CONTENTS

CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR
General Information about Contextual Grammar .......................................................................... 1
Verb Semantics ........................................................................................................................................2
Homeworks about verb semantics...................................................................................................3
Tenses.......................................................................................................................................... 5
Homeworks about tenses .................................................................................................................6
Thematic Roles........................................................................................................................... 10
Homeworks about thematic roles.11
Causative Voice..13
Voice..14
Causative Inchoative.............................................................................................................................15
Interaction Between Voice Form and Thematic Roles.16
Homework and worksheet about voice17
Passive Voice19
Passive Infinitive21
Homework about passive voice22
Functions of Modal Auxiliaries23
Modals..25
Sentence Structure..27
Worksheet and homework about sentence structure..28
-Ever Words and Corralative Conjuctions..33
Adverbial Clauses.34
Sentence Connectors.35
Reduction of Clauses..36
Participles..39
Gerund or Participle40
Relative Clauses vs. Nominal Relative Clauses40
Adjectives vs. Adverbs..41
Linking Verbs41
Analyzing the Paragraphs42
Researches and Online English Grammar Website.45
References.48

CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR

Context (of situation) is the groups of ideas, sentences. A context takes place in a place.
*place
*time: When time is given we do not neccessary make the time.
If time is given, time is clear.
In present tense time is clear.
*speaker-hearer
*manner
*intention
Context and Grammer: tenses/ modals/ passives/ conditionals/ noun clauses/ gerund and
infinitive/ adjective-adverbs/ adverbial clauses/ relative clauses.

PLACE: adverbial + noun clauses

TIME: tenses + adverbial clauses of time
SPEAKER-HEARER: passives, reported speech, modals
MANNER: adverbs, modals, adverbial clauses of manner, noun clauses
INTENTION: gerund-infinitive, passives, modals
Parameter: Differences between two languages
Principles: Similarities between two languages

VERB SEMATICS
Tense gives another identity to the sentece.
Verbs can change according to tenses.
An activity verb becomes accomplishment when used in simple past, present perfect, past
perfect and future perfect.

Tense

Modality
Aspect

Progressive
Aspect

Perfect
Simple

Aspect

Aspect

HOMEWORK (study on situation types of verbs )

1.The teacher put Ali and me in the same class.
The verb is action verb because there is an intention and action.
2. He has already taken the books to the library.
The verb is action verb beceuse there are time and activity.
3. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
The verb is an achievement verb because there are no intention and effort.

4. I found her in the kitchen.

The verb is achievement because there are no intention and effort.
5. They are laying the wounded man on the bed right now.
The verb is an action verb because there is an intention, activity, effort and time.
6. I had made my way into the smoking room.
The verb is accomplishment because there is not only an intention but also an activity.
7. We lived in a dream when we were children.
The verbs are state verbs because there is no an intention,activity, effort.
8. The earth revolves around the sun.
The verb is an achievement verb because There is not an intention and effort.
9. I will never forget telephoning Jill for the fist time.
The verb is accomplisment because of intention, activity and time.
10. He was writing the report when I left the office.
The verbs are action verbs because of time, activity.
11. He has been working in Ankara for ten years now.
The verb is action because there is an intention and activity and time.

HOMEWORK
1. He searchs some information about intonation on the internet.
I think verb is an activity verb because there is an intention and also an activity
2. He is searching some information about intonation on the internet right now.
I think the verb is an activity verb because there are motion, intention and period.
3. He has already searched some information about intonation on the internet.
I think the verb is an accoplishment verb because there is end point besides activity and
time.
4. He has been searching some information about intonation on the internet for two hours.
The verb is activity because there are time, activity, intention.

5. He searched some information about intonation on the internet yesterday.

The verb is accomplishment. There is end point addition to activity and intonation.
6. He was searching some information about intonation on the internet when I came home.
I think the verb is activity because there is time.
7. He had searched some information about intonation on the internet.
The verb is accomplishment because there is an end point.
8. He had been searching some information about intonation on the internet for two days.
I think the verb is activity because there is a time, montion, intention.
9. He will search some information about intonation on the internet tomorrow.
I think the verb is activity.There is an intention,time, activity.
10. He will be searching some information about intonation on the internet this time
tomorrow.
The verb is activity because there is an activity, intention, time.
11. He will have searched some information about intonation on the internet by the time we
arrive.
The verb is accomplishment because there is an end point and activity, time.
12. He will have been searching some information about intonation on the internet for two
hours by the time we arrive.
I think the verb is activity. There is an intention, time, montion and effort.

TENSES
The Present Continuous
Tense

He is writing the report now/at the moment.

The Past Continuous

Tense

He was writing the report when I left the Office.

The Simple Present

Tense

He writes a report every week.

The Simple Past Tense

He wrote a report last Friday/three days ago.

He was writing the report while you are sleeping.

He wrote a report before he left the office.

The Present Perfect
Tense

He has already written two reports of this kind.

He hasnt written the report yet.
He has written two reports since he started to work here.
He hasnt written a report for a long time.
This is the first time he has written a report.
He has written several reports recently/lately.

The Past Perfect Tense

He had already written the report when I left.

He had just finished the report when you called.
He had finished the report by the time you called.

The Present Perfect

Continuous Tense

He has been writing this report for the last three days/since last Monday.

The Past Perfect

Continuous Tense

He had been writing a report for an hour when you called.

The Future Tense

He will write a report tomorrow.

He is going to write a report tomorrow.

The Future Continuous

Tense

This time tomorrow he will be writing his report.

The Future Perfect Tense

He will have written several reports by the next October.

The Future Perfect

Continuous Tense

He will have been writing the report for two years by next October.

TIME TABLE

FUTURE

PAST

Simple Past Tense

PRESENT

Past Continuous Tense

Past Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Future Tense
Future Continuous Tense

Simple Present Tense

Future Perfect Tense

Present Continuous Tense

Future Perfect Continuous

Tense

Present Perfect Tense

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

TELL THE DIFFERENCE

The class had been waiting for 20 minutes when the teacher came.
(the class had waited then the teacher came)
The class got up when the teacher came.
(two things happened at the same time)
The class had left when the teacher came
(the class left and then teacher came)
The class had left before the teacher came.
(the teacher came s/he found the class left or the class left, after sometime the teacher
came)
time gap between two things
Mary lived with her aunt when her uncle died.
(her uncle died and she started tol ive her aunt)
I will have been living in stanbul for 5 years by 2015.
I will still be living there by 2015.

HOMEWORK Tell the difference

1. a) James lived with Mary for two years.
Now James is not living with Mary(the speaker is talking about a past action)
b) James has lived with Mary for two years.
James stared to live with Mary two years ago and now they are stil in the same time.
c) James has been living with Mary for two years.
James started to live with Mary two years ago and stil lives with her.
2. a) I was staying with my aunt when my uncle died.
I started tos tay with my aunt after sometime my uncle died.
b) I stayed with my aunt when my uncle died.
My uncle died and then I started tos tay with my aunt
c) I had been staying with my aunt when my uncle died.
I started to stay with my aunt and I was stil staying with my aunt when my uncle

died.

