Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Third year
32 Lectures
Lectures of
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer Rate Processes
Mode
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Transfer Mechanism
Diffusion of energy due to random
molecular motion
Diffusion of energy due to random
molecular motion plus bulk motion
Energy transfer by electromagnetic
waves
q = - kA
dT
dx
q = h A(Ts-T)
q = A(Ts4-Tsur4)
By
Mr. Amjed Ahmed Ali
Hours
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Ch 1: Introdaction
Chapter One
Introduction
Introduction
A consider the cooling of a hot steal rod which is
water Thermodynamics may be used to predict the
temperature of the rod-water combination. It will not tell
takes to reach this equilibrium condition. Heat Transfer
predict the temperature of the rod and the water as a function of time.
1.1 Definition:
place in a cold
final equilibrium
us how long it
may be used to
dT
dx
Ch 1: Introdaction
T1
dT
=
= 2 1
dx
2 1
T1> T2
T2
q
X2
L
X1
1
L
(1.3)
q= 2
R
kA
k
Such linearity always exists in a homogeneous medium of fixed k during steady state
heat transfer occurs whenever the temperature at every point within the body, including the
surfaces, is independent of time.
Rk
T1
q
T1> T2
T2
Figure 1.2 Association of conduction heat transfer with diffusion
of energy due to molecular activity.
If the temperature changes with time
dT
, energy is either being stored in or removed
dt
qstored = mc p
dT
dt
(1.4)
Ch 1: Introdaction
q = h A(Ts - T )
(1.6)
Where h is Convective Heat transfer coefficient (W/m K) as the constant of
proportionality relating the heat transfer
per unit time and area to the overall
temperature difference. It is important to
keep in mind that the fundamental energy
exchange at a solid-fluid boundary is by
conduction, and that this energy is then
converted away by the fluid flow.
The
thermal
resistance
to
convection heat transfer Rc, as:
2
1
hA
T -T
q = s
Rc
Rc =
(1.6)
(1.7) Fig (1.4) Velocity and temperature distribution on flat plate
Ch 1: Introdaction
q = A T4
(1.8)
q = A(Ts4-Tsur4)
(1.9)
Where , the emissivity of the surface, ranges (0-1). The ideal emitter or blackbody is
one, All other surfaces emit some what less than one.
Ts and Tsur The temperature of surface and surroundings respectively.
Similarly, The thermal resistance to radiation heat transfer Rr, as:
s sur
(1.11)
Rr =
4
4
( s sur )
q=
Ts - Tsur
Rr
(1.12)
Thermal Resistance
(K/W)
L
Rk =
kA
1
Rc =
hA
Rr =
s sur
( s 4 sur 4 )
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.1
Calculate the rate of heat transfer by natural convection between a shed roof of
area 20 m x 20 m and ambient air, if the roof surface temperature is 27C, the air
temperature 3C, and the average convection heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2 K.
Note we initially assumed that the heat transfer would be from the air to the roof. But
since the heat flow under this assumption turns out to be a negative quantity the direction of heat
flow is actually from the roof to the air.
Example 1.2 Determine the steady state rate of heat transfer per unit area through a
4.0cm thick homogeneous slab with its two faces maintained at uniform temperatures of 38I
o
C and 21 oC. The thermal conductivity of the material is 0.19 W/m K.
Example 1.3 The forced convective heat transfer coefficient for a hot fluid x1 x2
flowing over a cool surface is 225 W/m2.oC for a particular problem. The fluid temperature
upstream of the cool surface is 1200C, and the surface is held at 10 0C. Determine the heat
transfer rate per unit surface area from the fluid to the surface.
q = h A(Ts-T)
q/A= 225(120-10)=24750 W/m2
Example 1.4
After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person standing near a brick wall. Such
walls frequently have surface temperatures around 44 oC, and typical brick emissivity values
are on the order of 0.92. What would be the radiant thermal flux per square foot from a brick
wall at this temperature?
Mr. Amjed Ahmed
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.5
In the summer, parked automobile surfaces frequently average 40-50 oC. Assuming 45
o
C and surface emissivity of 0.9, determine the radiant thermal flux emitted by a car roof
Example 1.6
The air inside an electronics package housing has a temperature of 50C. A "chip" in
this housing has internal thermal power generation (heating) rate of 3 X 10-3 W. This chip is
subjected to an air flow resulting in a convective coefficient h of 9 W/m2.oC over its two main
surfaces which are 0.5 cm X 1.0 cm. Determine the chip surface temperature neglecting
radiation and heat transfer from the edges
Example 1.7
Calculate the thermal resistance and the rate of heat transfer through a pane of window
glass (k = 0.78 W/m K) 1 m high, 0.5 m wide, and 0.5 cm thick, if the outer-surface temperature
is 24C and the inner-surface temperature is 24.5C
24 C
Figure 1.5 heat transfer by conduction through a window pane.
