Advanced Aircraft

Materials
SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing Papers
8: Advanced Aircraft Materials
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Summary of Facts

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materials
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Introduction

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The need for advanced materials

Determining the best material to use for a particular application is not straightforward. It will depend on many
factors including customer requirements (eg performance, cost, safety), design requirements (eg strength,
temperature capability, density) and material technology prospects (eg materials/processes currently and
potentially available). For aerospace applications, the large number of safety requirements such as the
protection against bird, ballistic and lightening strike and containment of events like fire and fan blade off,
makes finding an appropriate material particularly challenging.
Materials with high specific strength (strength per
unit of weight) have long been popular with the
aerospace industry, as components made from
such materials provide the required strength with
less weight, thereby reducing fuel burn and
operating cost. With growing concern over climate
change and the focus on reducing fuel burn and
emissions intensifying, the importance of this
characteristic has never been
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Taking a life cycle approach

This paper focuses on materials that offer reduced

environmental impact in the use phase, as this
phase is responsible for the majority of aviations
environmental impacts. However it is important to
also consider environmental effects associated with
material choice/development throughout the product
life cycle. These include renewability of the resource
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(raw materials), energy intensity, use of
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SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing Paper
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In addition to this, adaptive materials, materials which have properties that can be altered by
changing the conditions they are subject to, can help to optimise the aircrafts performance
throughout the flight cycle leading to reduced fuel burn and emissions.
Developing materials with these desired characteristics (improved specific strength, high
temperature capability, adaptive properties, etc) whilst satisfying other customer and design
requirements, is extremely difficult. As a result, manufacturers are moving well beyond
traditional materials (see Figure 4 on p.5 for material usage in aircraft), investigating more
innovative and exotic alternatives like composites, advanced metal alloys, ceramics,
nanomaterials and smart materials. These materials and the efforts underway to develop them
are discussed here.

Composites
Composites are materials made from two or more components that have significantly different physical
or chemical properties which remain distinct (on a macroscopic level) within the finished structure. The
advantage of composite materials is that the properties they exhibit are different to simply the sum of
the properties of the constituent materials.
Composites consist of reinforcement and matrix material. The reinforcement, which generally takes
the form of fibres, has high tensile strength but is susceptible to breakage. In contrast, the matrix
which surrounds and supports the reinforcement has a relatively low tensile strength but is extremely
tough. When combined, the matrix and the reinforcement, counteract each others weaknesses to
2
produce a material that is stronger, stiffer and more damage resistant than either material alone.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Many different materials and methods can be used to produce composite materials depending on the
required application and quantity.

Figure 1: Possible materials and processes for composite manufacture

In the aerospace industry, composites are generally made of non-metallic fibres like carbon, glass or
aramid, embedded in a polymeric matrix (eg plastic or epoxy); although in some cases, the matrix is a
metal such as aluminium, titanium or magnesium. For example, as seen in Figure 2, glassreinforced
fibre metal laminates known as glares are used in significant proportions in airframes. Ceramic
composites are also being considered for some aerospace applications, as discussed later in the
paper.

1
Whilst increased combustion temperature leads to a reduction in some engine emissions, most notably CO2, at higher
temperatures more NOx emissions are produced (per kg of fuel burn). For details of the emissions from combustion and the
technology being developed to address trade-offs between CO2 and NOx see the SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing
Paper titled Emissions from Combustion and Their Effects.
2
CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
3
F. Smith, (2008). Composites Materials for Aerospace Structures
2
Global trends and UK Capabilities Presentation. UK Trade and Investment

CFRP is Carbon Fibre

Reinforced Plastic
GFRP is Glass Fibre Reinforced
Plastic
Hybrid (C + G) is Carbon & Glass
Fibre Reinforced Plastic
Glare is GLAssREinforced fibre
metal

Figure 2: Airbus aircraft showing areas where composites can be used

Fibre reinforcements can take many forms, they can be

woven fabrics, multiaxial fabrics (constructed by
overlaying unidirectional fibres in different orientations),
braided fabrics or preforms (produced by stacking and
shaping layers of woven, multiaxial and/or braided fabric
into pre-determined three-dimensional forms). The type
of fibre used will depend on the required properties
(strength, cost, complexity, etc) of the part being
produced. In many cases, the fibres are received preimpregnated with a controlled amount of resin (matrix
material).