3. a) I had left my girl friend when I met Mary.

First I left my irl friend and then I met Mary.
4. a) I help my sister on Sunday.
It is my routin to help my sister every Sunday.
b) Im helping my sister on Sunday.
It is my plan to help my sister on Sunday and my sister knows it.
c) I have been helping my sister since Sunday.
I started to help my sister on Sunday and I continue to help her.

5. a) Every morning when I wake up, I wash my face.

It is my routin to wash my face every morning when I hake up.
b) Every morning when I wake up Ive washed my face.
Every morning when I wake up it is my habit to wash my face, but I dont know about the
future.
6. a) When I saw her yesterday, she was crying.
Her crying is in progressive
b) When I saw her yesterday, she had been crying.
She started crying sometime ago. When I saw her she was still crying.(bitmite olabilir)
7. a) I never met my grandfather.
I didnt know my grandfather and there is no possibility to meet him in the future.
I have never seen him.
b) Ive never met my grandfather
I didnt know my grandfather. But there can be possibility to meet him in the future
8. a) I havent been to the bank today.
The spoker is stil at the moment of speaking time.
b) I didnt go to the bank this morning.
The speaker is speaking about the past action.
9. a) I didnt invite John to the party.
The party is over.
b) I havent invited John to the party.
The party isnt over so I may invite John. There is possibility of inviting John.
10. a) Someone has been reading my book!
Someone started reading book and stil doing it.
b) They had been moking in the room.
They started doing something and did it repeated times.

11. a) He appears to be very busy

I understand that he is busy.
b) Hes appearing at the Ritz next week.
He is going to have a show.
12. a) When the company went bankrupt, they opened a new company under a new name.
The company went bankrupt and then they opened a new company under a new name.
b) When the company went bankrupt, they had already run up debts.
After they had already run up debts, the company went bankrupt.
Time gap between two things.
c) When went bankrupt, the company had been running for several years.
The company started running when the company went bankrupt, it was stil running.
d) When the compay went bankrupt, they were losing $2000 a day.
They were losing and they will lose.
13. a) She has corn on her feet.
She is suffering from corns.
b) She is having treatmet for them.
She is going to see a doctor.
14. a) Im measuring this box.
agent
b) this box measures 50cm.
the lenght of this box is 50cm

THEMATIC ROLES
agent(klc): mostly living and intentional things
animals and human beings.
movement, instinct, free to move
causer: inanimate
the wind damaged the house
instrument: preposition
experiencer: mostly somebody wh mostly somebody who is affected psyhologicaly
by something in heart and mind. Experincer must be subject position.
I am broken-hearted.
Agent becomes experience
theme: animate and inamniate
the wind is blowing = the wind is theme (doa olaylar)
the wind damaged the house = the wind is causer
recipient(beneficiary): person who makes use of
I made this cake for you.
location: the children are in the classroom.
goal = hedef
patient: fiziksel olarak etklenen
I am melting the butter.
Examples
The kettle blackened on the oven.
theme

source

He smashed the radio into pieces in the living room thanks to a stone.
agent

patient

location

She keeps sneezing, cleaning her nose

patient

theme

A friend lent her a handkerechief.

agent

beneficiary

instrument

HOMEWORK(thematic roles)
1. Tom moved his chair closer to Mary.
agent
instrument
goal
2. The hole filled with water.
theme
instrument
3. The teacher stopped the tape, and left the class.
agent
location
4. She shook her head with disbelief.
agent
theme
5.

The ball rolled down the hill, and came to a halt.

location

theme

6. She tipped her chair and fell off it.

agent
theme
7. First heat the oil, and add the tomatoes.

patient

theme

Agent
Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.
Agent
The boys caught some fish.
Agent

Instrument
Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.
nstrument
This key opens the door to the main office.
Instrument

Patient
Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.
patient
The falling rocks crushed the car.
patient

Location
Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.
Location
We put the book on the self
location

Causer
An epidemic killed off all of the tomatoes.
causer
An econemic downturn put thounsands of workers out of work.
causer

Experiencer
The chesus monkey had never seen snow before.
experiencer
Tom annoyed when he heard that Mary abandoned him.experiencer

Beneficiary
They gave the workers a raise.
beneficiay
He spared me his usual sad story
beneficiay

Theme
Bill kissed Mary
theme

Source
The rocket was launched from Central Comman
source
We walked in the rain.
source

Goal
The caravan continued on toward the distant oasis.
goal

The CAUSATIVE VOICE

There are two major patterns used to form causative contructions in English.
I.Subject

Auxiliary

Direct Object

Past Participle

by + Indirect Object

A.He

will have

His car

repaired

by the mechanic

B.He

will get

His car

repaired

by the mechanic

II.Subject

Auxiliary

Indirect Object

(to) Infinitive

Direct Object

A.He

will have

the mechanic

repair

his car

B.He

will get

the mechanic

to repair

his car

The Causative Form

Tense

Subject

Auxiliary

Direct
Object

Past Participle

Remainder of the sentence

The Simple Present

He

Has

his car

serviced

every month.

The Simple Past

He

Had

his car

serviced

last month.

The Present
Continuous

He

is having

his car

serviced

now.

The Past
Continuous

He

was having

his car

serviced

when I arrived.

The Present Perfect

He

hasnt had

his car

serviced

yet.

The Past Perfect

He

had had

his car

serviced

before he started the

journey.

The Future Tense

and Modals

He

will have

his car

serviced

tomorrow.

his car

serviced

yesterday.

may have
should have

Perfect Infinitives

He

should have had

could have had
might have had
may have had
must have had

VOICE
1. Syntactically: on the sentence = The child was kidnapped.
They greeted each other. / He cut himself. / He made his daughter clean the car.
2. Morphologically:
Boya t mak (Trke olarak)
3. Semantically(Lexically):
break ( intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)
send (intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)
shave (intention, self) (semantically reflexive)

** passive i ayrt edici zellik by alabiliyorsa, sorusuna cevap verebiliyorsa

passive dir.
**dnl = kii ii kendisi isteyerek yapyor ve de etkileniyorsa dnldr.

Reciprocal: one other, another, together, alltogether, each other

= zne en az iki kiiden oluacak ve e zamanl olacak.
They are sitting all together. = sytantically reciprocal
The class is listening to the teacher.
= topluluk ismi kullanlm ve listen kendi bana ite (reciprocal) deil.
Reciprocal olduunu anlamak iin zneyi teke indir.
The class is listening to the teacher.
I am listening to the teacher.
Reciprocal deil
The class is listening to the teacher alltogether. = reciprocal
I am corresponding with Tom. = reciprocal
Katlmc saysn ikiye kard.

reciprocal, reflexive yapanlar yzde yz agent tr.

