical reactions take place. It contains enzymes which
control these chemical reactions
Mitochondria: these generate energy, which aids respiration
Chloroplasts: photosynthesis, making food for the plant. These
contain a green substance called chlorophyll which is used in
photosynthesis
Cell wall: a rigid structure made of cellulose, which surrounds
the cell membrane. It strengthens and supports the cell
Vacuole: a large organelle that contains cell sap (a weak
solution of sugars and salts) it helps to support the cell.

2.4 compare:
Both
Nucleus
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria

Plant
Chloroplasts
Cell Wall
Vacuole

Animal

Practical: Look at onion cells under a microscope using iodine

Tissue from an onion is a good first exercise in using the microscope
and viewing plant cells. The cells are easily visible under a
microscope and the preparation of a thin section is straightforward.
An onion is made of layers, each separated by a thin skin or
membrane. In this exercise you will make a wet mount on a
microscope slide and look at the cells of the onion membrane
magnified by the high power, compound microscope.
Method:

1. First add a few drops of water or solution

on the microscope slide to avoid dryness
and wilting
2. Take a small piece of onion and using
forceps (tweezers), peel off the
membrane from the underside (the
rough side).
3. Lay the membrane flat on the surface of
the slide
4. Using a pin, lower a thin glass cover slip or cover glass onto
the slide. Make sure there are no air bubbles
5. Make sure the lowest power objective
lens (the shortest lens if there are
several present) is in line with the
optical tube, and the microscope light
is turned on. Then place the prepared
slide onto the stage of the microscope.
6. Looking from the side (NOT through the
eyepiece), lower the tube using the
coarse focus knob until the end of the
objective lens is just above the cover
glass. Do this carefully so as not to
crack the cover glass (and possibly damage the objective
lens).
7. Now look through the eyepiece and turn ONLY the smaller, fine
focusing knob to move the optical tube upwards until an
image comes into focus. The cells should look something like
lizard skin.
8. Swap the objective lens for a higher powered one so that you
can see the cells at greater magnification. You should be able
to make out a nucleus in each cell.
9. Repeat the process after adding a dye solution (iodine). Be
very careful; this dye can stain your skin and clothes.

Section 1: the nature and variety of living organisms

a) 1.1 Characteristics of living organisms:
All living organisms are composed of units called cells
Simple things are made from single cells, but more
complex plants and animals are composed of millions of
cells multicellular
There are 8 life processes which are common to most living
things:
Movement by the action of muscles in animals, and
slow growth in plants. Move towards things like food
and water. Move away from things like predators and
poisons.
Respiration - releases and gains energy from food
(aerobic and anaerobic)
Stimulus (response to) are sensitive to changes in
surroundings
Growth - increase in size and mass using materials
from their food
Reproduce produce offspring in order for their
species to survive
Excrete toxic waste products are removed (i.e. urea
and carbon dioxide)
Nutrition either to make their own food (plants) or
eat other organisms (animals), which provides energy
for things such as growth and repair. Nutrients can
include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and
minerals.
b) Variety of living organisms
Plants
Plants are multicellular
They have chloroplasts which means they can photosynthesize
Their cells have walls which are made of cellulose
Plants store carbohydrates such as sucrose or starch
Examples include flowering plants like cereals (e.g. maize) or
herbaceous legumes (e.g. peas and beans)

Mitochondria

Animals
Animals are multicellular
They dont have chloroplasts therefore cant photosynthesize
Their cells dont have cell walls
Most have a nervous coordination meaning they can rapidly
respond to changes in their environment
They can usually move around from one place to another
They often store carbohydrates in the form of GLUCOGEN
Examples include mammals (e.g. humans) and insects (e.g.
houseflies and mosquitoes)

Mitochondria

Fungi

Some are single celled

Others have a body called a mycelium which is made up of
hyphae (thread like structures) these contain a lot of nuclei
They cant photosynthesise
Their cells have cell walls made of chitin
Most feed by saprotrophic nutrition they secrete extracellular
enzymes into the area outside their body to dissolve their food
so they can absorb the nutrients
They can store carbohydrate as glycogen
Most common examples are yeast (single celled fungus) and
mucor (multicellular has a mycelium and hyphae)

Bacteria
These are single celled and microscopic
They dont have a nucleus
They have a circular chromosome of DNA
Some can photosynthesise
Most bacteria feed off other organisms living or dead
Examples include lactobacillus bulgaricus (used to make milk
go sour and turn into yoghurt rod shaped) and
pneumococcus (spherical)