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

As explained previously, there is no single method of

composite production. One way to make composite parts
is through the hand layup of pre-impregnated fibres
(prepregs) in an open mould, followed by cure in an
autoclave. An autoclave is a sealable vessel, in which a
high temperature and pressure gas, usually nitrogen, is
pumped into, thereby applying the heat and pressure
necessary for the material to form the shape of the
mould. This process, although well-established, is not
ideal. The initial expenditure required to purchase an
autoclave is high which means that this method is only
cost effective if several components are being produced.
However, unlike moulding methods, in which
considerable time and energy is spent heating up and
cooling down the tools, autoclaves are relatively energy
efficient.
Another drawback is that hand layup is very laborintensive. Automated layup systems such as automated
tape laying, tow placement and filament winding can be
used to reduce labour and also increase layup accuracy
and repeatability, however these processes may only
lend themselves to components of certain shapes and
sizes.

Sandwich panels
One type of composite structure used in
aerospace is the sandwich panel. In this
structure a light weight core material such
as a honeycomb is sandwiched between
two laminated composite sheets known as
skins. Sandwich panels are popular as
they have the highest stiffness-to-weight
and strength-to-weight ratios of all
composites and have excellent resistance
5
to bending and buckling.
Composite
laminate
Adhesive
ply

Honeycomb
core

Figure 3: Carbon composite sandwich

6
panel

However, some airlines no longer favour

sandwich panels as repairing them is very
complex, often resulting in replacement of
panels and because the composite
laminate skins are typically thin and thus
have
reduced
hail
resistance.
Consequently, in many cases, stiffened,
single piece composite structures are
preferred.

An alternative to autoclave curing is closed moulding. One popular type of closed moulding is resin
transfer moulding (RTM). RTM involves placing the fibre layup in a two-part closed mould into which
resin and catalyst are pumped under low to medium pressure. A variation of RTM is vacuum-assisted
RTM (VARTM). In VARTM, the resin is drawn into the mould by vacuum alone. The advantage of this
process is that, in some cases, it does not require high heat or pressure and can be undertaken with
low cost tooling hence allowing for the inexpensive production of large, complex composite parts.

Courtesy of Airbus
CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
6
www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2001/stef/img8.jpg
5

There are many other production methods in which, like RTM and VARTM, the fibres are
infused with resin during the compression process. Some of these require autoclaves to make
the process more robust and safer and/or special tooling. The main advantages of all these
methods are that there are no prepreg costs and that they can use a wider range of fabrics (3D
weaving, 2D and 3D braiding, stitching, knitting, etc).
Another method of composite manufacture used frequently is compression moulding. With this
process, a compound consisting of resin and fibres is arranged in a preheated mould cavity
(shaped according to desired part shape) before the mould is closed, clamped and pressure
applied. As the material viscosity drops, the compound flows to fill the cavity, thereby creating
the required shape. Compression molding requires an expensive press and tools and is
therefore a suitable method of production when the quantity of components is significant.
There are several benefits associated with using composites in aircraft. One clear advantage is their
high specific strength. For example, carbon fibre is stronger and stiffer than aluminium, titanium or steel
at a fraction of the weight. A further benefit is that this strength can be tailored in any direction. By
varying the orientation of the fibres, the strength of a composite material in any direction can be varied in
7
accordance with the applied loads. This is clearly a very useful property for aerospace applications
where components are subject to many different forces but need to avoid being thicker or heavier than
required.
However, the real benefit of composites comes not from their high specific strength but their ability to
resist fatigue (damage which occurs when a material is subject to cyclic loading) and corrosion, and to
withstand temperature extremes. Such attributes can enable reduced maintenance costs as airframe
inspections /maintenance activities do not need to be as frequent or extensive as for metallic aircraft.
Boeings environmental performance group estimates that the period of time between maintenance
activities for composite planes could be twice that required for aluminium aircraft. However, significant
work is required to demonstrate to the relevant authorities that changes to current inspection regimes
8
routines are acceptable from a safety perspective.
Another appealing property of composites is their manufacturability; large, complex shapes can be
accurately cast from composite materials. This means the properties of the part can be tailored precisely
to the application and, as there is no cutting and shaping of sheets from bulk material, there is a
significant reduction in the waste generated. Furthermore, as larger, more integrated parts can be
produced using the composite casting process, part/fastener count and assembly time is reduced.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

