CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPOSITE
Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct
phase (matrix phase and reinforcing phase) and having bulk properties
significantly different from those of any of the constituents. Composite
materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites) are
materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a
material with characteristics different from the individual components. The
individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished
structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common
examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when
compared to traditional materials. Many common materials (metals, alloys,
doped ceramics and polymers mixed with additives) also have a small amount
of dispersed phase in their structures ,however they are not considered as
composite materials since their properties are similar to those of their base
constituents (physical property of steel are similar to those of pure iron).
Favorable properties of composites materials are high stiffness and high
strength, low density, high temperature stability, high electrical and thermal
conductivity, adjustable coefficient of thermal expansion, corrosion resistance,
improved wear resistance etc.
1.1.1

Need for Composites

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are

light as well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and

reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
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requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design

flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive. Some of the most important points are listed
below.
To increase the yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and
above while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness.
To increase the fatigue strength at high temperature.
To increase the creep resistance at high temperature.
To improve the thermal shock resistance.
To improve the corrosion resistance.
1.1.2

Composition of Composites
Composite mainly consists of two major phases.

Matrix phase
The primary phase, having a continuous character.
Usually more ductile and less hard phase.
Holds the reinforcing phase and shares a load with it.
Provides the bulk form of the part or product made of the
composite material.
Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually enclosing and often
concealing it.
When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load with the
secondary phase, in some cases deforming so that the stress is
essentially born by the reinforcing agent.

Reinforcing Phase

Second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a

discontinuousform.
Usually stronger than the matrix.
Function is to reinforce the primary phase
Imbedded phase is most commonly one of the following shapes:
1. Fibers
2. Particles
3. Flakes
In addition, the secondary phase can take the form of an infiltrated
phase in a skeletal or porous matrix.
1.1.3

Characteristics of Composites

Composites as engineering materials normally refer to the material with

the following characteristics:
These are artificially made (thus, excluding natural material such as
wood).
These consist of at least two different species with a well defined
interface.
Their properties are influenced by the volume percentage of
ingredients.
These have at least one property not possessed by the individual
constituents.

1.1.4

Factors Affecting Performance of Composite

1. Properties of matrix and reinforcement.

2. Size and distribution of constituents.
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3. Shape of constituents
4. Nature of interface between constituents.
1.1.5

Classification of Composites
Composite materials are classified
On the basis of matrix material.
On the basis of filler material.

A. On the Basis of Matrix

1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal Matrix composites are composed of a metallic matrix
(aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides,
carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.Metal matrix
composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity,
are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture
toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their
polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as
matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over
a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the
choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix
for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the
aforementioned reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically,
the choices for low temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are
responsive, with their low density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium
and magnesium are the popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are
particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix materials have to
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offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-toweight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
The melting point, phyNano SiCal and mechanical properties of
the composite at various temperatures determine the service temperature of
composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of
low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted
with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.
2. Ceramic Matrix composites (CMC)
Ceramic Matrix composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and
imbedded fibres of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).Ceramics can be
described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general
and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion
resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength,
render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a
structural material that doesnt give way at temperatures above 1500C.
Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature
applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most
ceramics possess, has combined to cause the failure of attempts to add
reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is because at the stress
levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the matrix
which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume
is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength
of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix.
Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been
successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be weaker.
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3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily,
possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore,
that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics.
Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular
structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely
changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions
suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained
in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering
Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for
advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging
applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed
or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens
to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

B. On the basis of Material

1. Particulate composites
Particulate composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed
phase in form of particles.
Composites with random orientation of particles.
Composites with preferred orientation of particles.
2. Fibrous Composites
I.

Short-fibre reinforced composites:

Short-fibre reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced

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by dispersed phase in form of discontinuous fibres.

II.

Long-fibre reinforced composites:

Long-fibre reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced
by a dispersed phase in form of continuous fibres.

1.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology applications are a reality today. American car
manufacturers have been using nanotubes to improve the safety of fuel-lines in
passenger vehicles for over a decade, and the electronics industry has been
relying on nanotubes in its packaging material to better protect goods and to aid
the removal of any electrical charges before they can build to disruptive levels.
Nanotechnology is one of the very frontiers of science today. As a matter of
fact, nanotechnology could affect us all, beyond nanoparticles, critical length
scales and nano tools: so, European citizens should be able to see how all this
science and technology could influence their lives ahead of the actual
developments. Beyond any spontaneous enthusiasm or mistrust any such highly
innovative scientific development may bring, the fact that nanotechnology is
becoming more and more deeply embedded in todays life should warrant a
meaningful, conscientious communication based on a continuous participation
and exchange between stakeholders and citizens. Japan, korea, Taiwan, and
European countries including Scotland and the Netherlands have also played
influential roles in the development of nanotechnology capabilities and the
technology continues to be of world-wide interest.
The potential for more broad based nanotechnology applications will
come from a better understanding of how particles operate on a nano scale and
how biological and non-biological particles can be integrated-research and
development continues in these fields and many others. There is still a way to
go before we fully understand the workings and potential applications of the
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assembly of atoms and how to make these processes scalable, profitable and
standardized.
1.2.1 Potential Benefits of nanotechnology
There are many examples of possible applications of nanotechnology
developments. These include new materials, new medical, pharmaceutical,
agricultural and environmental processes and devices; new electronic devices,
new sensors, and new computing paradigms. The ability to exploit the atomic
and molecular properties of materials allows the development of a variety of
new functions for current products. The nanometre scale is conventionally
defined as 1 to 100 nm. One nanometre is one billionth of a metre (10-9 m). The
size range is normally set to a minimum of 1 nm to avoid single atoms or
verysmall groups of atoms being designated as nano-objects. Therefore,
nanoscience and nanotechnologies deal with clusters of atoms of 1 nm in at
least one dimension.
It is not unfeasible to develop paints that repair themselves when chipped,
or for computers the size of blood cells with tiny wireless transmitters to report
on the health of a patient without requiring surgery, or for nano-scale cleaning
particles to identify and fight contaminants in our waterways not unfeasible but
also not in the near term. But it is exactly this far-reaching potential of
nanotechnology that is now making it one of the most important areas of
science and one of the most important areas of science and one of the most
commercially exciting.
1.3 NANO PARTICLES
Nano particles possess unique hybrid properties of neither the molecular
nor the bulk solid-state limits. Nano particles processing offers a practical way
to tailor the properties at the atomic or molecular level, producing novel
materials with a unique size dependent behaviour such as quantum size effect
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and greater micro-structural uniformity. Metal nanoparticles are a clear example