Ch 1: Introdaction
Solution
Assume that steady state exists and that the temperature is uniform over the inner and outer
surfaces. The thermal resistance to conduction Rk is from Eq
0.005m
K
L
=
= 0.0128
Rk =
kA 0.78w / mk 1m 0.5m
W
The rate of heat loss from the interior to the exterior surface is
T 24.5 - 24
q=
=
= 39.1 W
Rk
0.0128
Example 1.8
A long, cylindrical electrically heated rod, 2 cm in diameter, is installed in a vacuum
furnace as shown in Fig.1.8. The surface of the heating rod has an emissivity of 0.9 and is
maintained at 1000 K, while the interior walls of the furnace are black and are at 800 K. Calculate
the net rate at which heat is lost from the rod per unit length and the radiation heat transfer
coefficient.
Note that in order for steady state to exist, the heating rod must dissipate electrical energy
at the rate of 1893 W and the rate of heat loss through the furnace walls must equal the rate of
electric input to the system, that is, to the rod.
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.9
An instrument used to study the Ozone depletion near the poles is placed on a large
2-cm-thick duralumin plate. To simplify this analysis the instrument can be thought of
as a stainless steel plate 1 cm tall with a 10 cm x 10 cm square base, as shown in Fig. 1.6.
The interface roughness of the steel and the duralumin is between 20 and 30 rms (m) the
contact resistance is 0.05 k/w. Four screws at the corners. The top and sides of the
instrument are thermally insulated. An integrated circuit placed between the insulation
and the upper surface of the stainless steel plate generates heat. If this heat is to be
transferred to the lower surface of the duralumin, estimated to be at a temperature of
0C, determine the maximum allowable dissipation rate from the circuit if its temperature
is not to exceed 40C.
Ch 1: Introdaction
Ch 1: Introdaction
10
Ch 1: Introdaction
q T1 T2
=
A
R1
Solving for T2 gives
Note that the temperature drop across the steel interior wall is only 1.4 K because the
thermal resistance of the wall is small compared to the resistance of the brick.
Example 1.7
Two large aluminum plates (k = 240 W/m K), each 1 cm thick, with 10 m surface
roughness the contact resistance Ri = 2.75 x 10-4 m2 K/W. The temperatures at the outside
surfaces are 395C and 405C. Calculate (a) the heat flux (b) the temperature drop due to the
contact resistance.
(b) The temperature drop in each section. The fraction of the contact resistance is
Hence 7.67C of the total temperature drop of 10C is the result of the contact
resistance.
11
Ch 1: Introdaction
Figure 1.12 Heat Conduction Through a Wall Section with Two Paths in Parallel.
Note that the total heat transfer area is the sum of AA and AB and that the total resistance
equals the product of the individual resistances divided by their sum, as in any parallel circuit.
A more complex application of the thermal network approach is illustrated in Fig. 1.19,
where heat is transferred through a composite structure involving thermal resistances in series
and in parallel. For this system the resistance of the middle layer, R2 becomes and the rate of
heat flow is
12
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.8
A layer of 2 in thick firebrick (kb = 1.0 Btu/hr ft F) is placed between two in.-thick
steel plates (ks = 30 Btu/hr ft F). The faces of the brick adjacent to the plates are rough,
having solid-to-solid contact over only 30 % of the total area, with the average height of
asperities being L2=1/32 in. If the surface temperatures of the steel plates are 200 and
800F, respectively. the conductivity of air ka is 0.02 Btu/hr ft F, determine the rate of heat
flow per unit area.
Figure 1.14 Thermal Circuit for the Parallel-Series Composite Wall. L1 = 1 in.;
L2 = 1/32 in.; L3 = 1/4 in.; T1 is at the center.
Solution
The overall unit conductance for half the composite wall is then, from an inspection of the
thermal circuit
Since the air is trapped in very small compartments, the effects of convection are small
and it will be assumed that heat flows through the air by conduction. At a temperature of
300F. Then R5 the thermal resistance of the air trapped between the asperities, is, on the basis
of a unit area, equal to
13
Ch 1: Introdaction
The factors 0.3 and 0.7 in R4 and R5, respectively, represent the percent of the total area
for the two separate heat flow paths. The total thermal resistance for the two paths, R4 and R5
in parallel, is
The thermal resistance of half of the solid brick, Rl is and the overall unit conductance is
Inspection of the values for the various thermal resistances shows that the steel offers a
negligible resistance
14
Ch 1: Introdaction
15
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.5
Air at 20C blow over a hot plate 50 x 75 cm and thick 2 cm maintained at 250 oC. the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2 C. calculate the inside plate temperature if it is
mode of carbon steel and that 300 W is lost from the plate surface by radiation. Where
thermal conductivity is 43 w/m C.