Protoctists
These are single celled and microscopic
Some have chloroplasts and are similar to plant cells (e.g.
chlorella)
Others are more like animal cells (e.g. amoeba)
A pathogenic example is plasmodium causes malaria
Viruses
These are small particles, much smaller than bacteria
They can only reproduce inside living cells. These are known
as pathogens they depend on other organisms to live
They infect all types of living organisms
They come in lots of different shapes and sizes
They dont have a cellular structure they have a protein coat
(capsid) around some genetic material (either DNA or RNA)

Examples include influenza virus, HIV, tobacco mosaic virus

(makes the leaves of tobacco plants discoloured by stopping
them from producing chloroplasts)

Pathogens
Pathogens are organisms that cause disease.
They include some fungi, protoctists, bacteria and viruses:
o Protoctist: plasmodium, which causes malaria
o Bacterium: pneumococcus, which causes pneumonia
o Viruses: influenza virus, which causes flu and HIV
which causes AIDS

Section 2: structures and functions in living organisms

c) Biological molecules
2.5 ID the chemical elements present in carbs, proteins and lipids
(fats and oils)
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of simple sugars
Carb molecules contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
Starch and glycogen are large, complex crbohydrates, which
are made up of many smaller units (e.g. glucose or maltose
molecules) joined together in a long chain

Starch

Maltose (and other

simple sugars e.g.
glucose)

Proteins
Proteins are made up of long chains of
amino acids
They all contain carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen
and oxygen atoms
Proteins

Amino
Acids

Lipids
Lipids (fatty oils) are built up of fatty acids and glycerol
Lipids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms

Lipid

Glycerol
and fatty
acids
Testing for:
Testing for glucose: if glucose is present, Benedicts Solution
will spot it. Add Benedicts solution to a sample and heat it.
(Use an excess of Benedicts to make sure all the glucose
reacts). Make sure it doesnt boil. If glucose is present (a
positive test) it will form a coloured precipitate (solid particles
suspended in the solution). The colour of the precipitate
changes from blue green yellow orange brick red. The
higher the concentration of glucose, the further the colour
change goes. You can use this to compare the amount of
glucose in solutions.
Testing for starch: if starch is present, dilute iodine will spot it.
If starch is present, the sample changes from browny-orange,
to a dark, blue-black colour. If no starch is present, it stays
browny-orange.
Testing for fat: simple* rub the food onto a piece of thin paper.
If the paper goes translucent when held up to light, fat is
present.
Testing for fat: complicated* pour about 1 cm 3 of absolute
ethanol into a test tube. Add a small amount of the food, and
then shake the test tube. Add about 1 cm 3 of water to the
tube. If a cloudy white precipitate develops, fat is present.
Testing for protein: if food isnt in liquid form, mash up with
mortar and pestle. Add a little water. Pour around 2 cm 3 of
the food into the tube. Add a little sodium or potassium
hydroxide until the solution clears. Add a few drops of dilute
copper sulphate and shake. If the solution goes purple, protein
is present.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts: made by all living things to
speed up the rate of chemical reactions (without being used
up themselves)
All chemical reactions in the body are called metabolism
These reactions need to be carefully controlled to get the right
amount of substances in the cells
Enzymes are all proteins, and all proteins are made up of
chains of amino acids. These are folded up into very unique
shapes which enzymes need to do their jobs
Enzymes are very specific
Chemical reactions usually involve things being split apart or
joined together
A substrate is a molecule that is changed in a reaction
Every enzyme has an active site the part where the
substrate joins on to the enzyme.
Enzymes are very picky, they usually only speed up one
reaction. This is because for an enzyme to work, a substrate
has to be the correct shape to fit into the active site
complimentary
This is called the lock and key model.

Changing the temperature changes the rate of an enzymecatalysed reaction

The higher temperature increases the rate of reaction. This is
because more heat = enzymes and substrate particles have
more energy = enzymes and substrate move about more
quickly = more likely to meet and react = higher collision rate
Low temperature decreases rate of reaction = lower collision
rate
If the temperature is too hot, some of the bonds holding the
enzyme will lose its shape = its active site will not fit the
substrate anymore = cant catalyse = rxn stops. This is when it
becomes denatured. This change is irreversible

Each enzyme has its own optimum temperature when it

goes the fastest. This is the temp just before it gets too hot
and the enzyme denatures. The optimum temp for most of the
human enzymes is 37 - our body temp
Optimum temp/ph

Changing the PH also affects enzymes.