Agent istemli davranr.
Causative Testi iin causeto + V1, V

CAUSATIVE INCHOATIVE
The sugar dissolves in water.
dissolve=znmek
The sugar is dissolved in water. (by???)
We cannot add by or someone. by bu cmleye deer vermiyor.
In causative inchoative there is no by ; however, there is cause.
Genellikle doa olaylar ve bir sebebe bal olur.
The meal cooked. (yemek piti) = causative inchoative
The meal was cooked by my mother. (yemek piirildi) = syn. passive
Passive olabilir fakat anlam deiir.
Eylemerin atlar (zellikle Trkeye evrildiinde) deiebilir.
The sugar was dissolved by the chemist.
zmek
Causative Inchoative = Kendiliinden oluacak
= Eylemin kendi anlamnn iinde bir cause olmal
= by phrase almamal, agent yok.
= Passive hale dntrlebilmeli ama by agent olmaz.
boil: kaynamak/ kaynatmak
melt: erimek/ eritmek
fry: kzarmak/kzartmak
thicken: kalnlamak/koyulamak/ koyulatrmak
The water boils at 100C = CI
The ice melts in a hot place = CI
Potatoes and chickens fried = CI
Potaoes and chickens were fried by Mary = syn. Passive
The coffee thickened after boiled = CI
znesinde patient olan eylemler ya passive olmaya yatkndr ya da causative
inchoative olabilir.

Her voice records well in the studio. = lexically passive.

Silk creases easily. = causative inchoative
The pilot landed the plane. = lexically passive.

The car reserved and the driver put it into the garage.
lexically passive

lexically causative

She photographs well. = lexically passive

She is photographed well by the photographer.

The Interaction Between Voice Forms and Thematic Roles

The snow on the mountain melted and
patient
active
lexically causative
inchoative

the water
theme
causer

filled the rivers.

active
lexically
causative

Causative Inchoative is mostly patient in thematic roles.

Lexically causative = theme, causer, agent.
Causative Inchoative differs from lexically causative because in lexically causative
there is a doer.

Melt (V intransitive)

Subject
Object
something
No object ( Intransitive)
that can melt
in nature
which is suitable
patient
Melt ( V transitive)

= agent causer ve doer olabilir.

= ama doer agent ve causer olamaz.

Subject
agent

Object
patient

causer
doer

[The heat from the fire] caused [the building] to brown.

NP(noun phrase)
lexically
NP
causer/theme
causative patient

HOMEWORK
1. I was moved by the pictures of rescued child.
Syntactically passive
2. We agreed on the plan.
Lexically reciprocal
3. He quicekned the process by talking to the autorities.
Lexically causative
4. We got beaten in the race.
Lexically passive
5. The door opened and a soft breeze came in.
Lexically passive
6. The book earned him a fortune.
Lexically causative
7. They demolished the old buildng.
Lexically causative
8. The birds flew together in the same direction.
Syntactically reciprocal
9. The storm wiped away all the sand of the coast.
Lexically casuative

10. Pull yourself together.

Syntactically reflexive
11. Why dont you join us?
active
12. I disagree with you.
Syntactically reciprocal
13. The two friends kissed each other and left.
Syntactically reciprocal
14. The boy hid in the wardrope.
Lexically reflexive
15. He got the manager to punish his friend.
Syntactically causative

WORKSHEET
1. The cat licks itself to clean. = Syntactically reflexive
agent activity
activity
2. The frog turned into a prince when the princess kissed him.
patient achievement
agent activity beneficiery
active(Lexically causative)
(active)
3. The line got disconnected. = Syntactically passive
theme
achievement
4. If yellow and blue is blended, one can have the colour green.
theme
activity agent state
patient
(syntactically passive)
(active)
5. I
creamed the sugar and the butter together. = active(Lexically causative)
agent activity patient
patient
6. Brenda and Molly agreed on what to do. = active(Lexically reciprocal)
agent
agent accomplishment
7. If you separate the oil from the vinegar, the oil comes to the top.
accomplishment patient
patient
patient activity goal
active(Lexically causative)
(active)
8. Bill
married
Helen at the church. = active(Lexically reciprocal)
agent accomplishment agent location
9. Narcissus wore himself out due to his love for himself and a white and yellow
agent
accomplishment
theme
(syntactically reflexive)
flower arose on the place he used to stand.
achievement
(active)
10. Do not abuse your power to impress people.
activity theme
activity theme
(active)
active(Lexically causative)
11. The ship was named as Titanic after it was launched. = Syntactically passive
theme accomplishment
accomplishment

12. The President appointed Sabrina as the spokperson. = active(Lexically causative)

agent
accomplishment theme

13. You can establish your innocence by showig the letter you have received this
agent activity
theme
achievement or
active(lexically causative)
accomplishment
morning.
14. Water filled the pail and the boy took it home. =active(lexically causative)
accomplishment
agent activity
15. The government keeps asserting that it will not reduce taxes.
theme
state
activity
(active)
active(lexically causative)
16. The paper incorporates the new results.
theme
state
(active)
17. The two man greeted before the seminer started.
agent
activity
active(lexically reciprocal)
18. The meat cut itself. = active(lexically passive)
theme
activity
19. The butcher cuts the meat. = active(lexically causative)
agent
activity
20. The book remaind untouched for many years.= active
theme
state
21. The mushrooms were sliced by the cook while the sauce was simmering aside.
patient
activity
agent
syntactically passive
22. This bed was slept on by Atatrk when he visited Mersin.
theme
ativity
agent
agent accomplishment goal
syntactically passive
active
23. The problem developed as there was something wrong with the process.
theme
achievement
active(lexically passive)
24. The truck rumbled into the garage. = active
theme activity
goal

The PASSIVE VOICE

Passive constructions are derived from active constructions.
The active voice

The Passive
Voice

Active subject

Active Verb

Active Object

Ali

Killed

the bear

Passive Subject

To be+V3

Optional Agent

The bear

was killed

by Ali

Tense

The Active Voice

The Passive Voice

The Simple Present Tense

He paints the house every

year.

The house is painted every year.

The Simple Past Tense

He painted the house last

year.

The house was painted last year.

The Simple Future and

Modals

He will paint the house next

year.

The house will be painted last

year.

He can paint the house next

year.

The house can be painted last

year.

He may paint the house next

year.

The house may be painted last

year.

The Present Continuous

Tense

He is painting the house now. The house is being painted now.

The Past Continuous Tense

He was painting the house all The house was being painted all
last week.
last week.

The Present Perfect Tense

He has just painted the

house.

The house has just been painted.

The house looked good

because he had just painted
it.

The house looked good because it

had just been painted.

He will have painted the

house by next week.

The house will have been painted

by next week.

He should have painted the

house last year.

The house should have been

painted last year.

He could have painted the

house last year.

The house could have been

painted last year.

The Past Perfect Tense

The Future Perfect Tense

Perfect Infinitives

Does he paint the house

every year?

Is the house painted every

year?

Did he paint the house last

year?

Was the house painted last

year?

Who painted the house?

Who was the house painted

by?