Solution
qconv = h A(Ts-T)
qconv = 25 (0.5 *0.75) (250 - 20)
qconv =2.156 KW
qcond = qconv + qrad
qcond = 2.156 +0. 3=2.456 kW
qcond = kA
1 2
L
1 250
0.02
16
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.9
A 0.5 m diameter pipe ( = 0.9) carrying steam has a surface temperature of 500 K. The
pipe is located in a room at 300 K, and the convection heat transfer coefficient between the pipe
surface and the air in the room is 20 W/m2 K. Calculate the combined heat transfer coefficient
and the rate of heat loss per meter of pipe length.
hr = 13.9 W/m2 K
The combined heat transfer coefficient is
h = hc + hr = 20 + 13.9 = 33.9 W/m2 K
and the rate of heat loss per meter is
the rate of heat flow is expressed only in terms of an overall temperature potential
and the heat transfer characteristics of individual sections in the heat flow path., the
overall transmittance, or the overall coefficient of heat transfer U
Writing Eq. (1.29) in terms of an overall coefficient gives
17
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.10
In the design of a heat exchanger for aircraft application, the maximum wall
temperature in steady state is not to exceed 800 k. For the conditions tabulated below,
determine the maximum permissible unit thermal resistance per square meter of the
metal wall that separates the hot gas Tgh = 1300 K from the cold gas Tgc = 300 K.
Combined heat transfer coefficient on hot side h 1 = 200 W/m2 K
Combined heat transfer coefficient on cold side h3 = 400 W/m2 K
18
Ch 1: Introdaction
Example 1.11
The door for an industrial gas furnace is 2 m x 4 m in surface area and is to be insulated
to reduce heat loss to no more than 1200 W/m2. The interior surface is a 3/8-in.-thick Inconel
600 sheet (K= 25 W/m K), and the outer surface is a l/4 in.-thick sheet of Stainless steel 316.
Between these metal sheets a suitable thickness of insulators material is to be placed. The
effective gas temperature inside the furnace is 1200C, and the overall heat transfer
coefficient between the gas and the door is Ui = 20 W/m2 K. The heat transfer coefficient
between the outer surface of the door and the surroundings at 20C is hc= 5 W/m2 K. calculate
the thickness of insulated should be use
These resistances are negligible compared to the other three resistances shown in the
simplified thermal circuit below;
The temperature drop between the gas and the interior surface of the door at the
specified heat flux is:
Q=AU T
19
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Chapter Two
Heat Conduction
2.1 Introduction
A major objective in a conduction analysis is to determine the temperature field in a
medium (Temperature Distribution), which represents how temperature varies with position
in the medium. knowledge of the temperature distribution:
Determination of thermal stresses, It could be used to ascertain structural integrity
through
To determine the optimize thickness of an insulating material
To determine the compatibility of special coatings or adhesives used with the material.
2.1
Eg
Ein
Est
Eout
dq x
dx
dx
dq y
= qy +
dy
dy
dq
= q z + z dz
dz
q x+ dx = q x +
q y + dy
q z + dz
Slope =
dq x
dx
20
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
E g = q&V = q&dxdydz
dT
dT
dT
= VC p
= (dxdydz)C p
dt
dt
dt
where q& is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume (W/m3) and to express
conservation of energy using the foregoing rate equation
Est = mC p
Ein + E g Eout = E st
and, substituting equations, we obtain
dq y
dq
dq
dT
q x + q y + q z (q x + x dx) (q y +
dy ) (q z + z dz ) + q&dxdydz = dxdydzC p
dz
dt
dx
dy
The conduction heat rates may be evaluated from Fourier's law,
dT
dT
q x = kA
= kdzdy
dx
dx
dT
dT
q y = kA
= kdzdx
2.3
dy
dy
2.2
dT
dT
= kdzdx
dz
dz
Substituting Equations 2.3 into Equation 2.2 and dividing out the dimensions of the
control volume (dx dy dz), we obtain
T
T
(k
) + (k
) + (k
) + q& = C p
x x
y y
z z
t
2.4
It is often possible to work with simplified versions of Heat Equation (k=Const)is
2T 2T 2T q& 1 T
+
+
+ =
x 2 y 2 z 2 k t
2.5
q z = kA
T
(k
)=0
x x
2.6
If the thermal conductivity is assumed to be constant (k=Const), the equation may be
integrated twice to obtain the general solution
T(x)=C1 x+C2
21
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
x
+ Ts1
L
Linearly equation.
2.7
Rtc =
T A TB
q x
TB
TA
22
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.1
The temperature distribution across a wall 1 m thick at a certain instant of time is given as
(T(x) = a+ bx + cx2 ) where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while a = 900 C, b = 300C/m, and c= -50C/m2. A uniform heat generation q=1000 W/m3, is present in the wall of
area 10 m2 having the properties = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m K, and Cp = 4 kJ/kg K.
1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering (x = 0) and leaving the wall (x = 1 m).
2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall.
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0, 0.25 and 0.5 m.
Solution
Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional conduction in the x direction.
2. Homogeneous medium with constant properties.
3. Uniform internal heat generation, q (W/m3).
1.
2.
2.1
3. The time rate of change of the temperature at any point in the medium may be
determined from the heat equation, Equation 2.15, as
23
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.2
The diagram shows a conical section from pyroceram (k = 3.46 W/m K). It is of circular
cross section with the diameter D = ax. The small end is at x1 = 50 mm and the large end at x2
= 250 mm. The end temperatures are T1 = 400 K and T2 = 600 K, while the lateral surface is
well insulated and a=0.25.
1. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) in symbolic form,
assuming one-dimensional conditions.
2. Sketch the temperature distribution.
3. Calculate the heat rate through the cone.
Solution
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction in the x direction.
3. No internal heat generation.
4. Constant properties.
dT
q x = kA
dx
With A=D2/4= a2x2/4 and separating variables
4q x dx
= kdT
a 2 x 2
Integrating from x1 to any x within the, it follows that
x
T
4q x dx
= k dT
(k = const )
a 2 x1 x 2
T1
Hence
4q x
1 1
( + ) = k (T T1 )
2
x
x1
a
a 2 k (T1 T )
4[((1 / x1 ) (1 / x))]
or solving for T
4q x
1 1
( + )
2
a k x x1
at
x=x2
T ( x ) = T1
B.C.2
T=Ts2
qx =
a 2 k (T1 T2 )
4[((1 / x1 ) (1 / x 2 ))]
4q x
(T1 T2 )
=
2
a k [((1 / x1 ) (1 / x 2 ))]
Substituting for q into the expression for T(x), the temperature distribution becomes
(1 / x) (1 / x1 ))
T ( x ) = T1 + (T1 T2 )
(1 / x1 ) (1 / x2 )
Substituting numerical values into the foregoing result for the heat transfer rate
24
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
For a general transient three-dimensional in the cylindrical coordinates T= T(r, ,z, t),
the general form of the conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates becomes
1 T
1 2T 2T q& 1 T
+
+ =
2.8
(r
)+ 2
r r r
r 2 z 2 k t
If the heat flow in a cylindrical shape is only in the radial direction and for steady-state
conditions with no heat generation, the conduction equation reduces to
1 T
(r
)=0
r r r
Integrating once with respect to radius gives
T
T C1
= C1
and
=
r
r
r
r
T = C1 ln r + C2.
2.9
A second integration gives
To obtain the constants (C1 and C2), we introduce the following boundary conditions
B.C.1
T=Ti at r=ri
Ti = C1 ln ri+ C2.
B.C.2
T=To at r=ro
To = C1 ln ro + C2.
Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain
r
To Ti = C1 ln o
ri
T Ti
T Ti
C2 = To o
ln ro
C1 = o
ln(ro / ri )
ln(ro / ri )
T Ti
r
T (r ) = o
ln( ) + Ti
2.10
ln(ro / ri ) ri
we obtain the following expression for the heat transfer rate
2Lk (Ti To )
C
dT
qr = kA
= (2rLk ) 1 =
2.11
dr
r
ln(ro / ri )
(T To )
ln(ro / ri )
qr = i
R=
2.12
R
2Lk
25
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Note that
UA=UiAi=UoAo
Ao = 2ro L and the overall coefficient becomes
2.14
2.15
26
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.3
Compare the heat loss from an insulated and an un-insulated copper pipe (k = 400
W/m K) has an internal diameter of 10 cm and an external diameter of 12 cm. Saturated steam
flows inside the pipe at 110C ( hci = 10,000 W/m2 K). The pipe is located in a space at 30C
and the heat transfer coefficient on its outer surface is estimated to be 15 W/m2 K. The
insulation available to reduce heat losses is 5 cm thick and its thermal conductivity is 0.20
W/m K
Solution
27
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.4
A hot fluid at an average temperature of 200oC flows through a plastic pipe of 4 cm OD
and 3 cm ID. The thermal conductivity of the plastic is 0.5 W/m K, and the heat transfer
coefficient at the inside is 300 W/m2 K. The pipe is located in a room at 30C, and the heat
transfer coefficient at the outer surface is 10 W/m2 K, Calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient and the heat loss per unit length of pipe.
Solution
The overall heat transfer coefficient is based on the outside area of the pipe
ln( r / ri )
1
+
2 k
2 rh
An optimum insulation thickness would be associated with the value of r that minimized
qr or maximized RTotal. Such a value could be obtained from the requirement that
dq
=0
at
r=r Critical
drc
RTotal =
k
rh
1
1
2 =0
krc rc h
For spherical shape:
2k
rc =
h
rc =
k
h
2.16
28
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.5
Calculate the total thermal resistance per unit length of tube for a 10 mm diameter tube
having the following insulation thicknesses: 0, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 40 mm. The insulation is
composed of Cellular Glass (k=0.055 w/m K), and the outer surface convection coefficient is
5 W/m2 K.
k 0.055
rc = =
= 0.011m
Solution
h
5
Hence rc > r, and heat transfer will increase with the addition of insulation up to a
thickness of rc-ri =(0.011-0.005)=0.006m
The thermal resistances corresponding to the prescribed insulation thicknesses may be
calculated and are summarized as follows.