of how the properties of matter can change at the nanometer scale. For instance,
metal gold is notably yellow in colour and used for jewellery. As the noblest of
all metals, gold is very stable (e.g. it does not react with oxygen or sulphur).
However, if gold is shrunk to a nanoparticle, it changes colour, becoming red if
it is spherical and even colourless fit is shaped in a ring. Moreover, gold
nanoparticles become very reactive and can be used as new catalysts. The
advancement of technology at different levels as improved the manufacturing of
materials with improved and definite characteristics. Hence the traditional
materials are high competition with advanced materials. Ceramics, composites
and polymeric materials claim to provide lighter weight, greater strength and
overall better electrical, thermal and optical properties than the conventional
materials. The recent technology focuses mainly on the size of the particles in
the order of nano meters. Nano particles may be defined as those particles
having dimensions in the range 1 to 100nm.
It is realized that the nano particles have high surface to volume ratio, the
baNano SiC factor that has improved the material performance in general. The
volume of an object decreases as the third power of its linear dimensions, but
the surface area only decreases as its second power. Materials scientist are
challenged to identify build, control and test the structures whose dimensions
are in nano meter scale and to demonstrate the potentials of these nanostructures
in scientific, industrial applications while keeping in mind their potential impact
on society. In general the nano particles are larger than individual atoms and
molecules but are smaller than bulk solid. Hence they obey neither absolute
quantum chemistry nor loss of classicals, physicals and have properties that
differ markedly from those expected.
Nano particles offer a practical way of retaining the results of the
property at the atomic or molecular level, producing novel materials with
unique size-dependent behaviour including quantum confinement effects, super
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magnet and good micro structural uniformity. The unique phenomenon that
occurs in nano particles allows their properties (electrical, optical, chemical,
mechanical, magnetic etc.) to be tailored selectively by varying the size,
morphology and composition of particles. These new substance will have
enhanced or entirely different properties from their parent materials.
Nano clusters have at least one dimension between 1 to 10 nano meters
and a narrow sized distribution. Nano powders are agglomerates of ultrafine
particles, nano particles or nano clusters. Nano meter sized single crystals or
single-domain ultrafine particles are often referred to as nanocrystals. Nano
particle research is currently an area of intense scientific research, due to a wide
variety of potential applications in biomedical, optical and electronic field.
1.4 PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
The general phyNano SiCal and chemical properties of nano size
particles are
1 High Density
2 Low thermal conductivity
3 Chemical inertness
4 Resistance to molten metals
5 Ionic electrical conduction
6 Wear resistance
7 High fracture toughness
1.5SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES
There are two ways of synthesizing the nano particles.
i. Physical methods
ii. Chemical methods

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1.5.1Physical Methods
i. Evaporation and condensation method
ii. Plasma heating method
iii. Co2 laser method
iv. Mechanical alloy method
v. Pulsed wire evaporation method

1.5.2 Chemical Methods

i. Chemical vapour deposition method
ii. Liquid phase reduction method
iii. Hydro-thermal synthesis
iv. Sol-gel method

1.6

Classification of Composite Materials by Matrix Material

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - mixtures of ceramics and metals,

such as cemented carbides and other cermets.

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 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) - Al2O3 and Nano SiC imbedded

with fibers to improve properties, especially in high temperature
applications .The least common composite matrix.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - thermosetting resins are widely
used in PMCs .xamples: epoxy and polyester with fiber reinforcement,
and phenolic with powders.

1.7

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCs)

Metal matrix Nano composites are composed of a metallic matrix (Al,

Mg, Fe, Cu etc) and a dispersed ceramic (oxide, carbides) or metallic phase(Pb,
Mo, W etc). Ceramic reinforcement may be Nano Silicon Carbide, boron,
alumina, silicon nitride, boron carbide, boron nitride etc. whereas Metallic
reinforcement may be tungsten, beryllium etc. MMNCs are used for Space
Shuttle, commercial airlines, electronic substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf
clubs and a variety of other applications. From a material point of view, when
compared to polymer matrix composites, the advantages of MMNCs lie in their
retention of strength and stiffness at elevated temperature, good abrasion and
creep resistance properties.
Most MMNCs are still in the development stage or the early stages of
production and are not so widely established as polymer matrix composites. The
biggest disadvantages of MMNCs are their high costs of fabrication, which has
placed limitations on their actual applications. There are also advantages in
some of the phyNano SiCal attributes of MMNCs such as no significant
moisture absorption properties, non-in flammability, low electrical and thermal
conductivities and resistance to most radiations. MMNCs have existed for the
past 30 years and a wide range of MMNCs have been studied.
1.7.1

Properties of MMNCs

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Compared to monolithic metals, MMNChave:

High strength
High modulus
High toughness and impact properties
Low sensitivity to changes in temperature or thermal shock
High surface durability and low sensitivity to surface flaws
High electrical conductivity
Excellent reproducibility of properties

1.7.2 Most widely used Metal Matrix Nano Composites

Numerous combinations of matrices and reinforcements have been tried
since work on MMNC began in the lathe 1950s. However, MMNC technology
is still in the early stages of development and other important systems
undoubtedly will emerge. Numerous metals have been used as matrices. The
most important have been aluminium, titanium, magnesium and copper alloys.
The most important MMNC systems are
Aluminium matrix
i. Continuous fibres: Boron, Nano Silicon Carbide, alumina, graphite
ii. Discontinuous fibres: Alumina, alumina-silica
iii. Whiskers: Nano Silicon Carbide
iv. Particulates: Nano Silicon Carbide, boron carbide
Magnesium matrix
i. Continuous fibres: graphite, alumina
ii. Whiskers: Nano Silicon Carbide
iii. Particulates: Nano Silicon Carbide, boron carbide
Titanium matrix
i. Continuous fibres: Nano Silicon Carbide, coated boron
ii. Particulates: titanium carbide
Copper matrix
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i. Continuous fibres: graphite, Nano Silicon Carbide

ii. Wires: niobium-titanium, niobium-tin
iii. Particulates: Nano Silicon Carbide, boron carbide, titanium
carbide.
1.8FABRICATION METHODS
Many methods are available to fabricate the composites, depending on
the final part geometry and geometry requirements. Aluminium MMCs are
mostly produced by casting, powder metallurgy, in situ development of
reinforcements, and foil-and-fibre pressing techniques. As the squeeze casting
method is cheaper one and it is becoming the more commonly used method of
fabrication of defect free products. In this method, the reinforcement particles
and the matrix are heated to the required temperature. Then they are stirred and
placed in the squeeze cast die, where they are pressurized during a controlled
solidification process. Selectively reinforced MMCs made with process exhibit
high tensile and fatigue strength based on a fine grain microstructure and
limited micro porosity. Fabrication methods are an important part of the design
process for all structural materials, including MMCs. Considerable work is
under way in this critical area. Significant improvements in existing processes
and development of new ones appear likely. Current methods can be divided
into two major categories, primary and secondary. These methods can be
divided into 4 broad senses:
Powder processes
Deposition processes
Liquid processes
Solid state processes
Problems vary with the particular matrix-fiber combination being
considered but at least these three must always be kept in mind:
Reaction between fibers and matrix at elevated temperatures, either
as the composite is being prepared or under service conditions
Obtaining sufficient bonding between the matrix and the fibers
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 Alignment of fibers within the matrix