A further benefit is the increased passenger comfort that a composite aircraft body can offer. The high
fatigue strength of composites means that a composite fuselage can withstand a higher pressure
differential between the cabin and the outside air than an aircraft with a metallic body. As a result, cabin
pressure can be increased to a level closer to that experienced at sea level. Furthermore, the good
corrosion resistance of composites means that an increase in cabin humidity levels is possible with a
composite aircraft body. These two attributes, increased pressure and humidity, result in a significant
reduction in the passenger discomfort and fatigue associated with the low pressure, dry air, normally
experienced in aircraft cabins.
One of the challenges associated with composite design is the lack of design data and tools. As metals
are isotropic (ie exhibit same properties in all directions) and have been well characterized through
extensive testing, to understand how a metal will perform in a certain conditions, a designer can consult
a materials handbook (specifying an alloy and heat treatment), they do not need to conduct expensive
materials testing. However, for a designer working with composites there are no such equivalent tools.
This is due to a number of factors including engineers limited design experience with composite
materials, the huge variability between composite materials and the much closer relationship between
the shape of the component and loading conditions it is being designed for. Small changes in fibre
orientation and fibre/matrix ratio can significantly alter the materials load path and failure mode. As a
result, aerospace designers normally need to test both the composite part and the materials used in its
construction. Although the U.S Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is administering a Composites
Materials Handbook known as CMH-17 to duplicate the guidance available to metals manufacturers,
9
this database is still under development and is by no means comprehensive.
Another challenge is that composites response to damage, particularly due to direct impact, is
significantly different to metals and thus a different approach is required. Although understanding in this
area is still developing, it is believed that with careful choice of materials and tailoring for the required
function, composites can offer enhanced damage tolerance and improved safety.
7

Rolls-Royce (2005) The Jet Engine. p.219

Clark, N. (2007) The future in a word? Plastics in the International Herald Tribune, June 16-17 2007.
9
CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
8

However, detection and repair of damage remains difficult for composites. Whilst certain
events, like being dropped during manufacture or minor collisions with ground servicing
vehicles in service, would leave visible denting in a metallic component, the surface damage
for a composite could be minimal despite significant disbonding within the structure.
Identification of such damage requires specialised techniques and equipment (eg ultrasonic
or X ray crack sensing) and therefore may be difficult to undertake at repair and overhaul
bases. Furthermore, as the appropriate repair technique varies significantly from component
to component, there are few materials or methods of composite repair that can be applied
universally.
Another challenge composites must address is lightning strike protection (LSP). Certification
requirements specify that aircraft must be protected against the potentially catastrophic effects of
lightning strike. However composite structures are either not conductive at all or significantly less
conductive than metals. As a result, in the event of lightning strike, up to 200, 000 amps of electricity
will seek the path of least resistance to the nearest metal component, burning through the composite
laminate and vaporizing metallic cables, hinges, fasteners, etc. in the process. In order to prevent
this, LSP strategies must be undertaken for composite structures. These can include bonding
aluminium or copper mesh to the exterior surface or one layer down, or as done more recently,
10
incorporating prepreg metal meshes in fibre layups.
Finding a way to safely and efficiently recycle composites is another challenge facing the industry.
Much effort has already been spent developing ways of separating the reinforcement from the matrix
whilst preserving the integrity of the fibres, with some promising progress made by UK companies.
Details of this will be discussed further in the SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing Paper titled
End of Aircraft Life Initiatives.
However, the biggest drawback associated with composites is their high cost. The high equipment,
labour, quality control and post-production testing costs together with the investment required to
understand composite material properties and failure modes, means that the weight savings they
offer do not always offset the costs incurred with this material choice. However, with the use of
certain processes and technologies (eg infusion technologies, the introduction of high tow count
fabrics and component integration) composites can be cost competitive or even lower cost than their
metallic equivalents. Furthermore, as manufacturers improve production efficiency, this technology
matures and the industry acquires more experience with it, there will inevitably be further
opportunities for cost reduction.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Nevertheless, composites have been enthusiastically embraced by the aerospace industry, with
aircraft manufacturers progressively increasing the amount of composite material used in the
airframe and in aircraft systems.