29
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
For a hollow sphere with uniform temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces, the
temperature distribution without heat generation in the steady state can be obtained by
simplifying Eq 2.17. Under these boundary conditions the temperature is only a function of
the radius r, and the conduction equation is
1 2 T
(r
)=0
r
r 2 r
T
r2
= C1
r
C
T (r ) = C 2 1
r
B.C.1
T=Ti
at r=ri
B.C.2
T=To
at r=ro
C1 =
T =
C1
r
r2
Ti To
1
1
( )( )
ro
ri
C1
ri
C
To = C 2 1
ro
Ti = C 2
C 2 = To + (
Ti To
1
)
((1 / ro ) (1 / r i )) ro
Ti To 1 1
)( ) + Ti
1 1 r ro
ri ro
2.18
dT
dT
= k (4r 2 )
dr
dr
A=4r2
A=D2
V=4r2/3
30
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
qr =
4kro ri (Ti To )
ro ri
R=
(ro ri )
4kro ri
(2.19)(2.20)
Example 2.6
The spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The
container has a diameter of 0.5 and is covered with an evacuated insulation system composed
of silica powder (k = 0.0017 W/m K). The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its outer surface is
exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The latent heat of vaporization hfg of liquid nitrogen is 2
105 J/kg. If the convection coefficient is 20 W/m2 K over the outer surface,
1. Determine the rate of liquid boil-off of nitrogen per hour?
2. Show expiration of critical radius of insulation?
Ans: rc= 2h/k
Solution
1. The rate of heat transfer from the ambient air to the nitrogen in the container can be
obtained from the thermal circuit. We can neglect the thermal resistances of the metal wall
and between the boiling nitrogen and the inner wall because that heat transfer coefficient is
large. Hence
q
(13.06 J/s)(3600 s/hr)
=
= 0.235kg / hr
h fg
2 x 105 J/kg
31
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
2.5
32
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
q&L2
x2
( 1 2 ) + Ts
2k
L
2.23
q&V = Ah(Ts T )
q&AL = Ah(Ts T )
The surface temperature is
Ts = T +
Neglecting radiation
q&L
h
2.26
Solution
Tmax T1 =
q&L2 10 6 (0.01) 2
=
= 0.2o C
8k
8 64
q&V = Ah(Ts T )
h=
q&A
L
= Ah(Ts T )
2
q&L
= 42W / m 2 K
2(Ts T )
33
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.8
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B. The wall of material A (k = 75
W/m K) has uniform heat generation 1.5 X 106 W/m3, and thickness 50 mm. The wall material
B has no generation with (k = 150 W/m K) and thickness 20 mm. The inner surface of
material A is well insulated, while the outer surface of material B is cooled by a water stream
with 30C and heat transfer coefficient 1000 W/m2 K.
1. Sketch the temperature distribution that exists in the composite under steady-state
conditions.
2. Determine the maximum temperature To of the insulated surface and the temperature
of the cooled surface Ts.
Solution
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction in x direction.
3. Negligible contact resistance between walls.
4. Inner surface of A adiabatic.
5. Constant properties for materials A and B.
q&L
T2 = T + A
2.26
h
1.5 10 6 0.05
T2 = 30 +
= 105o C
1000
q =
T1 T
+ Rconv
Rcond
+ Rconv
)q
T1 = T + ( Rcond
q
q& =
ALA
q&L2 A
2k A
To = 115 +
1.5 10 6 (0.05) 2
= 140 o C
2 75
34
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
A Solid Cylinder
To obtain the constants (C1 & C2), we introduce the following boundary conditions
B.C.1
dT/dr=0 at r=0
C1=0
q& 2
B.C.2
T=Ts
at r=ro
C2 =
ro + Ts
4k
Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain
2
q&ro
r2
T (r ) =
(1 2 ) + Ts
2.28
4k
ro
2.29
2.30
E g = Eout
q&V = Ah(Ts T )
2
q&ro L = 2ro hL(Ts T )
Ts = T +
q&ro
2h
2.31
35
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
q& 2
r + C1 ln r + C 2
4k
To obtain the constants (C1 and C2), we introduce the following boundary conditions
q& 2
Ti =
B.C.1
T=Ti
at r=ri
ri + C1 ln ri + C2
4k
q& 2
B.C.2
T=To
at r=ro
To = ro + C1 ln ro + C2
4k
Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain
2
2
(T To ) + q& (ri ro ) / 4k
C1 = i
ln(ri / ro )
T (r ) =
2
2
q& 2 (Ti To ) + q& (ri ro ) / 4k
ln ro
ro
C2 = To +
4k
ln(ri / ro )
2
+
(ro ri 2 ) + (To Ti )
T (r ) = To +
4k
ln(ro / ri ) 4k
2.32
q&V = Ah (Ts T )
2
2
q& (ro ri ) L = 2ro hL (Ts T )
The surface temperature is
2
2
q& (ro ri )
Ts = T +
2hro
2.33
36
Ch 2: Heat Conduction
Example 2.9
A graphite-moderated nuclear reactor. Heat is generated uniformly in uranium rods of
0.05 m diameter at the rate of 7.5 x 107 W/m3. These rods are jacketed by an annulus in
which water at an average temperature of 120C is circulated. The water cools the rods and
the average convection heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 55,000 W/m2 K. If the
thermal conductivity of uranium is 29.5 W/m K, determine the center temperature of the
uranium fuel rods.