Powder Metallurgy: The powder metallurgy technique usually employs
whiskers or cut fibers of the reinforcing materials. These are nixed with the
matrix powder and then pressed to consolidate the matrix. This may or may not
be followed by sintering to improve matrix density. A major problem when
using powder metallurgy is the elimination of porosity. There is also difficulty
in obtaining alignment of the reinforcing material.
Pneumatic Impaction: Pneumatic impaction can be considered as a variation
of powder metallurgy since a powdered matrix is employed. The mixture of
powder and reinforcing fiber is prepared and high unit pressure is applied by
means of an impacter or a Dynapak machine.
Plasma Spray Deposition of Matrix: This is a combination of a powder
process and liquid process and also involves hot pressing. A layer of fibers is
laid up on a rotating mandrel, the metal is deposited on the fibers by plasma
spraying, a second layer of fibers is put on, and the operations are repeated until
the desired thickness and the number of layers is attained.
Vapor Deposition: Vapor deposition is a process where the reinforcement,
particularly whiskers are coated by the matrix material from the deposition of its
compounds. Extrusion process is finally employed for orienting the whiskers
parallel to the extrusion axis.
Electroforming: This process is especially used to prepare composites of boron
in aluminum matrix. A continuous boron filament is on a mandrel is immersed
in a solution. Aluminum is continuously plated from this bath as the filament is
wound.

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Vacuum Infiltration of Fibers by Molten Metal: This is a method for

preparations of small specimens of composites containing metallic or ceramic
fibers in aluminum, magnesium, silver, copper and alloy matrices whose
melting points are quite low. The composites were formed under vacuum by
casting the matrix around the coated filaments.
Fusion casting: There are two approaches of making a composite, which can be
considered as a casting. In first method, a continuous reinforcing filament is fed
through a pot of molten metal.
The other way is the introduction of molten metal into, around and through mats
or bundles of fibers or whiskers.
Unidirectional Solidification of Eutectic Alloy: Another method of composite
formation is growth from a melt at certain temperatures and for some time
ranges.
Co-extrusion: Co-extrusion is a method that has been employed for the
incorporation of continuous wires or filaments to matrix. Since the matrix is
worked by extrusion, it will contribute appreciable strength to the composite.
Rolling: Hot or cold rolling can be employed to consolidate coated continuous
fibers or to introduce continuous fibers or wires in matrix metal strips.
Diffusion Bonding: In this method, alternate layers of matrix foil and properly
spaced and oriented reinforcing fibers are laid down until the necessary amount
of material for the desired final thickness is assembled. Then, by a combination
of heat, pressure and time in a vacuum, the matrix is caused to flow around the
fibers and bond to the next layer of matrix and at the same time grip the
reinforcing fiber very tightly.
1.9 WEAR
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In Material science, wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface

by the action of another surface. It is related to surface interactions and more
specifically the removal of material from a surface as a result of mechanical
action. The need for mechanical action, in the form of contact due to relative
motion, is an important distinction between mechanical wear and other
processes with similar outcomes.
1.9.1 Wear Characteristics
The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic
deformation although wear has occurred despite no material removal. This
definition also fails to include impact wear, where there is no sliding motion,
cavitation where the counter body is a fluid, and corrosion where the damage is
due to chemical rather than mechanical action. Wear can also be defined as a
process in which interaction of the surfaces or bounding faces of a solid with its
working environment results in dimensional loss of the solid, with or without
loss of material. Aspects of the working environment which affect wear include
loads (such as unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling, and impact loads),
speed, temperature, type of counter body (solid, liquid and gas), and type of
contact(single phase or multiphase, in which the phases involved can be liquid
plus solid particles plus gas bubbles).
1.9.2 Classification of Wear
The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology.
The complex nature of wear has delayed its investigations and resulted in
isolated studies towards specific wear mechanisms or processes. Some
commonly referred to wear mechanisms (or processes) include:
Adhesive wear
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 Abrasive wear
Surface fatigue
Fretting wear
1.9.3 Erosive Wear
A number of different wear phenomena are also commonly encountered
and represented in literature. Impact wear, cavitation wear, diffusive wear and
corrosive wear are all such examples. These wear mechanisms; however, do not
necessarily act independently in many applications. Wear mechanisms are not
mutually exclusive. "Industrial Wear" is the term used to describe the incidence
of multiple wear mechanisms occurring in unison. Wear mechanisms and/or
sub-mechanisms frequently overlap and occur in a synergistic manner,
producing a greater rate of wear than the sum of the individual wear
mechanisms.

1.9.4 Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear occurs when two smooth bodies are slide over each other,
or pressed into one another and fragments are pulled off one surface and adhere
to the other, due to the strong adhesive forces between atoms. It is the most
common form of wear and is commonly encountered in conjunction with
lubricant failures. It is commonly referred to as welding wear due to the
exhibited surface characteristics. The tendency of contacting surfaces to adhere
arises from the attractive forces that exist between the surface atoms of the two
materials. The type and mechanism of attraction varies between different
materials. Most solids will adhere on contact to some extent, however, oxidation
films and contaminants naturally occurring, generally suppress adhesion.
Surfaces also generally have low energy states due to reacted and absorbed
species. The mechanism of adhesive wear occurs due to contact possibly
producing surface plastic flow, scraping off soft surface films or breaking up
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and removing oxide layers. This brings clean regions into contact and
introduces the possibility of strong adhesion. The removal of material, or wear,
takes the form of small particles. These small particles are usually transferred to
the other surface but may come off in loose form.
1.9.5 Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear occurs when a hard rough surface slides across a softer
surface. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) define it as the
loss of material due to hard particles or hard protuberances that are forced
against and move along a solid surface. Abrasive wear is commonly classified
according to the type of contact and the contact environment. The type of
contact determines the mode of abrasive wear. The two modes of abrasive wear
are known as two-body and three-body abrasive wear. Two-body wear occurs
when the grits, or hard particles, are rigidly mounted or adhere to a surface,
when they remove the material from the surface. The common analogy is that of
material being removed with sand paper. Three-body wear occurs when the
particles are not constrained, and are free to roll and slide down a surface. The
contact environment determines whether the wear is classified as open or
closed. An open contact environment occurs when the surfaces are sufficiently
displaced to be independent of one another.