Form

The Active Voice

The Passive Voice

Negative

He hasnt painted the house The house

yet.
painted yet.

Reduced Clauses

When they paint the house, it When(it is)painted, the house

looks beautiful.
looks beautiful.

Questions

hasnt

been

The house(which)he painted The

house(which
was)painted last year looked
last year looked beautiful.
beautiful.
The Subjunctive Form

They demand that he paint They demand that the house

the house.
be painted.

a. Passive of the Gerund

He dislikes being called by his firs name.
He was afraid of being recognized.
She acknowledged having been offered a bribe.
b. Passive of the Infinitive
She expects to be selected for the scholarship.
He claims to have been tortured.
c. Passive of Participles
The policeman simply watch the cars being turned upside down.
d. Passive of the verbs which take -Infinitive
They made him clean the houseHe was made to clean the house.
We saw him enter the buildingHe was seen to enter the building.
The teacher let us know that he wouldnt tolerate any misbehavior. The teacher let it be
known that he wouldnt tolerate any misbehavior.
e. Passive of the verbs that take two object
They gave him a lot of presents.
He was given a lot of presents.
A lot of presents were given to him.

PASSIVE INFINITIVE
People thinkthat Mary has committed the crime.

Passive of the Gerund

I hate people calling me madam.

Passive of the Infinitive

I would like people to call me madam
= Mary is thought that Mary has commited the crime.
= I hate being called madam.
= I would like to be called madam

Passive or Active
Syntactically passive = aim
If passive is used, there is an aim.
I bear him no ill will. = always in active.
state object object
I was born. = always in passive structure.
The book earned him a fortune.
I wish you luck. = it cannot be put in passive.

They declared him President. = Whom did they declare President?

He was declared President.

President is not an object.

He lays stil on the bed. = it cannot be put in passive.

They made him promise. = noun gets article.

He was made to promise.

They mad ehim a promise.
Causative olursa passive olma olasl yksek. Tekrar passive yapmaya gerek yok.

The sun dried their clothes.

object
Their clothes were dried.
This stain will wash out with Kosla.
lexically causative

object deil (prepositional phrase)

Kosla will wash out the stain.

passive olabilir

object

The stain will be washed out with Kosla.

People think that Tom was dishonest.

Tom is thought to have been dishonest.
People thinkthat Tom was stealing from his friends.
Tom is thought to have been stealing from his friends.
People think that Tom has come.
Tom is thought to have come.
I hate people asking me personal questions.
I hate being asked personal questions.

HOMEWORK (PASSIVE VOICE)

1. The house is painted every year.
2. The house was painted last year.
3. The house will be painted next year.
4. The house can be painted next year.
5. The house may be painted next year.
6. The house is being painted now.
7. The house was being painted all last year.
8. The house has just been painted.
9. The house looked good because it had just been painted.
10. The house will have been painted by next week.
11. The house should have been painted last year.
12. The house could have been painted last year.
13. The house hasnt been painted yet.

Functions of Modal Auxiliaries

Function

Modal

Example

ABILITY

can

Present

am/is/are able to

1.Because of her artistic talent,

she can design very well.
2.She is able to swim well.

3.He could play the violin

when he was five years old.
Past (action repeated over a could
period of time)
was/were able to

4.He was able to play the

violin when he was five years
old.

5. He was able to play the

violin beautifully last night.
(a particular past event)

was/were able to

POSSIBILITY
Present

can, be able to

Past

was/were able to

Future

may/might
could

7.The florist can deliver the

bouquet early.
8.Ali and Helen were able to
work out their cultural
differences and got married.
9.Necla may get married this
summer if she decides shes
ready to settle down.
10.We could get married by
next year.

will be able to
may/might
POLITE REQUEST

11.We might go to Hawaii for

our holiday.

can/could/may/might/would/will 12.Could I get a price list,

please?

PERMISION

can/ may/could

14.May I attend only the

reception?

OFFERS

can/ may/could

15.May I drive you home?

OBLIGATION

have to

16.Ali and Aynur have to

move.

have got to

SUGGESTION

must

17.We have got to decide by

tomorrow.

can/could/ might

18.You might try another store.

should

19.You had better think very

carefully.

ought to
had better
have to/must
EXPECTATION

should/ought to/must

20.The divorce rate ought to

down.

HABITUAL ACTIVITY

be used to

Present

be accustomed to

21.Hes accustomed to hot

weather.

Past(discontinued
action)

(repeated past action)

past used to

would/ used to

22.He used to smoke, but he

doesnt any more.

23.When I was in Bursa, we

used to work in the same office
and we would often play cards
together.

ADVICE

should/ had better

24.You should/had better take

an aspirin.

DESCRIPTION

should(+see, hear, taste)

25.You should
wedding rings.
beautiful.

DISBELIEF

cant

26.You cant mean that. You

must be kidding.

INAPPROPRIACY

cant

27.You cant wear that dress.

Its indecent.

FRUSTRATION

have to/must/would

28.You had to be late, didnt

you?

see their
They are

PREFERENCE

29.Id prefer
subway.

would prefer
would rather
would just as soon

to

take

the

30.Id rather make the decision

later.

would sooner
PROHIBITION

31.You mustnt smoke in the

classroom. It is strictly
prohibited.

mustnt

MODALS
modals reflects our points of view, thinks, events, situationsetc.
A fact cannot bear a modal.
Modals reflect peoples mood.
Konumacnn gznden bakmalyz. Konumac ne derse o modal ekillendirir.

He could come tomorrow.

may come

Could= possibility

Modality
Modality (kiplik) insanlarn olaylara bak asndan oluur.
= passive
= conditionals
= inversion
= imperatives
= adverbials
What is the difference between modal and auxiliary verb?
Her ikisi de tmcede soru ve olumsuz yapmak iin kullanlr.
auxiliary verb = olumsuz yaparken not alabilecek, kendisiyle olumsuz ve soru
yaplabilecek.
modal verb = verb gibi davrananlar

modal like expressions:

to be supposed to
to be expected to
to be to

modal verb

modal auxiliary

have to

can

need

should

be able to

must
could
could have
shall
will
have got to
ought to
had better

could = gemite bir zamanda yaptmz i. = zamana yaylyor. = yapyordu

I could run fast when I was young.
was able to = bir eyi yapabildi.
I was able to run fast when somebody chases me.

could have come = yapabilirdi ama yapmad

must = ben yle sanmyorum
had to = zorunda kald, zorundayd
needn t = gerek yok
needn t have done = gerek yoktu ama yapt
should have done = yapmalyd ama yapmad

SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Predicate: yklem
From, for, to = ditransitive
Complement is the neccessary part of the verb.
Adjunct is the unneccessary part of the verb.
All reduced forms are non-finite.
Any inverted structure is finite. Which sentence has a fullstop is finite.
Complement & Adjunct:
Adjunct answers when, where, how, why
Complement answers what, who, whom
Mary is ill today = complement = what comes after the verb and complete the sentence is
complement.
Gerekli olmayan ama cmlenin de anlamn bozmayan adjunct

CLAUSES-SENTENCES
A sentence can have one or two or more than two clause. Simple clause has a clause.
Each complex sentence has at least two simple sentence.
Small Clause
Small clause is verbless, adjunct clause and non-finite.
Susan found the job (to be) very difficult.
The job is difficult and Susan found so.
The NP will have two roles: object should be both object and subject of small clauses.
I saw Tom going home.
Tom was going home and I saw him doing so.
I consider Sawyer to be handsome.
Sawyer is handsome and I consider him so.
Tom made me go shopping= small clause.