If the PH is too high or to low, the PH interferes with the bonds
holding the enzymes together. This changes the shape of the
active site and denatures it
All enzymes have an optimum PH they work best at. Its often
neutral, PH7, but not always. E.g. pepsin is an enzyme that is
used to break down proteins in the stomach. It works best at
PH2, as it is well suited to the acidic conditions of the
stomach.

Practicals
1. You need to be able to recall an experiment you have done that
explores
the effect of temperature on enzymes. An example
is the enzyme Catalase, which breaks Hydrogen peroxide into
Water and Oxygen;
2 H 2 O 2 O 2+ 2 H 2 O
Catalase is found in potatoes. Therefore, putting potato chips
into peroxide will produce O2. The rate of reaction is, therefore,

proportional to the volume of O2 given off. Changing the

temperature will alter the volume (i.e. initially increase it, reach
an optimum, then decrease quickly as the Catalase becomes
denatured)
Net movement

d) Movement of substances into and out of cells

Diffusion
Diffusion is net movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Diffusion happens in both liquids and gases (because particles
are free to move in both)
Cell membranes are clever because they hold the cell
together but they let stuff in and out as well. Only very small
molecules can diffuse through cell membranes, things like
glucose, amino acids, water and oxygen. Big molecules such
as starch and proteins cant fit through the membrane.

Just like with diffusion in air, particles flow through the cell
membrane from where theres a higher concentration to a
lower concentration
Theyre only moving about randomly, so they go both ways.
But if there are a lot more particles on one side of the
membrane, there will be a new (overall) movement from one
side to the other.

Diffusion Experiment (non-living system)

Phenolphthalein is a PH indicator pink in alkaline solutions and
colourless in acidic solutions.
1. Make up some agar jelly with phenolphthalein and dilute
sodium hydroxide. The jelly will be pink.
2. Fill a beaker with some dilute hydrochloric acid. Using a
scalpel cute a few cubes from the jelly and put them into the
acid
3. Observe after a while the cubes will turn colourless the
acid will diffuse into the agar jelly and neutralise the sodium
hydroxide solution.
You can investigate the rate of diffusion by using
different sized cubes of agar jelly and time how long it
takes for each cube to go colourless. The cube with the
largest surface area to volume ratio will lose its colour
the quickest.
Dilute NaCl

Dilute HCL

Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules across a
partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
A partially permeable membrane is just one with very small
holes in it, so that only tiny molecules can fit through (like
water) and big ones cant (e.g. sucrose)

The water molecules can pass both ways through the

membrane during osmosis; this is because water molecules
move about randomly.
But because there are more molecules on one side than the
other, there is a steady net flow of water into the region with
fewer molecules (e.g. the sucrose solution)
This means the sucrose solution becomes more dilute,
because the water acts like it is trying to even up the
partially permeable membrane

water

sucrose solution

Net movement of water molecules

concentration either side of the membrane.
Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis
Tissue fluid surrounds the cells in the body basically water +
oxygen + things dissolved in it. This is squeezed out of the
blood capillaries to supply the cells with everything they need.
The tissue fluid will usually have a different concentration to
the fluid inside the cell. This means that fluid will either move
into the cell from the tissue fluid, or out of the cell by osmosis
If a cell is short of water, the solution inside will be
concentrated. Thus, the solution outside will be more dilute
and so water will move into the cell by osmosis
If a cell has lots of water, the solution inside the will be more
dilute. Thus, the solution outside will be more concentrated
and so water will be drawn out of the cell and into the fluid
outside, by osmosis.
PLANTS ARE SUPPORTED BY TURGID CELLS.
When a plant is well watered, all its cells will
draw water in by osmosis and become
plump and swollen. When the cells are like
this, they are said to be turgid. The contents
of
the cell push against the cell wall. This is
called turgor pressure. Turgor pressure helps
to
support plant tissues.

When there is no water in the soil, the plant

starts to droop (wilt). This is because the plants
lose their water and so lose their turgor pressure.
The cells are said to be flaccid. The plant doesnt
totally lose its shape though, as the cell walls are
inelastic, which keeps it in position.