1.9.6 Surface Fatigue

Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a material is
weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of general material fatigue.
1.9.7 Fretting Wear
Fretting wear is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces,
which is known as fretting, over a period of time which will remove material
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from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically in bearings, although

most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another
problem occurs when cracks in either surface are created, known as fretting
fatigue. It is the more serious of the two phenomena because it can lead to
catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the
small particles removed by wear are oxidized in air. The oxides are usually
harder than the underlying metal, so wear accelerates as the harder particles
abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting corrosion acts in the same way,
especially when water is present. Unprotected bearings on large structures like
bridges can suffer serious degradation in behaviour, especially when salt is used
during winter to deice the highways carried by the bridges. The problem of
fretting corrosion was involved in the silver bridge tragedy and the Mianus
River bridge accident.
1.10 HARDNESS
The Metals Handbook defines hardness as "Resistance of metal to plastic
deformation, usually by indentation. However, the term may also refer to
stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the
property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist being permanently,
deformed (bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a load is applied. The
greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to
deformation. The followings are the most common hardness test methods used
in today`s technology:

Rockwell hardness test

Brinell hardness
Vickers
Knoop hardness

Micro hardness Test

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 Moh's Hardness Test

Scleroscope and other hardness test methods
1.10.1 Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net
increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no
units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the
number in each of the scales means the harder the material.
Hardness has been variously defined as resistance to local penetration,
scratching, machining, wear or abrasion, and yielding. The multiplicity of
definitions, and corresponding multiplicity of hardness measuring instruments,
together with the lack of a fundamental definition, indicates that hardness may
not be a fundamental property of a material, but rather a composite one
including yield strength, work hardening, true tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity, and others. In the Rockwell method of hardness testing, the depth of
penetration of an indenter under certain arbitrary test conditions is determined.
1.10.2 Brinell Hardness Test
Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of
a specified diameter under a specified load into the surface of a material and
measuring the diameter of the indentation left after the test. The Brinell
hardness number, or simply the Brinell number, is obtained by dividing the load
used, in kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in square
millimeters. The result is a pressure measurement, but the units are rarely stated.
1.10.3 Vickers Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material
with a diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and
an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100
21

kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals
of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are
measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the
sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the
quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.

F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness
2 F sin
HV =

136
2

d2

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers
hardness may be calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use
conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10,
which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force.
Several different loading settings give practically identical hardness numbers on
uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with
the other hardness testing methods.
The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate
22

readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of
metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise
for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the Vickers
machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or
Rockwell machines.
There is now a trend towards reporting Vickers hardness in SI units (MPa
or GPa) particularly in academic papers. Unfortunately, this can cause
confusion. Vickers hardness (e.g. HV/30) value should normally be expressed as
a number only (without the unitskgf/mm2). Rigorous application of SI is a
problem. Most Vickers hardness testing machines use forces of 1, 2, 5, 10, 30,
50 and 100 kgf and tables for calculating HV. SI would involve reporting force
in newtons (compare 700 HV/30 to HV/294 N = 6.87 GPa) which is practically
meaningless and messy to engineers and technicians. To convert Vickers
hardness number the force applied needs converting from kgf to newtons and
the area needs converting from mm 2 to m2 to give results in pascals using the
formula above.
To convert HV to MPa multiply by 9.807
To convert HV to GPa multiply by 0.009807
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Composite materials open up unlimited possibilities for modern material
science and development. The characteristics of MMCs can be designed into the
material, custom-made based on the application. The possibility of combining
various material systems (Metal+ ceramic+ non metal) gives the opportunity for
23

unlimited variation. However, the advantages of the composite materials are

only realized when there is a reasonable cost vs performance relationship in the
component production. The properties of these new materials are basically
determined by the properties of their single component. For better
understanding detailed survey on the relevant literature has been carried out and
is presented in this chapter.
Alaneme et.al.,(2013) discussed the viability of developing low cost high
performance Al matrix hybrid composites with the use of bamboo leaf ash (an
agro waste ash) and Silicon Carbide as complementing reinforcements was
investigated. Silicon Carbide(SiC) particulates added with 0, 2, 3, and 4 wt%
bamboo leaf ash (BLA) were utilized to prepare 10 wt% of the reinforcing
phase with Al Mg Si alloy as matrix using two step stir casting method. [1]
Subrata Kumar Ghosh & Partha Saha (2011) discovered that crack density and
wear performance of SiC particulate (SiCp) reinforced Al-based metal matrix
composite (Al-MMC) fabricated by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) process
have been studied. Mainly, size and volume fraction of SiCp have been varied
to analyze the crack and wear behavior of the composite. The study has
suggested that crack density increases significantly after 15 volume percentage
(vol.%) of SiCp. The paper has also suggested that when size (mesh) of
reinforcement increases, wear resistance of the composite drops. Three hundred
mesh of SiCp offers better wear resistance; above 300 mesh the specific wear
rate increases significantly. Similarly, there has been no improvement of wear
resistance after 20 vol.% of reinforcement. [2]
In the paper presented by Deepak Singlhla the effects of load and sliding speed
on the friction coefficient and wear properties of pin of Al 7075-Fly Ash
composite material on Pin on Disc apparatus were investigated. Composites are
24

most successful materials used for recent works in the industry. Metal
composites possess significantly improved properties including hardness and
wear resistance compared to alloys or any other metal. Hence composites with
fly ash with Al 7075 as reinforcement are optimizes the different physiCal and
mechanical properties which widely used in the automotive and space craft
applications. [3]
Deuis R.L et al.,(1996) investigated Aluminium-silicon alloys and aluminium
based metal matrix composites have found application in the manufacture of
various automotive engine components such as cylinder blocks, pistons and
piston insert rings where adhesive wear (or dry sliding wear) is a predominant
process. For adhesive wear, the influence of applied load, sliding speed, wearing
surface hardness, reinforcement fracture toughness and morphology are critical
parameters in relation to the wear regime encountered by the material. In this
review contemporary wear theories, issues related to counter face wear, and
wear mechanisms are discussed. [4]

Rajesh Purohit used a horizontal ball mill for the milling of aluminum and Nano
SiC particles. The change in powder particle morphology during mechanical
alloying of Aluminum and SiC powders using horizontal ball mill was studied.
Al SiCp composites with 5 to 30 weight% of SiCp were fabricated using powder
metallurgy process. The various properties viz. hardness, density, porosity,
compressive strength, indirect tensile strength and surface roughness were
measured. The density, porosity, hardness, compressive strength and indirect
tensile strength of Al-SiCp composites were found to increase with increase in
the wt.% of SiCp from 5 to 30 weight percent. Mechanical alloying of powders
resulted in improvement in hardness and compressive strength of Al-Nano SiCp
25

composites with 5 to 30 weight% of Nano SiCp. The microstructure of polished

and etched surfaces of powder metal Al-Nano SiCp composite samples was
studied using scanning electron microscope. [5]

In the present study made by Gaurav Chigal modest attempt has been made to
develop aluminium based Silicon Carbide particulate MMCs with an objective to
develop a conventional low cost method of producing MMCs and to obtain
homogenous dispersion of ceramic material. To achieve these objectives two
step-mixing method of stir casting technique has been adopted and subsequent
property analysis has been made. Aluminium6061 (97.06% C.P) and SiC (320grit) has been chosen as matrix and reinforcement material respectively.
Experiments have been conducted by varying weight fraction of Nano SiC
(2.5%, 5%, and 10%) while keeping all other parameters constant. The results
indicated that the developed method is quite successful to obtain uniform
dispersion of reinforcement in the matrix. An increasing trend of Tensile Test
with increase in weight percentage of SiC has been observed. The results were
further justified by comparing with other investigators. [6]