Complex cmle iki yklem alr.

gerund ve infinitive cmlede zne ve nesne boluunu doldurur.

been doing = in Turkish -mekte Ive been studying English.= almaktaym

doing = in Turkish yor Im studying English.= alyorum
Examples
1.I considered Tom hardworking.
Tom is hardworking. I considered him to be so.
2.I remember Tom going to school on rainy days.
Tom was going to school on rainy days. I remember him doing so.
3.A husband criticizing me everytime is the least thing I want.
A husband criticizes me everytime. This is the least thing that I want.
4.That John answered the phone surprised me.
John answered the phone. This surprised me.

WORKSHEET
1.Unless you practice, you will have nothing to obtain.

-You have to practice, or you will have nothing to obtain.

2.You must account for every penny you spend.

- You spend the penny. You must account for it.

3.People accuse him of lying to the lawyer.

- He lied to the lawyer. People accuse him of doing so.

4.If an engine is maintained regularly, it lasts twice as much as it is supposed to.

- An engine is maintained regularly in that case it lasts twice as much as it is supposed to.
5.He laid the table with difficulty as he could not walk owing to the fracture.

- He could not walk owing to the fracture, so he laid the table with difficulty.

6.People watch processions go past on the pavements of the stress on celebration days.

- Processions go past on the pavements of the streets on celebration days. People watch them
do so.
7.They found the man lying on the floor after two days of absence.

- The man was lying on the floor. They found him doing so after two days.
8.He lay on the bed listening to the slow music with his eyes shut.

- He lay on the bed, at the same time he listened to the slow music with his eyes shut.
9.I could not make myself heard due to the high volume of the disco music.

-The volume of the disco music was high, so I couldnt make the other people hear me.
10.I heard this story told by some other people.

-Some other people told this story. I heard them do so.

11.We must have our car serviced for the tour we will have next week.

- We will have a tour next week, so we must have the repairman service our car.
12.They are contemplating going to England once they finish with their childrens education.

- They are contemplating going to England, but first they must finish with their childrens
education.
13.Not having seen either a Chinese or Japanese man before, I found it hard to tell apart
which one is which.

- I hadnt seen either a Chinese or Japanese man before, so I found it hard to tell apart which
one is which.
14.Tom agreed to come with us on condition that we would stop to have something to eat on
the way.

- We would have to stop to eat on the way. Then, Tom would come with us.
15.Tom pretended that he hadnt met Susan before, but he gave himself away when she called
him by the name.

- Tom had met Susan before, but he pretended not to have done so. She called him by the
name and at that time he gave himself away.
16.While trying to help raise some money for the charity, we had to make some dolls and sell
them the people on the street.

- We were trying to help raise some money for the charity, at the same time we had to make
some dolls and sell them the people on the street.

17.You must commit yourself to working hard to be able to cope with the economic situation.

- You will be able to cope with the economic situation, so you must commit yourself to
working hard. / You must commit yourself to working hard in that case you will be able to
cope with the economic situation.
18.Despite being seriously hurt, the footballer refused to stop playing in the match.

- The footballer was seriously hurt, but he refused to stop playing in the match.
19.As well as the income from the funds allocated for the organization, the charity enjoys a
great deal of public contribution.

- There are some funds. These funds are allocated for the organization. Besides, the charity
enjoys a great deal of public contribution.
20.If dealt with extreme care, this letter of intention will clearly display or goals.

- This letter should be dealt with extreme care, it will clearly display our goals.
21.I wished I hadnt objected to your offer of working together now that I am in trouble.

- I regret objecting to your offer of working together, for Im in trouble.

22.I wonder who the teacher meant when she said there were some people who were doomed
to fail.

- The teacher said that there were some people. These were doomed to fail. At that time
(when teacher said so) I wondered who teacher meant.
23.What these words mean to you is none of my business.

- These words mean something to you, but it isnt my business.

24.Mary proved that she could make a perfect teacher if given time.

- Mary was given time. In that case, she could make a perfect teacher and she proved this.
25.The only candidate found worthy of an interview did not turn up.

- Only one candidate was found worthy of an interview, but he didnt turn up.
26.The invitations to be sent to people were left in the drawer by mistake.

- The invitations would be sent to people, but they were left in the drawer by mistake.

HOMEWORK
1.I didn t realize that Brain wasnt feeling well.(complex & noun clause)
2.We learned that pineapples dont grow on trees. (complex & noun clause)
3.I found the keys which were missing. (complex & relative clause)
4.Debbie only drinks juice made from fresh fruit. (complex & reduced relative clause)
5.There are several things that we need from the shop. (complex & relative clause)
6.What theyre doing seems wrong. (complex & relative clause)
7.I came as soon as I heard the news.(complex & adverbial clause of time)
8.Since his wife left him, he has been depressed. (complex & adverbial clause of time)
9.Looking outside, he saw the police car. (complex & reduced form of adverbial clause of
time)
10.Not feeling very well, she sat down. (complex & reduced form of adverbial clause of
reason)

coordinators make compound sentence. Coordinators just come after a comma.

Coordinators: for,and, nor, but, or, yet, so
subortinators make complex sentence.
Complex Sentence:
1.Adverbial clause beginning with a subortinator such as when, while, because, etc.,
2.A dependent adjective clause beginning with a relative pronoun or relative adverb such
as where, when, why, etc., These clauses function as an adjective, they modify a noun.
3. A dependent noun clause beginning with that, a wh- question word, whether and
sometimes if.

Compound sentence have two clauses and these are indepentent clause.
Complex sentence have also two clauses, but one of them is independent other one is
dependent.
Because I was ill I didnt go to school.(complex)
I didnt go to school, because I was ill. (compound)

SUBORDINATING CONJUCTIONS
Time:
after: -den sonra
when: -dii zaman
before: -den nce
while,as: -iken
since: -den beri
now that: -madem ki
as long as, so long as: -dii srece
whenever, everytime: her ne zaman
as soon as, the moment, immediately, once: -mez, -maz
no soonerthan, hardlywhen, barelywhen: -mez, -maz
afterwards: sonradan, sonralar = subordinater deil, time maker dr.
Cause:
so/such..as to +V1..: yapacak kadar
not because..but because: iin deil,.iin
Purpose:
for fear that: korkusuyla
for the purpose of
so that/ in order that +would/ could
lest/ in case + should
He speaks as if he is British.(I think he is English)
He speaks as if he were British.(I know he isnt English)
Likeness:
Just as..so = Just as Tom is hardworking, so is his sister.
by the same taken

-EVER WORDS AND CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

A.-Ever words versus Relative clauses
whoever
whichever
whatever
however
whenever
wherever

a)Whoever wants to come will be welcome.

b)Anyone who wants to come will be welcome.
a)Study whichever article you prefer.
b)Study any article that you prefer.
a)Write down whatever comes to your mind.
b)Write down anything that comes to your mind.
a)It is an informal party. You may dress however you wish.
b) It is an informal party. You may dress in any way that you wish.
a)You may call me whenever you wish.
b) You may call me at any time that you wish.
a)If you have a car, you can go wherever you want to go.
b) If you have a car, you can go any place that you want to go.