q& ro
2h
7 . 5 10 7 0 . 025
T s = 120 +
= 137 o C
2 55000
T s = T +
37
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
38
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Consider a pin fin having the shape of a rod whose base is attached to a wall at surface
temperature Ts. The fin is cooled along its surface by a fluid at temperature T
To derive an equation for temperature distribution, we make a heat balance for a small
element of the fin. Heat flows by conduction into the left face of the element, while heat flows
out of the element by conduction through the right face and by convection from the surface.
Assumptions
1. The fin has a uniform cross-sectional area
2. The fin is made of a material having uniform conductivity (k = constant)
3. The heat transfer coefficient between the fin and the fluid is constant (h=constant).
4. One dimensional steady state condition only.
5. Non heat generation(q=0).
6. Radiation is negligible.
D
Figure 2.12 Schematic Diagram of a Pin Fin Protruding from a Wall
Ein = Eout
qx = qx+dx +qconv
dq
q x +dx = q x + x dx
dx
In symbolic form, this equation becomes
dT ( x )
dT (x )
kA
= kA
+ hc dAs (T ( x) T )
dx x
dx x + dx
dAs= Pdx
2.34
dx 2
kA
2.35
It will be convenient to define an excess temperature of the fin above the environment,
(x) = [T(x) - T], and transform Eq. 2.35 into the form
d 2 (x )
m 2 = 0
dx 2
2.36
Where m2= hP/kA.
39
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
(x) = C1 e mx + C2 e mx
2.37
at
x=L
x=L
x=L
Case 2
40
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Case 1
The second boundary condition is:
at
x=
B.C.2 () = (T T) = 0
m
m
0= C1 e
+ C2 e
B.C.1 (0) = (Ts T)
at
x=0
s = C1 + C2
Differentiating
C1=0
C2= s
(x)= s e-mx
2.39
= m s e mx
2.40
x
Since the heat conducted across the root of the fin must equal the heat transferred by
convection from the surface of the rod to the fluid,
dT
q fin = kA
= h P(T(x) T )dx
2.41
dx x =0
The rate of heat flow can be obtained by Two different methods.
Method 1. By left term in equation 2.41 substituting Eq. 2.40 for x= 0 yields
d
2.42
q fin = kA
= kA[ m (0 )e (m )0 ]
dx x =0
hP
q fin = kA[ms ] = kA
s
kA
q fin = h PAk s
Method 2 . By right term in equation 2.41
q fin = h P s
mx
= h PAk s
2.43
Case 2
The second boundary condition is :
s = C1 + C2
B.C. 1
B.C.2
dT
=0
dx
at
x=L
(x) = C1 e mx + C2 e mx
d ( x )
= mC1e mL mC2 e mL = 0
dx x= L
mC1e mL = mC 2 e mL
C1 = C2e 2 mL
Substituting in B.C.1
s = C2 e 2 mL + C2
C2 =
s
1 + e 2 mL
41
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
C1 =
s
1+ e
2 mL
e 2 mL
C1 =
s
1 + e 2 mL
( x) =
( x) =
( x) =
1+ e
2 mL
s
1+ e
2 mL
mx
mx
s
e
-mL
+e
mL
2 mL
e -mx
1+ e
e
s
e -mL
+
e -mx
-mL
2 mL
e
1+ e
e
e mx e -mL +
mL
mL
mL
e -mx e mL
+e
e
e
( x) = s -mL mL + mL mL
e +e
e +e
-m(L- x)
m(L- x)
e
(e -m(L-x) + e m(L-x) ) / 2
+e
( x) = s
=
s
-mL
mL
(e -mL + e mL ) / 2
e +e
-m(L- x)
Noting that
Sinh(mL) =
e mL e mL
2
mL
m(L- x)
Cosh(mL) =
( x) = s
cosh(mL)
e mL + e mL
2
2.44
The heat loss from the fin can be found by substituting the temperature gradient at the
root into Eq.(2.37), we get
m sinh m( L x)
d ( x )
= s
dx
cosh( mL)
m sinh mL
d ( x )
= s
= s m tan mL
dx x=0
cosh mL
d
q fin = kA
dx
x =0
2.45
42
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Case 3
The second boundary condition is :
s = C1 + C 2
B.C. 1
C 2 = s C1
B.C.2
(x)= L
at
x=L
Substituting in B.C.2
(x) = C1 e mx + C2 e mx
(L) = C1 e mL + C2 e mL
(L) =C1 e mL +( s C1) e mL
C1 =
2.37
( L ) s e mL
e mL e mL
( L ) s e mL s (e mL e mL ) ( L ) + s e mL
C2 = s
=
e mL e mL
e mL e mL
s e mL ( L )
C 2 = mL
e e mL