The mechanical and wear properties of hybrid aluminium metal matrix

composites were investigated by T.Raj Mohan. Mica and SiC ceramic particles
were incorporated into Al 356 alloy by stir-casting route. Microstructures of the
samples were studied using scanning electron microscope (SEM). The chemical
composition was investigated through energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) detector.
The results indicate that the better strength and hardness are achieved with
Al/10Nano SiC3mica composites. The increase in mass fraction of mica
improves the wear loss of the composites. [7]

26

Prashant Kumar investigated about producing aluminium based metal matrix

composite and then studying its microstructure and mechanical properties such
as tensile strength, impact strength and mar behavior of produced test specimen.
In the present study a modest attempt has been made to develop aluminium
based WCs with reinforcing material, with an objective to develop a
conventional low cast method of producing WCs and to obtain homogeneous
dispersion of reinforced material. To achieve this objective stir casting technique
has been adopted Aluminium Alloy (LM6) and ,S C, Fly Ash has been chosen as
matrix and reinforcing material respectively. Experiment has been conducted by
varying 'might fraction of Fly Ash (S% and 15%) while keeping SiC
constant(5%). The result shown that the increase in addition of Fly Ash increases
the Tensile Strength Impact Strength Wear Resistance of the specimen and
decreases the percentage of Elongation. [8]

Dunia Abdul Saheb aimed to achieve a uniform distribution of reinforcement

within the matrix is one such challenge, which affects directly on the properties
and quality of composite. In his study an attempt has been made to develop
aluminium based Silicon Carbide particulate MMCs, graphite particulate MMCs
with an objective to develop a conventional low cost method of producing
MMCs and to obtain homogenous dispersion of ceramic material. Experiments
have been conducted by varying weight fraction of SiC, graphite and alumina
(5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%), while graphite weight fraction 2%, 4%,
6%, 8% and 10% keep all other parameters constant. The results indicated that
the developed method is quite successful to obtain uniform dispersion of
reinforcement in the matrix. An increasing of hardness and with increase in
weight percentage of ceramic materials has been observed. The best results
27

(maximum hardness) have been obtained at 25 % weight fraction of SiC and at

4% weight fraction of graphite. [9]

In the present research by Mohammad Asaduzzaman, friction coefficients of

stainless steel 304 (SS 304) sliding against different pin materials were
investigated and compared. In order to do so, a pin on disc apparatus is designed
and fabricated. Experiments are carried out when different types of pin such as
aluminum, gun metal, copper and brass slide on SS 304 disc. Experiments are
conducted at normal load 10, 15 and 20 N, sliding velocity 1, 1.5 and 2 m/s and
relative humidity 70%. Variations of friction coefficient with the duration of
rubbing at different normal load and sliding velocity are investigated. Results
show that friction coefficient varies with duration of rubbing, normal load and
sliding velocity. In general, friction coefficient increases for a certain duration
of rubbing and after that it remains constant for the rest of the experimental
time. The obtained results reveal that friction coefficient decreases with the
increase in normal load for all the tested pairs. On the other hand, it is also
found that friction coefficient increases with the increase in sliding velocity.
Moreover, wear rate increases with the increase in normal load and sliding
velocity for all sliding pairs. The magnitudes of friction coefficient are different
for different material pairs depending on normal load and sliding velocity. [10]

Balasivanandha Prabu et al., investigated that better stir process and stir
time. The high silicon content aluminium alloy Silicon Carbide MMC
material, with 10% SiC by using a variance stirring speeds and stirring
times. The microstructure of the produced composite was examined by
optical microscope and scanning electron microscope. The results with
respected to that stirring speed and stirring time influenced the
28

microstructure and the hardness of composite. Also they investigate that at

lower stirring speed with lower stirring time, the particle group was more.
Increase in stirring time and speed resulted in better distribution of particles.
The mechanical test results also revealed that stirring speed and stirring time
have their effect on the hardness of the composite. The uniform hardness
valued was achieved at 600 rpm with 10min stirring. But above this stir
speed the properties degraded again. [11]

Mahendra Boopathi.M et al[2]., experimented to Development of hybrid

metal matrix composites has become an important area of research interest
in materials science. In view of this, the present study was aimed at
evaluating the physical properties of aluminium 2024 in the presence of fly
ash, Silicon Carbide and its combinations. Consequently aluminium MMC
combination the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the
matrix to achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any
single conventional material. Stir casting method was used for the
fabrication of aluminium MMC. Structural characterization was carried out
on MMC by x-ray diffraction studies and optical microscopy was used for
the micro structural studies. The mechanical of MMC like density,
elongation, hardness, yield strength and tensile test were ascertained by
performing carefully designed laboratory experiments that replicate as
nearly as possible the service conditions. In the presence of fly ash and
Silicon Carbide [SiC (5%) + fly ash (10%) and fly ash (10%) + SiC (10%)]
with aluminium, the result show that the decreasing the density with
increasing harness and tensile strength was also observed but elongation of
the hybrid MMC in comparison with unreinforced aluminium was
decreased. The hybrid metal matrix composites significantly differed in all
of the properties measured. Aluminium in the presence of SiC (10%)-fly ash
29

(10%) was the hardest instead of aluminium SiC and aluminium fly ash
composites. [12]

Martin I. Pech-Canul et al[3].,with all the valuable research work conducted

thus far in the field, there can be no denying that aluminum plays a pivotal role
in the development of composite materials reinforced with SiC. It turns out that
alloy composition influences the processing route to be employed as well as the
mechanical, heat-treatment and corrosion behavior of the composites. The use
of aluminum in liquid state has serious implications because attack of SiC and
the subsequent phenomena do compromise the integrity of the composite. In
this regard, since the aluminum-matrix/reinforcement interface plays a critical
role in transferring the load from the matrix to the reinforcing phase, the
soundness of the interface is always a crucial aspect to take care of. What's
more, wettability studies aimed at optimizing processing conditions are always
wise. From heat treatment investigations, there is a consensus in that SiC in
aluminum leads to an accelerated age hardening, compared to the unreinforced
alloy. Being pitting one of the major concerns in the corrosion behavior of Al/
SiC composites, the confluence of results suggest that in the composites, pitting
is greater in number, smaller in size and shallower in penetration depth, relative
to the unreinforced aluminum alloys. Since pits initiate at secondary particles
within the metal matrix, and as a greater number of intermetallic phases form in
the composites, these have more pit initiation sites. It is suggested from this
discussion that corrosion tests should precede mechanical evaluation involving
hardness, creep and fatigue and fracture studies. A thoughtful consideration of
the abovementioned factors and response variables involved increases the
likelihood for Al/SiC composites to achieve their full potential in a safe and
cost-effective way. [13]