B.-Ever Words used as Noun Clauses and Adverbial Clauses

-Ever word
whatever

Noun Clause
Whatever I said seemed to annoy him.

whoever

Whoever he is isnt important.

however

However you cook it is all right with me.

whenever

Whenever you come is convenient for me.

Adverbial Clause
a)Whatever I said, I couldnt
persuade him.
b)No matter what I said, I
couldnt persuade him.
a)Whoever he is, he must obey
the law.
b) No matter who he is, he must
obey the law.
a)However you cook it, he wont
eat it.
b)No matter how you cook it, he
wont eat it.
a)Whenever you come, you cause
problems.
b)No matter when you come, you
cause problems.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Basic Relation
Time
Contrast
Cause- Effect
Purpose

Basic sentences

Subordinate
Clause+Main
Clause
The telephone rang.
When the telephone rang, I
I woke up.
woke up.
Bill entered the contest.He won first prize. Although Bill entered the
contest, he won first prize.
We dont have any money. We cant buy Since we dont have any
food.
money, we cant buy food.
He has to earn a lot of money.He wants to He has to earn a lot of money
provide a good education for his children.
so that he can provide a good
education for his children.

Type of Clause and Subordinating Conjunction

Until/till, after, before, as, as long as, as soon as, no
Time
sooner... than, hardly... when, once, scarcely... when,
by the time, the moment, whenever, while, when,
since
Where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere
Place
Because, since, as, now that, seeing that, because of
Reason
the fact that, due to the fact that , owing to the fact
that, on account of the fact that, in view of the fact
that, inasmuch as, on the grounds that, in that
While, whereas
Direct Contrast
Although, even though, though, despite the fact that,
Concessive Contrast/Opposition
in spite of the fact that, even if, while
So+adj+that, so+adv+that, Such+a(n)+adj+N +that,
Result
abstract noun+be+such that, such+a lot of+N +that,
so+adj+a(n)+N+that, so many...that, so few..that, so
much....that, so little..that
So that, in order that, in case, for fear that, lest
Purpose
As, as if, as though(showing actions that are probable),
Manner
as if, as though(showing actions that are improbable)
The...er, the...er/the more..,the more../to the extent
Degree(proportion)
that, to the degree that, in so far as, as.. so
If, only if, suppose x happens, if x should happen,
Condition
assuming that, in the event that, unless, as long as/so
long as,provided( that), providing(that), whether..or, if
it hadt been for, if it werent for, but for
As...as, er..than, more...than, ...the est, the most...,just
Comparison
as... so

SENTENCE CONNECTORS
Contrast

Result
Addition and Listing

Time
Examplification
Particularization
Explanation
Similarity
Emphasis
Refutation
Reformulation
Correction
Transition
Alternative
Negative Condition
Summation/conclusion
others

Direct opposition/direct contrast

However, on the other hand, conversely, in contrast
Denial of expectation/concessive contrast
However, yet, still, nonetheless, nevertheless, even so, in spite
of this
As a consequence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, as a
result, consequently, hence, thus
Also, besides, further, moreover, furthermore, in addition
First(firstly, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, for
one thing)
Secondly(second, in the second place),for another thing
Finally(lastly, last of all)
At first, afterwards, later, then, in the meantime, meanwhile
For instance, for example, to illustrate
In particular, particularly, specifically
That is, namely, in other words, that is to say
Likewise, similarly, correspondingly, by the same taken, in
the same way
In fact, indeed, as a matter of fact, actually
On the contrary
In other words, to put it in a different way, put differently
Rather, to be more precise
As for, as to, with regard to, with respect to, as regards,
regarding, as far as, x is concerned
Alternatively
Or else, otherwise
In summary, in brief, in short, in conclusion, to be brief, to
sum up, all in all
After all, incidentally/by the way, above all, all the same,
anyway,anyhow, in any case, instead

REDUCTION OF CLAUSES
A finite clause has a subject and a finite verb which must agree with the subject.
A verbless clause is a clause from which a form of the verb to be has been deleted.
Finite(full) Clause
The woman who is in the shop
The women who are on the boat
The book which is on the shelf
The books which are on the table

Verbless(reduced) Clause
The woman in the shop
The women on the boat
The book on the shelf
The books on the table

I. Finite Clauses versus Verbless(reduced) Clauses

Finite(full) clause
While we were in stanbul, we visited all
the major museums.
When she was in London, she met very
interesting people.
Though he was popular with teenagers, the
singer was criticized by adults for his
suggestive movements.
Use a comma where it is necessary
Mathematics, which was once my favorite
subject, no longer interests me.
Mary Thatcher, who is a well-known
fashion designer, earns a lot of money.
The students who were present at the
meeting signed petition.

Verbless(reduced) Clause
While in stanbul, we visited all the major
museums.
When in London, she met very interesting
people.
Though popular with teenagers, the singer
was criticized by adults for his suggestive
movements
Use a comma where necessary
Mathematics, once my favorite subject, no
longer interests me.
Mary Thatcher, a well-known fashion
designer, earns a lot of money
The students present at the meeting signed
petition

II. Finite versus Non-Finite(reduced) Clauses

Form
-ed participle
-ing participle
-to infinitive

Non-finite verb
Written
Writing
To write/to be written

Finite verbs
The student who is shouting....
The students who are shouting....
The man who was killed yesterday...
The men who were killed yesterday...
As it was mentioned above, it....

Used for
Passive constructions
Active constructions
Both active and passive
constructions

Non-Finite verbs
The student shouting....
The students shouting....
The man killed yesterday...
The men killed yesterday...
As mentioned above, it....

III.Passive Constructions in Finite and Non-Finite Clauses

A.Adverbial Clauses
Finite Clauses
Although it was begun many years ago, the
road is still not completed.
Though it was written for children, the
book is popular among adults as well.
As soon as it was announced, the plan came
under attack.
Once it is learned, language cannot easily be
forgotten.
When it is cooled, the vapor condenses and
forms droplets.
If this method is used properly, it will be
higly effective.
He began shouting as though he were
annoyed at what he had seen.

B.Adjectival Clauses
Finite Clauses
The method which has been used in
England for the last 3 years has been very
effective.
The man who was arrested yesterday
refused to answer any questions.
The courses which are offered by our
department are basically elective.