11

Figure 4: Use of composite materials in commercial and military aircraft

Composites have also been developed and used for low temperature engine applications such as
the nacelle (engine casing), bypass duct, propeller and fan blades. Further expansion of composites
into the core of the engine requires further development of high temperature composite materials
12
and the associated design methodologies.
10

CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
Michaels, K. (2007) Aerospace Market Outlook presented at 2007 Credit Suisse Aerospace & Defence Finance
Conference, November 29 2007, New York.
12
Hicks, M.A and M.C Thomas (2003) Advances in Aeroengine Materials presented at Parsons Conference, Dublin, 2003. 5
11

Significant work is underway in the UK to further improve the capabilities of composite

materials and develop better manufacturing methods. Research and development work is
being undertaken by individual manufacturers, at universities within specialized composite
research centres and through collaborative UK and EU programmes like the Next Generation
Composite Wing (NGCW) and More Affordable Aircraft Structure through Extended,
Integrated and Mature Numerical Sizing (MAAXIMUS). There are also a number of knowledge
transfer networks (such as the National Composites Network, Composites UK and the British
Composites Society) who are facilitating the sharing of knowledge and best practice through
industries, including the aerospace industry.

Next Generation Composite Wing (NGCW)

This three-year, 103 million programme was formally
launched in May 2008 and is led by Airbus with
involvement from seventeen industry and academic
partners. NGCW aims to ensure that the UK has the
skills and capability to be at the cutting-edge of
composite wing development.
This involves addressing issues in the design,
manufacturing and in-service performance of
composites. Some of these challenges apply to all
composite components; however, others are specific
to the wing. For example, the large variations in
component thickness and highly complex curvature,
shapes and features of the wing, mean that it is
difficult to produce composite wings quickly.
Improvements in this area will be achieved through
production automation, optimisation of assembly, and
the development of flexible low cost tooling.
Product-related challenges that will be addressed in
NGCW include future air flow control, the integration of
advanced control surfaces (flaps and slats), landing
gears and other systems within composite wings and
designing to prevent against risks such as lightening
and bird strike.
NGCW will develop three wing designs: a MultiDisciplinary Optimised Wing (MDOW), High Volume,
Low Cost Manufacture Wing (HiVol) and an Integrated
Equipped Wing (IntEq) which will be taken through to
13
the technology integration and demonstration stage.

More Affordable Aircraft Structure through

Extended, Integrated and Mature Numerical
Sizing (MAAXIMUS)
MAAXIMUS is a collaborative effort led by Airbus
that incorporates 58 E.U. partners. The project,
which has a budget of around 40 million, is
scheduled to begin in 2008 and will run for 5 years.
MAAXIMUS is focussed on improving the design
and composition of aircraft using composite and
hybrid metal-composite structures to reduce
assembly time by 50% and structural weight by
10%. The work of MAAXIMUS will be undertaken
using two platforms: a Virtual Structure platform and
a Physical Demonstrator platform.
The Virtual Structure platform aims to make major
improvements in simulation and modelling predictive
capabilities. This includes higher accuracy in the
prediction of structural behaviour under complex
loads, improved confidence in simulation results and
better overall simulation process performance.
Objectives of the Physical Demonstrator platform
include evaluating the effectiveness of the Virtual
Structure platform, developing new industrial
standards for structure/system integration, cost
performance and aircraft lead times, and
manufacturing and testing a full-scale composite
barrel. In order to achieve these objectives, the
programme will investigate new materials (such as
smart
materials),
advanced
manufacturing
processes, and manufacturing, assembly and test
simplifications based on virtual factory and test
14
outputs.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Metal Alloys
An alloy is a material that is comprised of two of more elements, of which at least one is a metal.
Similar to composites, alloys are designed to exhibit properties superior to those displayed by either of
the constituent elements individually. Titanium, nickel and steel alloys are commonly used for engine
components. Aluminium and titanium alloys are used for airframe components.