30

Ali MAZAHERY, et. Al[4], studied that the effect of SiC particles
reinforcement with average size of 1, 5, 20 and 50 m and volume fraction of
5%, 10% and 15% on the microstructure and tribological properties of Al-based
composite was investigated. Composites were produced by applying
compocasting process. Tribological properties of the unreinforced alloy and
composites were studied using pin-on-disc wear tester, under dry sliding
conditions at different specific loads. The influence of secondary mechanical
processing with different rolling reductions on the dry sliding wear
characteristics of Al matrix composites was also assessed. The proper selection
of process parameter such as pouring temperature, stirring speed, stirring time,
pre-heated temperature of reinforcement can all influence the quality of the
fabricated composites. The porosity level of composite should be minimized
and the chemical reaction between the reinforcement and matrix should be
avoided. [14]
2.2 IDENTIFIED GAPS IN LITERATURE
From the literature survey carried out it can be summarized up as
following
Efforts should be made on the development of Aluminium metal
matrix with Nano SiC as the reinforcement material.
Work should be done to find the most suitable method for
fabricating metal matrix composites.
There is a need to improve wear resistance and hardness in
aluminium alloy (Al6061) by varying the weight fraction of
reinforcement.
31

2.3 OBJECTIVES
Accordingly the objectives of the present study are
To develop a Metal matrix composite with high quality Nano
Silicon Carbide (50 A.P.S) and study the wear characteristics
and hardness.
To develop a Metal matrix composite with various volume
fractions (0.5%, 1%, 1.5%) of Nano Silicon Carbide as
reinforcements.
To analyze and compare the MMC prepared with various
volume fractions for the wear characteristics and hardness.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 STEPS INVOLVED

32

3.2 MATERIAL SELECTION

Aluminium (Al6061) is selected as the matrix material.
Aluminium alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively used
of the 6000 series Aluminium alloys.
33

3.2.1 Chemical Composition of Al6061:

Elements

Symbol

Unit

Specified
Values

Observed Values

Silicon

Si

0.40 - 0.80

0.643

Iron

Fe

0.70 Max

0.129

Copper

Cu

0.15 - 0.40

0.254

Manganese

Mn

0.15 Max

0.044

Magnesium

Mg

0.8 - 1.20

0.944

Chromium

Cr

0.04 0.35

0.093

Zinc

Zn

0.25 Max

0.017

Titanium

Ti

0.15 ax

0.017

Aluminium

Al

Remainder

Remainder(97.80)

Table 3.1 Chemical Composition of Al6061

3.2.2 Characteristics of Al6061

The heat treated alloy has fairly good machining properties.
The alloy has fairly good resistance to corrosion under
atmospheric conditions.
A protective film, usually greyish in colour, may be obtained
by either the sulphuric or chromic acid process.
34

 Al6061 has good weldability.

Full heat treatment gives high strength and hardness
3.2.3 Applications of Al6061
Alloy 6061 is typically used for heavy duty structures in:

Rail coaches
Truck frames
Ship building
Bridges and Military bridges
Aerospace applications including helicopter rotor skins
Tube
Pylons and Towers
Transport
Boiler making
Motorboats
Rivets

3.2.4 Physical Properties of Al6061

Density
Melting Point
Thermal Expansion
Modulus of Elasticity
Thermal Conductivity
Electrical Resistivity

2.70 g/cm
650 C
23.4 x10^-6 /K
70 GPa
166 W/m.K
0.040 x10^-6 .m

3.2.5 Mechanical properties of Al6061

The mechanical properties of the matrix material are given in the
Table 3.2. This alloy conforms to BS 1490:1998 Al6061. Castings are
standardized in the solution treated and naturally aged condition and in the
fully heat treated condition.

35

Tempe
r

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength (MPa)

0.2% Proof
Stress (MPa)

Brinell
Hardness
(500kg load,
10mm ball)

110-152

65-110

30-33

T1

180

95-96

T4

179 min

110 min

T6

260-310

240-276

Elongation
50mm dia
(%)

14-16

16

95-97

9-13

Table 3.2 Mechanical properties of Al6061

3.2.5 Casting Characteristics of Al6061

Fluidity - an intermediate between Aluminium-nano Silicon and
Aluminium- Copper alloys.
Pressure tightness - suitable for leak tight castings
Typical pouring temperature - 993K the actual temperaturesemployed
36

may range considerably above or below this value and will depend upon
the particular for each casting.
3.2.6 Nano Silicon Carbide
The Nano Silicon Carbide particulate (Nano SiC) is used as a
reinforcement material which size range is 50nm Nano Silicon Carbide is light
weight and greenish black in colour.
The chemical formula for Nano Silicon Carbide is Nano SiC It is having
high degree of brightness, low plasticity, ease of dispersion.
It is having low bulk density and very low moisture content. It improves
electrical as well as mechanical properties.
Nano Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and
silicon. It was originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical
reaction of sand and carbon. Nano Silicon Carbide is an excellent abrasive and
has been produced and made into grinding wheels and other abrasive products
for over one hundred years.
Today the material has been developed into a high quality technical grade
ceramic with very good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives,
refractories, ceramics, and numerous high-performance applications. The
material can also be made an electrical conductor and has applications in
resistance heating, flame igniters and electronic components. Structural and
wear applications are constantly developing.
3.2.7 Properties of Nano Silicon Carbide
o Low density
o High strength
o Low thermal expansion
37

o
o
o
o

High thermal conductivity

High hardness
High elastic modulus
Excellent thermal shock resistance

3.2.8 Uses of Nano Silicon Carbide

o
o
o
o
o
o

Fixed and moving turbine components

Suction box covers Seals, bearings
Ball valve parts
Hot gas flow liners
Heat exchangers
Semiconductor process equipment

3.2.9 General Nano Silicon Carbide Information

Nano Silicon Carbide is composed of tetrahedra of carbon and
silicon atoms with strong bonds in the crystal lattice. This produces a very hard
and strong material. Nano Silicon Carbide is not attacked by any acids or alkalis
or molten salts up to 800C. In air, Nano SiC forms a protective silicon oxide
coating at 1200C and is able to be used up to 1600C. The high thermal
conductivity coupled with low thermal expansion and high strength give this
material exceptional thermal shock resistant qualities. Nano Silicon Carbide
ceramics with little or no grain boundary impurities maintain their strength to
very high temperatures, approaching 1600C with no strength loss.