Substituting the above relations for C1 and C2 into Eq.(2.37)
( L ) s e mL mx s e mL ( L ) mx
(x) =
e + mL mL e
e mL e mL
e e
mx
mx
( ( L ) / s )(e e ) + e m ( L x ) e m ( L x )
(x) = s
e mL e mL
( L ) e mx e mx
e m ( L x ) e m ( L x )
)+(
)
( )(
2
2
s
(x) = s
e mL e mL
sinh mL
The heat loss from the fin can be found by substituting the temperature gradient at the
root into Eq.(2.37), we get
dx x=0
(sinh mL )2
{( / )m m cosh mL}(sinh mL )
d ( x )
= s ( L) s
dx x=0
(sinh mL )2
( / ) cosh mL
d ( x )
= m s ( L ) s
dx x=0
sinh mL
( ( L ) / s ) + cosh mL
= m s kA
sinh mL
x =0
cosh mL ( ( L ) / s )
hP
s kA
kA
sinh mL
q fin = kA
q fin =
d
dx
43
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
cosh mL ( ( L ) / s )
q fin = M
sinh mL
M = hPAk s
Noting that
2.47
Case 4
The second boundary condition is:
s = C1 + C 2
B.C. 1
k
B.C.2
C 2 = s C1
d ( x )
= h (L )
dx x = L
(x) = C1 e mx + C2 e mx
(L) = C1 e mL + C2 e mL
(2.37)
d ( x )
= mC1e mL mC 2 e mL
dx x= L
Substituting above equations in B.C.2
k ( mC1e mL mC 2 e mL ) = h(C1 e mL + C 2 e -mL )
Substituting B.C.2
k ( mC1e mL m( s C1 )e mL ) = h (C1 e mL + ( s C1 ) e
C1 =
C1 =
C1 =
s (e
-2mL
s (e
-2mL
s (e
-2mL
e -2mL ( h / km))
e 2mL + ( h / km)e 2mL (h / km ) + 1
( h / km )e -2mL )
e 2mL + ( h / km)e 2mL + 1 ( h / km)
( h / km )e -2mL )
e 2mL + ( h / km)e 2mL + 1 ( h / km)
C2 = s
C2 =
-mL
s (e
C2 = s
s e -2mL (1 (h / km ))
e
2mL
2mL
2mL
+ ( h / km)e
2mL
+ 1 ( h / km)
+ ( h / km )e
+ 1 ( h / km )) s e -2mL (1 ( h / km))
e 2mL + ( h / km)e 2mL + 1 (h / km )
2mL
2mL
-2mL
2mL
-2mL
(h / km)e m ( L x ) - (h / km)e m ( L x ) + e m ( L x ) + e m ( L x )
e mL + e mL + (h / km)e mL (h / km)e mL
The temperature distribution is:
( x) = s
44
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
( x) = s
2.48
The heat loss from the fin can be found by substituting the temperature gradient at the
root into Eq.(2.37), we get
d ( x )
( m(h / km) cosh mL ( m sinh mL))(cosh mL + ( h / km) sinh mL) 0
= s
dx x=0
((h / km) sinh mL + cosh mL) 2
d ( x )
(h / km) cosh mL sinh mL)
= m s
dx x=0
( h / km) sinh mL + cosh mL
q fin = kA
d
dx
= m s kAs
x =0
hP
( h / km) cosh mL sinh mL )
s kA
kA
( h / km) sinh mL + cosh mL
( h / km) cosh mL sinh mL )
q fin = M
( h / km) sinh mL + cosh mL
q fin =
Noting that
2.49
M = hPAk s
= T T
s = (0) = Ts T
M = hPAk s
m2 =
P
A
hP
kA
m=
hP
kA
45
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Fin Effectiveness . A ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate
2.52
where Ac is the fin cross-sectional area at the base. the use of fins may rarely be
justified unless >= 2.
ii Fin Efficiency
f =
q fin
2.53
qmax
A f = 2 w L2 + (t / 2)
A f = 2 (r r
2
2c
2
1
Rectangular
2 1/ 2
A f = 2.o5w L + (t / 2)
2
2.54
Triangular
2 1/ 2
Parabolic
Annular
Where as for a fin of rectangular cross section (length L & thickness t) and an adiabatic
end (Case 2) is
M tanh mL tanh mL
f =
=
hPLb
mL
2.55
a corrected fin length of the form Lc = L + (t/2).
tanh mLc
tanh h PL2 / kA
f =
or
f =
mLc
h PL2 / kA
A fin efficiency for a circular pin fin (Diameter D & Length L) and an adiabatic end
(Case 2) is
tanh 4 L2 h / kD
2.56
f =
4 L2 h / kD
In Figures 2.14 and 2.15 fin efficiencies are plotted as a function of the parameter
3/ 2
Lc (h / kAp )1 / 2
inferred for the straight and the annular fins. Fin efficiencies obtained from the
figures may be used to calculate the actual fin heat transfer rate from the expression
q f = f qmax = f hA f b
2.57
46
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Figure 2.14 Efficiency of straight fins (rectangular, triangular, and parabolic profiles).