15

Figure 5: Cross section of aero engine showing constituent materials

13

Airbus, (2007) Next Generation Composite Wing Presentation.

www.aerosme.com/download/WorkshopsFP71stcall/docs/MAAXIMUS.pdf, sighted 30/11/07
15
Phillips, C. and N. Glover (2006), Novel materials Development and Use presented at RCEP Novel Materials Seminar
January 2006.

14

Aluminium alloys are light weight, with

high specific strength. They tend to have
relatively good resistance to fatigue
however their corrosion resistance is
variable so they may need to be coated
with another material in order to
withstand their operating environment.
Like all metal alloys, the properties of an
aluminium alloy depend heavily on its
alloying elements and the heat
treatments it has undergone during
manufacture.
Common aluminium
alloying elements for aerospace are
copper, magnesium, silicon, zinc and
more recently lithium.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Aluminium lithium alloys (AlLi) are very

strong and are much lighter than pure aluminium
due to the fact that lithium is the least dense of
the elemental metals. One of the main
advantages that they offer to composites is a
lower investment cost; they do not require the
high capital investment in fabrication facilities
needed for composite manufacture. A second
benefit is their high damage tolerance. This is
particularly important for certain airframe
16
structures like the lower wing surfaces. For
such reasons, metal alloys such as Al-Li are
expected to remain competitive with composites
for some applications in modern aircraft. For
example, on the next Airbus long range aircraft,
the A350 XWB, Al and Al-Li alloys are expected
to make up a significant proportion of the
airframe (20%).
Titanium alloys offer very high strength at a
density (mass per unit volume) that is almost
17
half that of steel or nickel based alloys.
However, their temperature capability is such
that they are only suitable for intermediate
temperature applications. As a result titanium
alloys are used extensively in the front part of
the engine (discs, fan blades and casings) and
for components in systems like the landing gear
and hydraulic systems. Although efforts
undertaken to increase the temperatures they
can withstand has yielded significant results (the
temperature capability of titanium alloys has
doubled over the past thirty years), the ability to
operate at temperatures above 650 C for long
periods of time is viewed as a barrier for future
18
developments of this material. Furthermore,
despite recent developments of burn resistant
titanium alloys, risk of titanium fire (titanium is
susceptible to catching alight when heated to its
melting point) also restricts its use to low and
intermediate temperature applications.

16
Joshi, A. Lithium Aluminium Alloys The New Generation
of Aerospace Alloys
17
However a titanium part may need to have a greater volume
than a steel or nickel alloy part and so its weight may be
greater than half that of its steel or nickel alloy equivalent.
18
Hicks, M.A and M.C Thomas (2003) Advances in
Aeroengine Materials presented at Parsons Conference,
Dublin, 2003.
19
Rosner, H. (ed), (2006), Airbus Structure Journal Volume
1, December 2006.
20
Information and image courtesy of Rolls-Royce.

Ensuring the future competitiveness of

metals
In order to fully benefit from the potential
advantages
of
future
innovative
metallic
solutions, Airbus is working with its key suppliers of
aluminium
products
to
develop
significant improvements in metallic airframe
technologies.
These cooperative projects, which look at both the
fuselage and wing, consider the product from the
design principles and material selection right
through to the validation programme and costs.
Airbus ensures that the material development
undertaken by suppliers is application-oriented by
first, determining what properties a new material
must have in order to reach the weight and cost
targets of the component, and second, by providing
this information to the suppliers thereby setting them
a development target.
Since the beginning of the projects in 2002, many
innovative
yet
competitive
lightweight
metallic structural concepts have been generated.
Weight-saving opportunities of more than 20% have
been demonstrated for specific applications and
cost and maturity assessments undertaken.
Steps forward have come from new metallic material
choices
like
aluminium
lithium
and
aluminium scandium alloys, new titanium alloys and
new innovative design principles (eg welding
19
technologies, optimised design).