38

Fig 3.1 Silicon Carbide nanopowder

Chemical purity, resistance to chemical attack at temperature, and
strength retention at high temperatures has made this material very popular as
wafer tray supports and paddles in semiconductor furnaces. The electrical
conduction of the material has lead to its use in resistance heating elements for
electric furnaces, and as a key component in thermistors (temperature variable
resistors) and in varistors (voltage variable resistors).
SI/Metric
Mechanical
Density
Porosity
Color

SI/Metric

(Imperial)

3.1

(193.5)

(0)

black

MPa (lb/in2x103)

550

(80)

GPa (lb/in2x106)

410

(59.5)

(Imperial)
gm/cc (lb/ft3)
% (%)

Flexural
Strength
Elastic
Modulus

39

Shear
Modulus
Bulk Modulus
Poissons
Ratio
Compressive

GPa (lb/in2x106)

0.14

(0.14)

MPa (lb/in2x103)

3900

(566)

GPa (lb/in2x106)

Strength

Table 3.3 Nano Silicon Carbide Engineering Properties

SI/Metric (Imperial)

Thermal

SI/Metric

(Imperial)

W/mK (BTUin/ft2hrF)

120

(830)

106/C (106/F)

4.0

(2.2)

750

(0.18)

ac-kv/mm (volts/mil)

semiconductor

ohmcm

102106

Thermal
Conductivity
Coefficient of
Thermal
Expansion
Specific Heat

J/KgK (Btu/lbF)

Dielectric
Strength
Volume
Resistivity

dopant
dependent

Table 3.4 Nano Silicon Carbide Thermal Properties

3.3 SELECTION OF FABRICATION TECHNIQUE

A variety of processes have been developed and being used for the
40

manufacture of MMNCs. These may be divided into primary material

production and secondary consolidation for forming operations. A further
important distinction can be drawn for the primary process depending on
whether the matrix becomes liquid at any stage. Each technique has its own
limitations in terms of component size and shape and impose certain micro
structural features on the product.

3.3.1 Fabrication of Composite

Various methods are used to form composite, depending on the final part
geometry and property requirements. For aluminium MMCs, particulate
reinforced parts can be formed by the both wrought and casting process, and the
entire part is reinforced. For fiber or whisker reinforced parts, pressure or
vacuum/pressure casting processes are used. Lower cost squeeze casting is
becoming a more commonly used method of fabrication. In this method,
reinforcement preforms are placed in the steel squeeze cast die where they are
desired in the final part, the die closes, and molten aluminium is pumped in and
pressurized during a controlled solidification process. Selectivity reinforced
MMCs made with this process exhibit high tensile and fatigue strengths based
on a fine gain microstructure and limited micro porosity. In this study the
fabrication was carried out by stir casting. Then the wear test was carried out on
the specimens using pin on disc to predict the abrasive wear behaviour of the
composites and the hardness test was carried out on the specimens using
Vickers hardness instrument to investigate the property of hardness of the
composites.

3.3.2 Stir casting

In a stir casting process, the reinforcing phases are distributed into molten
41

matrix by mechanical stirrer.

Mechanical stirring in the furnace is a key element of this process.
The resultant molten alloy, with ceramic particles, can then be used for
die casting, permanent mold casting, or sand casting.
Stir casting is suitable for manufacturing composites with up to 30%
volume fractions of reinforcement.
An interesting recent development in stir casting is a two-step mixing
process.
In this process, the matrix material is heated to above its liquids
temperature so that the metal is totally melted.

The melt is then cooled down to a temperature between the liquids and
solidus points and kept in a semi-solid state.

At this stage, the preheated particles are added and mixed.

The slurry is again heated to a fully liquid state and mixed thoroughly.
This two-step mixing process has been used in the fabrication of
aluminum

CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
42

4.1 FABRICATION OF NANOCOMPOSITE

The Stir casting method was used to prepare nano composites.
The Al alloy pieces were heated to 1100C in a graphite crucible.
The reinforcement particulates Nano SiC and magnesium (20%wt)
are preheated for 30 minutes.
Magnesium is added to promote wettability.
Aluminium degassing tablets are added in the powdered form to
remove the bubbles formed during the process.
The heated slurry was stirred at 310 rpm for 8-10 minutes using a
three blade mild steel impeller to ensure uniform incorporation of
the Nano SiC particles into the Aluminium matrix.
The three blade mild steel impeller was coated with alumina
powder to avoid iron contamination of the molten Al metal.
The impeller was placed just 20 mm above the bottom of the
graphite crucible, and the blades of the impeller (tilted at an angle
of 45), when rotated, covered a relatively large area of the crucible
base.
This design prevented the heavier Nano Nano SiC from settling
when the melted slurry was stirred for 5 minutes.
Furthermore, stirring at an optimized speed of 310 rpm created a
vortex in the melt, and this effectively enhanced the distribution of
the particles.
.

43

Fig 4.1 Principle of Stir casting technique

This stirring process was used to ensure the homogeneity of the melted
slurry. The melt, with incorporated Nano SiC and particles, are poured in to a
mould of length 200mm and diameter 20mm as a rod and also 95mm diameter
& 10mm thickness.

Fig 4.2 Addition of Nano SiC Fig 4.3 Stirring of molten slurry
44

4.2 TESTING
Following tests were conducted on various mechanical and
physical properties of the composite specimens and their corresponding results
are compared.
4.2.1 Hardness Test
Hardness may be defined as the resistance to plastic deformation by
indentation. Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material,
calculated from the size of an impression produced under load by a pyramidshaped diamond indenter. The Vickers test is reliable for measuring the hardness
of metals, and also used on ceramic materials. The Vickers testing method is
similar to the Brinell test. The other advantage of the Vickers system other than
the increased degree of accuracy is that it does not have a number of different
scales and indenters, as does the Rockwell and Brinell scales.
Vicker Hardness is measured by forcing an indenter into the surface of
the sample. It uses a 136 square pyramid indenter, which produces a square
indentation in the specimen, rather than a spherical or conical indenter, which
Rockwell and Brinell hardness techniques use. The square indenter is
advantageous over the round indentations as the square indentations are easier
to measure than the round impressions from spherical and conical indenters.
The Vickers hardness tester is equipped with an adjustable height stage, which
is wound up to close to the indenter prior to the test. Indenter load of 0.5 kg is
applied. The indentation is then measured with a microscope across the
diagonals of the square indentation.
Usually the prepared samples are mounted in a Bakelite medium to
facilitate the preparation and testing. The indentations should be as large as
possible to maximize the measurement resolution.

45

Fig 4.4 Sample which is to be tested for Vickers hardness

4.2.2 Wear Testing

A number of wear test have been developed by committees an attempt to
standardize wear testing for specific applications. In the results of standard wear
tests, the material during wear is expressed in terms of volume.

4.2.3 The Pin on Disc Apparatus

The pin on disc tester is used for a quick and easy method of kinetic
friction and sliding wear measurement .The pin on disc tester measures the
friction and sliding wear properties of dry or lubricated surfaces of a variety of
bulk materials and coatings. The Pin on Disc wear testing Apparatus consists of
a rotating disc of the material to be tested against a stationary sphere, usually
made of Cast Iron, referred to as the pin and is shown in Figure 4.5. Although
the pin surface can also be wear and friction tested. The principle of pin on disc
tester is shown in figure 4.6.The normal load, rotational speed, and the wear
track diameter are all the set by the user prior to the pin on disc test.