Non-Finite Clauses
Although begun many years ago, the road
is still not completed.
Though written for children, the book is
popular among adults as well.
As soon as announced, the plan came under
attack.
Once learned, language cannot easily be
forgotten
When cooled, the vapor condenses and
forms droplets.
If used properly, this method will be higly
effective.
He began shouting as though annoyed at
what he had seen

Non-Finite Clauses
The method used in England for the last 3
years has been very effective
The man arrested yesterday refused to
answer any questions.
The courses offered by our department are
basically elective

Being+past participle
Ali had to look for a job for months after he Ali had to look for a job for months after
was dismissed from the factory.
being dismissed from the factory.
Students must be given sufficient training in Students must be given sufficient training in
the use of computers before they are the use of computers before being allowed
allowed to use them freely.
to use them freely.
He fainted while he was being questioned at He fainted while being questioned at the
the police station.
police station.
The subject which was being discussed The subject being discussed interested me.
interested me.

Reduction is a grammatical process.

Reduction is equal to Ellipsis.

IV.Active Constructions in Finite and Non-Finite Clauses

A.Adverbial Clauses
Finite Clauses
Adults sometimes do not realize their
strength when they deal with children.
The prime minister has held his second press
conference since he took office.
Though he was dying of cancer, he painted
everyday.
He moved his lips as if he wanted to say
something.
While he accepts the proposed plan in
principle, he has some reservations about its
content.
While he was walking past the post office,
he ran into one of his friends.
The president consults his aides before he
makes his final decision.

Non-Finite Clauses
Adults sometimes do not realize their
strength when dealing with children.
The prime minister has held his second press
conference since taking office
Though dying of cancer, he painted
everyday
He moved his lips as if wanting to say
something
While accepting the proposed plan in
principle, he has some reservations about its
content.
While walking past the post office, he ran
into one of his friends
The president consults his aides before
makeing his final decision

B.Adjectival Clauses
Finite Clauses
People who live in big cities have some
advantages.
The factories which pollute the environment
should be closed down.

Non-Finite Clauses
People living in big cities have some
advantages.
The factories polluting the environment
should be closed down.

V.Reducing Finite Clauses with Infinitives(Active or Passive Voice)

A.Adjectival Clauses
Finite Clauses
Charles Lindbergh was the first person who
flew across the Atlantic Ocean.
I have a lot of work which I must do.

Non-Finite Clauses
Charles Lindbergh was the first person to
fly across the Atlantic Ocean
I have a lot of work to do.

B.Noun Clauses
Finite Clauses
Non-Finite Clauses
He cant decide what he should do.
He cant decide what to do.
She cant decide whether she should sell She cant decide whether to sell her car or
her car or not.
not.
C.Adverbial Clauses
Finite Clauses
Non-Finite Clauses
He was in such bad health that he was He was in such bad health as to be obliged
obliged to resign.
to resign.
His work was so good that it made him His work was so good as to make him
internationally famous.
internationally famous.
I studied hard so that I could get a passing I studied hard to get a passing grade in the
grade in the exam.
exam.

PARTICIPLES
Type
Present
Past
Perfect
Perfect Progressive

Active

Passive

Active Voice
Writing
having written
having been writing

Passive Voice
being written
written
having been written

The journalist writes articles for a local The journalist earns his
newspaper. He earns his living.
living, writing articles for a
local newspaper.
The journalist was writing an article. He Writing an article, the
suddenly had a bright idea.
journalist suddenly had a
bright idea.
The journalist wrote an article. He showed it to Having written an article, the
his boss.
journalist showed it to his
boss.
The journalist has been writing this article for Having been writing this
a long time. He feels rather tired.
article for a long time, the
journalist feels rather tired.
The article was written by a well-known Written by a well-known
journalist. It interested many people.
journalist,
the
article
interested many people.
The article was written. It went to press Having been written, the
immediately.
article
went
to
press
immediately.

PARTICIPLES
Present
Past
Prefect
Ving
V3
having V3
*Progressive Tenses
*Adjective
*Reduction of Relative Cl
*Reduction of Relative Cl.
*Reduction of Relative Cl.(pas.) * Reduction of Adverbial Cl
*Reduction of Adverbial Cl. *Reduction of Adverbial Cl.(passive)

GERUND or PARTICIPLE

Participle ile Gerund arasndaki farklardan biri dr.

Seeing is believing. (gerund)
Seeing my friends, Im going near them.(participle)
Gerund cannot be omitted from the sentence. Because it is complement. It answer the
questions who? what?
Participle answers the questions when? how? where? why?
Walking in the park, I smiled at the flowers.(when)
Walking in the park, I missed the bus.(when/because/as)
Walking in the park, she injured her leg.(when/how)

RELATIVE CLAUSES vs. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

I havent seen what he left.= the thing which he left. What havent you seen?
Noun Cl.

Nominal Relative Cl.

I havent seen where he put the book.= the place where he put the book.
Noun Cl.

Nominal Relative Cl.

I know how he succeeded it.= the way in which he succeded it.

Noun Cl.

Nominal Relative Cl.

I know why he said so.= the reason why he said so.

Noun Cl.

Nominal Relative Cl.

Nominal Relative functions as noun.

ADJECTIVE vs. ADVERB

1.The river froze solid. (Correct)
2.Tom slid the door shut.(Correct)
3.The vase broke clean.(Correct)
4.He fell flat on the face.(Correct)
5.He got his answer right.(Correct)
6.I closed the lid tight.(Correct)
7.The film fell short of my expectations.(Correct)
8.Wipe the floor clean.(Correct)
9.It is raining hard.(Correct)
10.The razer feels sharp.(Correct)

Definition:
An adverb defines the verb in terms of direction,manner,place, ect.
An adjective defines the noun in terms of quality, quantity, etc.
Adjective state konumuna gemi durumdan bahseder ve sondur.
Adverb de son nokta yoktur, processdir ve sreci kapsar.

Liking verb+adjective
appear
become
emerge
fall
feel
get
go
grow
keep
lie
look
remain
seem
smell
stay
taste
turn

He appears confident.
He became famous as an artist at the age of thirty.
He emerged triumphant from the power struggle.
The court room fell silent.
This material feels soft.
He got ill.
The milk went sour.
He grew interested in the course as time went by.
Keep silent, please.
A bird lay dead in the snow.
She looks pale, doesnt she?
The prices remained stable for a long time.
He seems quite energetic for a man of seventy.
The room smells terrible.
Bill stood motionless for at least a minute.
The food tastes very good indeed.
Leaves turn yellow in autumn.

Note: Here the verbs fall, go, grow, turn mean become

ANALYZING THE PARAGRAPHES

[[[[For as long as peole can remember,][small towns like Stone Creek and
Pineville in northern Alabama have been hit by storms every spring.]]]] They are as
predictable as [the apple blossoms that are always shaken loose from the trees and blown

[[Some trees maybe knocked over,]or[the roof of a building might

along the country roads.]