Developing dual micro structure nickel

alloy discs
Two important materials programmes launched to
develop dual micro structure nickel alloy discs, are
Materials for Arduous Cycle and Emissions (MACE)
and Processing of an Advanced Nickel Alloy for
Critical Engine Applications (PANACEA). The aim of
these programmes is to develop the technology to
optimise the mechanical properties around the disc
through control of the microstructure thereby
allowing an increase of up to 30 C in temperature
capability.
MACE and PANACEA, which are 3.4 and 2.4
million programmes respectively, are run by RollsRoyce and partly funded by the Technology
Strategy Board. MACE, which was a three-year
programme that finished in April 2008, provided the
proof of concept for the technology. PANACEA,
which is also a three-year programme running until
April 2009, is focused on developing the suite of
manufacturing technologies required for the discs.
Several full scale forgings have been produced to
date, with microstructures comparing very
favourably to model predictions. This technology will
be applied on the next Rolls-Royce engine, the
20
Trent XWB.

Figure 6: Dual microstructure nickel alloy discs

Developments in nickel alloy capability have been one of the major success stories in
metallurgy over the last fifty years. Through a variety of complex heat treatments,
processing and alloying techniques, significant increases in the temperature capability
and thermal stability of nickel alloys have been achieved. As a result, nickel alloys
are the material primarily used for components within the hottest parts of the engine.
To satisfy the demanding temperatures and mechanical forces, single crystal alloys are
used for the high pressure turbine blades. As its name states, a single crystal alloy is an
alloy which contains only one crystal. The absence of crystal boundaries, which are points of
weakness in a material, means that single crystal alloys are much stronger than ordinary
multi-crystal materials. Producing a blade from a single crystal requires complex casting
processes. An example of this process is shown in Figure 7. Examples of multi-crystal and
single crystal blades are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7: Casts used in the single crystal alloy process

Single crystal alloys employ continually more exotic

alloying additions (engine manufacturers are now
th
th
developing 4 or 5 generation single crystal alloy
blades) in order to withstand the exceedingly harsh
conditions imposed on them. Such advances,
together with the use of advanced cooling air
systems and ceramic thermal barrier coatings allow
the blades to survive the extreme conditions they
are exposed to.
Although some further temperature and strength
capability may be achieved with metal alloys, the
challenge of improving the already highly refined
heat
treatments,
processing
and
alloying
techniques together with the high cost of raw
materials means that the aerospace industry is also
dedicating significant effort to uncovering other
options such as ceramics.

21

Figure 8: Single crystal and multi22

crystal blades

What conditions are turbine blades

subject to?
The force on the small high pressure
turbine blade of a Rolls-Royce Trent 1000
engine is about ten tonnes. This is
equivalent to hanging a double decker bus
off each blade!
The blades rotate at 13,500 revolutions per
minute, with tip speeds reaching 1200
mph.
They must withstand temperatures of
around 1700 C (400 C above the melting
23
temperature of the metal!)

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials produced through the application of heat. Their
excellent temperature capability makes them ideal candidates for high temperature applications in
aero engines. However, mechanical properties like brittleness mean that there some significant
issues associated with manufacturing and using ceramic components. Their current use in aero
engines is limited to temperature resistant coatings, wear-resistant surfaces and light-weight rolling
elements in ball-bearings.
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) show more promise for the aerospace industry. CMCs have
been developed to overcome the brittleness and lack of reliability associated with ordinary ceramics.
Like the composites discussed previously, CMCs consist of a matrix and reinforcing fibres. They are
classed as non-oxide or oxide CMCs according to whether the matrix and reinforcements have been
oxidised (providing resistance to corrosion). As different materials expand by different amounts with
increased temperatures, introducing either gaps or points of high stress in the interface between
them, adjacent materials in hot engine applications must have similar levels of thermal expansion.
Hence, non-oxide fibres are generally embedded in non-oxide matrices and oxide fibres in oxide
matrices. Non-oxide CMCs such as Carbon/Carbon or SiliconCarbide/ SiliconCarbide composites
are more developed than oxide-composites but less resistant to the oxidising environment found
inside the engine.
21

Courtesy of Rolls-Royce
Courtesy of Rolls-Royce
23
Rolls- Royce Trent 1000 Wow Facts Brochure
22

Benefits of CMCs over metals and un-reinforced ceramics include increased temperature
capability, reduced weight and improved damage tolerance. Although there have been
some recent promising developments with these materials there are still some significant
technical challenges to overcome. These include:

High manufacturing cost CMCs are slow and expensive to make.