46

Figure 4.5 Principle of the Apparatus

Fig 4.6 Pin on disc apparatus

Fig 4.7 Top view

Dry sliding wear tests were conducted using a pin-on-disc tester. Pin
specimens of diameter 8mm and length 30 mm were machined from the
extruded rods. Contact surfaces were prepared by grinding against 600-grit
silicon carbide paper and cleaning with alcohol. A pin holder loaded the
stationary pins vertically onto a rotating En-31 steel disc. The Figure 4.8 and
Figure 4.9 shows the photo macrograph of En-31 Steel disc and photo
macrograph of Al-Nano SiC composite pin respectively.

47

Fig 4.8 En-31 Steel disc

Fig 4.9Al-Nano SiC composite pin

A normal load of 9.81 Kg was applied using dead weights at 1273 rpm.
For each sliding condition, 8.02 minutes of run were carried out.. At the end of
8.02 minutes, the pins were carefully cleaned and weighed using a sensitive
electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.1 mg to determine the weight loss.
Wear studies were conducted on the extruded Al-Nano SiC nano composite
samples in order to determine the co-efficient of friction.
.

48

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experimental results of Hardness test and Wear test of Al-Nano SiC
composite are discussed in the following sections.

5.1 HARDNESS TEST

Vickers hardness test was done for measuring the hardness of Aluminium
with Nano Silicon Carbide reinforced metal matrix composites. The test is
executed with a lever or button, with all the rest of the test parameters being
controlled automatically. Indenter load is kept at 0.5 kg. The indentation is then
measured with a microscope across the diagonals of the square indentation.
The hardness values are taken in many places and in average the hardness
of the Al-Nano SiC nano composite is calculated. The results of Al-Nano SiC
nano composite hardness values are given in the Table 5.1.
The hardness is calculated by dividing the load by the surface area of the
indentation, such that Vickers hardness is determined using the following
formula:
hv=

F
A

Where Hv = Vickers hardness (in MPa), F = load and A = surface

area of the impression.

The comparison of mean hardness of the various percentage of Nano

Silicon Carbide content with different samples in Figure 5.1
49

Al-Nano SiC
(0.5%)

Al-Nano SiC
(1%)

Al-Nano SiC
(1.5%)

Hardness

(HV)

(HV)

(HV)

Trial 1

55.1

60.3

76.5

Trial 2

56.4

57.2

56.7

57.2

59.6

66.6

Trail 4

60.3

63.1

66.6

Average

57.25

60.05

66.6

Trial 3

Table 5.1 Mean hardness of the various percentage of Nano Silicon Carbide
content

Fig 5.1 Graph showing hardness of the various percentage of Nano Silicon
Carbide content
50

Al- nano SiC

68
66
64
62
60
Hardness(HV)
58
56
54
52

SiC

Nano SiC (%)

Fig 5.2Graph showing Mean hardness of the various percentage of Nano

Silicon Carbide content
From the above graphs, we can conclude that the hardness increases on the
addition of Nano SiC.

5.2 WEAR TESTING

Immediately prior to testing, and prior to measuring or weighing, clean and
dry the specimens. Take care to remove all dirt and foreign matter from the
specimens. Measure appropriate specimen dimensions to the nearest 2.5 m or
weigh the specimens to the nearest 0.0001 g. Insert the disk securely in the
holding device so that the disk is fixed perpendicular to the axis of the
resolution. Insert the pin specimen (8mm diameter 30mm length) securely in
its holder and, if necessary, adjust so that the specimen is perpendicular to the
disk surface when in contact, in order to maintain the necessary contact
conditions. Add the proper mass to the system lever or bale to develop the
selected force pressing the pin against the disk. Start the motor and adjust the
speed to the desired value while holding the pin specimen out of contact with
51

the disk. Stop the motor. Begin the test with the specimens in contact under
load. The test is stopped when the desired number of revolutions is achieved.
Tests should not be interrupted or restarted. Remove the specimens and clean
off any loose wear debris. Note the existence of features on or near the wear
scar such as: protrusions, displaced metal, discoloration, microcracking, or
spotting. Remeasure the specimen dimensions to the nearest 2.5 nm or
reweigh the specimens to the nearest 0.0001 g, as appropriate. Repeat the test
with additional specimens to obtain sufficient data for statistically significant
results.
The below table explains briefly about the wear loss for the applied load for AlNano SiC Composites

Before (g)

After (g)

Difference(g)

0.5%

4.246

4.242

0.004

1%

4.310

4.307

0.003

1.5%

4.185

4.182

0.003

Nano SiC

Table 5.2Table explains briefly about the wear loss for the applied load for
Al-Nano SiC Composites

The above table shows that addition of Nano SiC particulate in metal has
decreased the wear. The below graphs shows coefficient of friction and wear for
various samples.
52

300
250
200
WEAR (MILLIMETER)

SiC 0.5%

150

SiC 1.0%
100

SiC 1.5%

50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
TIME (MINUTES)

Fig 5.3The graph shows wear rate for various samples of nano SiC

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION 0.3
SiC 0.5%
SiC 1.0%
0.2

SiC 1.5%

0.1
0
1

TIME (MINUTES)

Fig 5.4The graph shows coefficient of friction for various samples of

nano SiC
The results obviously say that variation of co-efficient of friction and wear can
be reduced by adding of Nano SiC particles with Al6061

53

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK
6.1 CONCLUSION
Extensive literature survey has been carried out in the areas of matrix and
reinforcement material combinations, composite manufacturing techniques and
various mechanical testing methodologies.
From the literature survey, it is observed that increase in the volume
fraction of reinforcement material increases the structural strength of the
composite material but at the same time there is a drastic increase in wear
resistance.
In this study Nano Silicon Carbide is selected as reinforcement material
for making aluminium alloy composites by considering good mechanical and
physical properties as other reinforcements currently used. Specimens were
prepared for abrasion wear test and hardness test with required volume fraction
reinforcement particulates by hybrid method of stir casting method.
Results show that Nano Silicon Carbide particles can be used as
reinforcement material to improve the properties of the Al6061.
Aluminium reinforced with Nano SiC exhibits better dry abrasive
wear resistance.
The proper input parameters to achieve a specific output parameter
(Coefficient of friction) and a higher efficiency can be determined by
54

experimental characteristic diagrams.

The wear rate decreases with increase of Nano SiC.
i. In the present investigation, addition of 1% Nano SiC particles
reinforced composite exhibited better wear resistance than the other
combinations.
ii. This can also be implemented in several applications like piston in
an engine cylinder and other aircrafts where the wear rates are
higher. The hardness value also increases with increasing weight
percentage of nano reinforcement. It shows that fabricated composite
has higher strength.

6.2SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

The following recommendations could be fruitful for future works.
In Aerospace industry, they are focusing on the increased elevated
temperature capability and improved fracture toughness, so the new
developed composite may be incorporated.
To the existing material, Nano SiC percentage can be increased so that the
wear loss can be further decreased.
By further heat treating, the composite material by advanced techniques the
hardness of the material can be improved.
If the same composite is done by powder metallurgy method, there might
be a chance of increase in wear resistance.
Vapour deposition technique can be implemented instead of stir casting so
that resistance to corrosion can be increased.

55

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