Osmosis Experiment (Living System)

Potato cylinders.
1. Cut up potato into identical cylinders (bore a wedge)
2. Obtain beakers with different sugar solutions (one should be
water, another should be very concentrated sugar solution,
then have some with in-between concentrations)
3. Measure the length of the potato cylinders, and leave a few in
each of the different concentration solutions for around an
hour.
4. Then take them out, and measure the length again.
5. If the cylinders have drawn in water via osmosis, theyll be
slightly longer. If they have had water drawn out, theyll have
shrunk.
6. The only thing you should change here is the concentration of
the sugar solution. Everything else (i.e. volume of solution,
and amount of time the experiment lasts for) must be kept the
Pure Water
Concentrated Sugar Solution same for
the experiment to be a fair test.

Osmosis Experiment (Non-Living System)

Visking Tubing
1. tie a piece of wire around one end of visking tubing, and put a
glass tube in the other end, fixing the tubing around it with
wire.
2. Pour some sugar solution down the glass tube, into the visking
tubing
3. Put the visking tubing in a beaker of pure water measure
where the sugar solution comes up to on the glass tube

4. Leave the tubing overnight, and measure where the liquid is in

the glass tube. Water should be drawn into the visking tubing
by osmosis, and the will force the liquid up the glass tube
Glass tube

Viskin
Pure water
5. NB: visking tubing is a partially permeable membrane.

Active Transport
The movement of particles against a concentration
gradient.
(i.e. from an area of lower concentration to an area of
higher concentration)
Using energy released from respiration
Used to move substances in and out of cells
E.g. used in digestive system: low conc. of nutrients in
the gut but a high conc. of nutrients in the blood
allows nutrients to be taken into the blood, despite the
fat that the concentration gradient is the wrong way.
This is essential to stop us from starving
Plants also use active transport its how they get
minerals from the soil (lower conc.) into their root hair
cells (higher mineral conc.)
Three main factors affecting the movement of substances:
1. Surface area to volume ratio
The rate of diffusion/osmosis/active transport is higher
in cells with a larger surface area to volume ratio.
Think of cells as cubes here:
Here, the smaller
3x3x3
cube has the
largest surface
2x2x2
area to volume
ratio. Therefore
Surfac 2x2x6 = 24 3x3x6 =54
substances would
e area
move in and out
Volum 2x2x2 = 8
3x3x3 = 27
of this cube faster
e
than the larger
Ratio
24:8 = 3:1
54:27 = 2:1
one.

2. Temperature
As the particles in a substance get warmer, they have
more energy so they move faster. This means as
temperature increases, substances move in and out of
cells faster.
3. Concentration gradient
Substances move in and out of a cell faster if theres a
bigger difference in concentration between the inside of
the cell and the outside. If there are lots more particles
on one side, there are more to move across. This only
increases the rate of diffusion and osmosis though;
concentration gradients do not affect the rate of active
transport.
e) Nutrition
Flowering Plants
Photosynthesis: the process that produces food in plants.
This food is glucose,
Photosynthesis happens in the leaves of all green plants this
is largely what the leaves are for.
Photosynthesis happens inside the chloroplasts, which are
found in leaf cells and in other green parts of a plant.
Chloroplasts contain a pigment called chlorophyll which
absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to convert carbon dioxide
and water into glucose and oxygen
SUNLIGHT
Carbon Dioxide+Water CHLOROPHLL Glucose +Oxygen
6 CO2 +6 H 2 O C6 H 12 O6 +6 O2

Photosynthesis is important because it converts light energy

into chemical energy, which is stored in the glucose. The
chemical energy is released when glucose is broken down
during respiration.
Photosynthesis is affected by the amount of light, the amount
of CO2 , and the temperature of its surroundings.
Photosynthesis slows down or stops if these conditions arent
right.

The limiting factor: something that stops photosynthesis from

happening any faster. Light intensity, CO2 , concentration
and
temperature
can all the
limiting factor
or temp needs to be increased
The limiting
factor
depends on
the
ty
en
Pl
of
d
an
rm
wa
th

Rate of photosynthesis
environmental conditions e.g. in winter low temperaures
might be the limiting factor. At night, the light is likely to be
the limiting factor.
There are 3 important graphs for rate of photosynthesis:

Light intensity

1. Not enough light slows down the rate of photosynthesis

Chlorophyll uses light
energy to perform
photosynthesis. It can only
do so as quickly as the
light energy is arriving. If
the light intensity is
increased, the rate of
photosynthesis will
increase steadily, but only
up to a point. Beyond
that, it wont make a
difference because it will
either be the temperature
or the CO2 level that will
be the limiting factor.
2. Not enough CO