Environmental protection Non-oxide CMCs need to be coated with a specialised

ceramic coating in order to survive the conditions (water, oxygen) in the engine.

Thermal expansion matching Ensuring that the elements of the CMC (fibres/matrix),
the CMC part and its environmental coating, and the CMC part and its
adjacent/adjoining parts have similar levels of thermal expansion is difficult.

Joining Joining methods like welding cannot be used for CMCs. The brittleness and
thermal matching issue make it hard to join ceramic and metallic parts.

Furthermore, given that the industry has little in-service experience with CMC components,
extensive testing, including flight testing, is required to understand and develop solutions for the inservice issues associated with this new technology before its commercial application could be
considered.
Demonstration of CMCs is currently underway on some military aircraft. Rolls-Royce have designed
and tested some static CMC components, shown in Figure 9, to build experience with this
technology. They anticipate that incorporation of rotating ceramic parts into aero engines is around
ten years away.

Figure 9: CMC combustor liner and nozzle guide vanes produced by Rolls-Royce

24

Nanomaterials

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Nano technology describes the characterisation, manipulation and manufacture of matter at the
-9
length scale of 1-100 nanometers (a nanometer is 1 x 10 meters). At this scale, the vastly
increased ratio of surface area to volume means that quantum mechanical effects such as the
quantum size effect come into play.
The quantum size effect describes the change
in the electronic properties that occur when a
solid is comprised of nanosized crystals. A
number of other physical effects can also occur
at the nanoscale, resulting in matter displaying
very different properties to those normally
exhibited
and
enabling
some
unique
applications.

How different is the surface area to volume

ratio at the nanoscale?
Consider the example of a sphere (as particles are
spherical).
The surface area of a sphere is given by

SA ? 4r 2
The volume is given by

There are many possible aerospace applications

for
nanotechnology
including
enhanced
structures, modified surfaces and coatings, new
sensor and manufacturing technologies.
Nanocomposites, composites in which there is
nanoscale separation between the reinforcement
and matrix, are one type of nanomaterial being
developed
by
the
aerospace
industry.
Nanocomposites are typically clay, polymer or
carbon, or a combination of these materials.
Clay-polymer nanocomposites are one of the
most promising nanocomposites as these have
improved
mechanical
properties
without
significant tradeoffs.
24

4
V ? r 3
3

Where r is the radius of the sphere.

For a macro-sized sphere with a radius of 1cm
(0.10m)
-3

SA = 1.3 x 10 m
-6
3
V = 4.2 x 10 m

So their ratio (SA/V) = 300

For a nano-sized sphere with a radius of 1
nanometer
-17

SA = 1.3 x 10 m
-27
3
V = 4.2 x 10 m

Courtesy of Rolls-Royce

So their ratio (SA/V) = 3 x 10 !

Aerospace manufacturers are also working to develop nanometallic systems, metallic