][but

be slightly damage,]

usually the effects of the storm are more incovenient

than

deadly.]This yaer was really different.

[[[[For,][smallspring.]]]] matrix clause.

ten da ikinci parantez cmlelerin birleimi iin, nc parantez interaction iin, son
parantez de matrix clause u belirtmek iin kullanlr.

Surface structure: Matrix Cl.

deep structure
1.interaction between something.
2. [subordinate clause]+[main clause]
Matrix iin cmle complex olmal ve subordinate clause olmal.

[[[[[SC][SC][MC]]]]]

= cmle eer iki subordinate clause a sahipse be bracket

alr.

[[[[[

]]]

They,][apple blossoms..][ apple blossoms.]

[He had already had the day from hell, testifying at the sentencing hearing [for a man
who had acted as his informant for more than a year,][and then watched the guys daughter
pratically collapse in the courtroom as the tough-on-crime judge handed her father ten years

][[Then he had

in federal prison, despite [Nicks promises and][the old guys co-operation.]

spent what was left of the day sparring with high-priced lawyers who were trying to paint him
as a whack job as he had testified in a related case, giving despositions, filling out the
mountains of paperwork that followed the conclusion of every case like a tail follows a dog,]

[and then, finally, on his way situation that had resulted in one of the hostages, a woman,
being killed.]

]
and then

[ [[[[

0 1

[[[[[

.Then

[[[[watched][as...]]]] ]0 .

]]]

]]]

[who.]]]

He][a man.]

He][what .]

] [that.]]]]]

Some say the earth will [end in fire,][some say in ice],

[[[[but from what Ive tasted

]],[[[[[but if I had to perish twice,][I think I

of desire,][I hold with those who favor fire]]

know enough of hate to say that for destruction,][ ice is also great and would suffice.]]

*Her but bir independent clause yapar.

]]]

I owed my security to the masterly air of the copyist, who disdaining the letter, gave but the
Main clause
full spirit of his original for my individual contemplation lying inside me.

There was no replay to my questions; and

bringing in a poil of porridge for the dogs, and

1
2

on looking around I was only Joseph

Mrs. Heathcliff leaning over the fire,

diverting herself with burning a bundle of matches which had fallen from the chimney-piece
as she restored the tea-canister to its place.

The farmer, when he deposited his burden, took

a critical survey of the room; and, in cracked tones, grated out.

1.Matrix Clause
1.Main Clause: I saw only Joseph.
1.1.Subordinate Clause: On.around. (reduced form of adverbial clause of time)
1.2.Subordinate Clause: Josephdogs.(small clause)

2.Matrix Clause
1.Main Clause: I saw Mrs.Heathcliff
1.1.Subordinate Clause: leaning over the fire (small clause)
1.2.Subordinate Clause: divertingmatches (small clause)
1.3.Subordinate Clause: which had..chimmey-piece (relative clause)
1.4.Subordinate Clause: as she restored.its place. (adverbial clause of time)
son subordinate clause 1.yan cmledir ve birinci dereceden main clausea baldr.

*Main clause subordinate clause un balad yerde biter.

2.Matrix Clause
1.Main Clause: The farmer..
1.1.Subordinate Clause: when he.burden(adverbial clause of time)

RESEARCHES and ONLINE ENGLISH GRAMMAR WEBSITE

http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/passive_prepositions.htm
http://www.1-language.com/englishcourse/index.htm
Grammar
1. Present Simple
The Simple Present is used to make statements about the present time. It is used in the
following ways.
- Permanent facts: These sentences give facts which are always true.
It is cold in winter. - The sun shines. - Fish live in water.
- Present facts: These sentences are true now.
I work at home. - She plays the piano.
"I work at home" doesn't mean I am working right now, but it does mean that in my present
condition I work at home.
- Habitual actions: I get up at 8.00. - They come here every day.
These actions are repeated regularly, so they are considered a present reality and are
expressed in the Simple Present.
Here is the verb "to give in the Simple Present:
Singular

Plural

I give

We give

You give

You give

He gives

They give

She gives
It gives

2. Spelling Rules for the Present Simple

If you look above you'll see the spelling doesn't change, except for the third person singular
(He, She, It) which adds an "s" to the verb. For example "I eat - He eats".
Sometimes other spelling rules also apply to He, She and It. All the following verbs add "es"
instead of "s":

The short forms for the negative verb "to be" are as follows:
Verb Endings

Spelling Examples

Verbs ending in -o add -es

do - does, go - goes

Verbs ending in -s add -es

pass - passes, kiss - kisses

Verbs ending in -x add -es

fix - fixes, mix - mixes

Verbs ending in -ch add -es

match - matches, catch - catches

Verbs ending in -sh add -es

push - pushes, rush - rushes

----Verbs ending in a consonant and -y often

change the -y to -ies:

try - tries, cry - cries

Verbs such as "buy" have no consonant

before the "y", so you simply add -s
as usual.

buy - buys, pay - pays.

Thematic Roles
Thematic relations were introduced in generative grammar during the mid-1960s and early
1970s (Gruber, 1976; Fillmore, 1968; Jackendoff, 1972) as a way of classifying the arguments
of natural language predicates into a closed set of participant types which were thought to
have a special status in grammar. A list of the most popular roles and the properties usually
associated with them is given below.
Agent
-- A participant which the meaning of the verb specifies as doing or causing
something, possibly intentionally. Examples: subjects of kill, eat, hit, smash, kick and
em watch.
Patient
-- A participant which the verb characterises as having something happen to it, and as
being affected by what happens to it. Examples: objects of kill, eat and smash but not
those of watch, hear and love.
Experiencer
-- A participant who is characterised as aware of something. Examples: subject of love
or object of annoy.
Theme
-- A participant which is characterised as changing its position or condition, or as
being in a state or position. Examples: objects of give and hand, subjects of walk and
die.
Location
-- The thematic role associated with the NP expressing the location in a sentence with
a verb of location. Examples: subjects of keep, own, retain and know and locative PPs.
Source
-- Object from which motion proceeds. Examples: subjects of buy and promise,
objects of deprive, free and cure.
Goal
-- Object to which motion proceeds. Examples: subject of receive and buy, dative
objects of tell and give. (Adapted from Dowty (1989))
Since its inception, the classification of argument positions into role types was meant to be
carried out in terms of primitive semantic properties of predicates. Jackendoff (1972)
suggested that thematic relations should be defined in terms of the three semantic
subfunctions CAUSE, CHANGE and BE which constitute some of the primitive building
blocks of lexical meanings. For example, the semantic representation of a transitive verb like
open would be that of (154) where, according to Jackendoff's characterisation of roles in
terms of semantic subfunctions, NP is agent and NP theme

REFERENCES
General information about grammar and tables are from the book Building Skills in
Proficiency by Cesur ZTRK.
The information about Thematic Roles is from
http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntax-textbook/box-thematic.html