materials such as aluminium and nickel alloys with nano-sized grains or phases, which
could potentially be used in various airframe and engine applications.
There are many challenges to overcome with nanomaterials. These include the stability and
cost of the material and issues associated with scaling up processes for production
capability (cleanliness, quality, consistency, etc.) However, the level of effort being
expended in this area by the US, Japan and in Europe means that significant advances into
25
nanomaterials can be expected in the next decade.
Smart Materials
Smart materials are materials which have properties such as viscosity, volume, conductivity or
colour that can be dramatically altered by changing the conditions they are subject to. Examples of
external stimuli that cause smart materials to alter include changes in loading, temperature,
moisture, electric or magnetic fields. The property that can be altered will determine which
applications it can be used for. Some smart materials and structures can be described as sensual
devices as they can sense their environment and provide a signal in response. Other smart
materials go beyond this, they not only sense but adapt to their environment. One example is shape
memory alloys, alloys which change shape in response to external stimuli, usually temperature.
Potential aerospace applications for adaptive smart materials include changing the form of the
aircraft wing to minimise drag and fuel burn, and altering the shape of the engine exhaust nozzle for
optimal performance in all operating conditions (see text box for details).
In the future, it may even be possible to incorporate nanotechnology into smart materials. Potential
areas of development for such technology include self-monitoring and self-healing components.
Self-monitoring components could potentially be produced by coating parts with a paint containing
piezo-effective nanofillers, nanosized particles that provide an electric signal when deformed. As the
paint (or part) senses different loads it will produce different electric signals, providing accurate,
detailed data about its condition. Self-monitoring components could reduce maintenancerelated costs and help to increase the number of flying hours between aircraft checks. Similarly,
components made from composite materials containing nanocapsules that release resin and
hardener upon fracture, could heal themselves when damaged. Such exciting technologies, which
are not likely to be available for some time, are being studied collaboratively by universities and
industry.
ADVanced ACTuation (ADVACT)
ADVACT is a 6.6 million, five-year programme. The collaborative effort, which is led by Rolls-Royce and
involves sixteen organisations from six EU countries, is developing adaptive technologies in order to optimise
the performance of components over all flight conditions.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

ADVACT concentrates on five areas of activity: shape memory alloys, micro-electro mechanical systems,
active vibration control, electro-magnetic actuators, and high-temperature electromagnetic valves.
Engine exhaust nozzles made from shape memory alloys have been developed through ADVACT. With this
technology, the area of the nozzle can be varied for optimum exhaust flow characteristics in different flight
conditions, with reduced weight and mechanical complexity compared to current variable area nozzles.
Previous issues limiting the use of this material to small components have now been solved by a small change
in the alloy; the next challenge is bringing the prototype nozzle onto a production engine. The team will also
look to increase the temperature capability of the alloys so that they can be used within the engine core.
Another technology under development is smart electro-magnetic actuators for active turbine tip clearance
control. Tip clearance control is very important as the air that leaks over the turbine tip does not impart energy
to the turbine, hence resulting in a reduction in its efficiency and increased fuel burn and emissions. The idea is
that smart electro-magnetic actuators would be placed in the engine casing where they could move the seals in
and out, in response to the turbine blades expansion and contraction with temperature, thereby ensuring a
suitable level of tip clearance is maintained over the flight envelope.
High-temperature electromagnetic valves are another promising ADVACT technology. Throughout the flight
cycle, different amounts of fuel are needed in different areas of the engines combustor. These hightemperature electromagnetic valves can potentially be used to precisely control the amount of fuel distribution,
helping to increase fuel efficiency and minimise emissions.
By the time ADVACT draws to a close in around twelve months, six lab-scale experiments demonstrating
potential applications of its technologies will have been completed. The five most promising technologies will
be selected for further development, including work to improve control and self-optimisation, before the
challenge of manufacture.
25

Hicks, M.A and M.C Thomas (2003) Advances in Aeroengine Materials presented at Parsons Conference, Dublin, 2003. 10

Challenges going forward

The continuous improvement in environmental performance expected from the aviation
industry will only be possible if more innovative and exotic materials can be developed.
Manufacturing, testing and bringing this technology to market in an affordable and well-proven
state, is extremely challenging.
The UK has proven capability in materials, particularly high temperature materials, as well as
an excellence in manufacturing. It is essential that this capability is further enhanced whilst
developing expertise with other important materials like composites and nanomaterials. The
Technology Strategy Board has recently committed to investing around 25% of their budget in
six core technology areas. These include advanced materials, nanotechnology and high value
26
manufacturing. For this investment to be fruitful, material technology programmes must
exploit existing skills, be focused, forward looking and extremely innovative.
Although there is clearly a challenge to overcome, the commitment of government together
with the efforts underway by individual manufacturers and in collaborative programmes, which
are already producing exciting results, provides confidence that the industry can deliver the
advanced materials needed to reduce aviations environmental impact.

8. Advanced Aircraft Materials

Carrie Lambert
If you have any questions about this paper please email briefingpapers@sbac.co.uk