47
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Example 2.10
Consider a copper pin fin 0.25 cm in diameter k = 396 W/m K that protrudes from a wall
at 95C into ambient air at 25C. The heat transfer is mainly by natural convection with a
coefficient equal to 10 W/m2 K. Calculate the heat loss, assuming that :
(a) the fin is "infinitely long"
(b) the fin is 2.5 cm long and the coefficient at the end is the same as around the
circumference.
(c) how long would the fin have to be for the infinitely long solution to be correct within
5 %?
Solution
(a) A heat loss for the "Infinitely long" fin is
q fin = kA m (0 )e ( m )0 = hPAk s
T= 25 C
q= [(10 W/m K) (0.0025 m)(396 W/m K) ( /4(0.0025 m)2 ]0.5 (95-25)C
q = 0.865 W
(b) The equation for the heat loss from the finite fin is case 4:
sinh mL + (h / mk ) cosh mL
q fin = hPAk s
= 0.140 W
cosh mL + ( h / mk ) sinh mL
2
Solution
a parameters required to obtain the fin efficiency curve in Fig. 2.15 are
48
Ch 2: Extended Surfaces
Example 2.12
The cylinder barrel of a motorcycle is constructed of 2024-T6 aluminum alloy (k = 186
W/m K) and is of height H = 0.15 m and OD = 50 mm. Under typical operating conditions the
outer surface of the cylinder is at a temperature of 500 K and is exposed to ambient air at 300
K, with a convection coefficient of 50 W/m2 K. Annular fins of rectangular profile are
typically added to increase heat transfer to the surroundings. Assume that five (N=5) such
fins, which are of thickness t = 6 mm, length L = 20 mm and equally spaced, are added. What
is the increase in heat transfer due to addition of the fins?
Solution
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional radial conduction in fins.
3. Constant properties.
4. No internal heat generation.
5. Negligible radiation exchange with surroundings.
6. Uniform convection coefficient over outer surface (with or without fins).
With the fins in place, the heat transfer rate is
q f = N f q max = N f hA f b
q=qf+qb
q = hAb (Tb T )
Hence
Ab = ( H Nt ) 2 r1
Hence
q = 5 (100.22) + 188.5 = 690 W
Without the fins, the heat transfer rate is
q f = hAwo (Tb T )
Hence
Awo = H ( 2r1 )
49
Chapter Three
Unsteady State Conduction
3.1 Introduction
To determine the time dependence of the temperature distribution within a solid during a
transient process,. One such approach may be used under conditions for which temperature
gradients within the solid are small. It is termed the lumped capacitance method.
Eout = E st
hAs (T T ) = VC p
Assume
= (T T )
dT
dt
d / dt = dT / dt
d
dt
Separating variables and integrating equation, we then obtain
t
VC p d
dt =
hAs i
0
VC p i
Lc C p Ti T
or
3.1
t=
ln
t=
ln
hAs
h
T T
This equation used to determine the time required for the solid to reach some
temperature
hAs = VC p
hAs
= exp (
)t
i
VC p
or
T T
h
= exp (
)t
Ti T
Lc C p
3.2
This Equation used to compute the temperature reached by the solid at some time
Where i = (Ti T ) and exponent group is
Mr. Amjed Ahmed
50
hAs
hL
h
h
k Lc
k
t
k
t=
t=
t
= ( c )(
)( 2 ) = Bi
= BiFo
VC p
C p Lc
C p Lc k Lc
k C p Lc
C p
3.3
Where Lc is the characteristic length as the ratio of the solid's volume to surface area
Lc=V/As .
Lc = L/2 for a plane wall of thickness 2L.
Lc = r/2 for a long cylinder (end edge are negligible)
Lc = r/3 for a sphere
Lc = ro-ri for a long annular cylinder(end edge are negligible).
FO =
k
is termed the Fourier number It is a dimensionless time and substituting
C p
i T T
=
= exp ( BiFo)
Ti T
3.4
The difference between the solid and fluid temperatures must decay exponentially to
zero as approaches infinity time.
The quantity VCp/hAs may be interpreted as a thermal time constant. as
1
t = (
)( VC p ) = Rt Ct
3.5
hAs
where Rt is the resistance to convection heat transfer
Ct is the lumped thermal capacitance of the solid.
Any increase in Rt or Ct, will cause a solid to respond more slowly to changes in its
thermal environment and will increase the time required to reach thermal equilibrium ( = 0).
Q = hAs i exp (
0
hAs
)t
VC p
Q = VC p i (1 exp (
hAs
)t )
VC p
1
Q = VC p i (1 exp( t ))
dt
3.6
51
Figure 3.3 Transient temperature distribution for different Biot No. in a plane wall
cooled by convection.
52
Example 3.1
A thermocouple junction, which may be approximated as a sphere, is to be used for
temperature measurement in a gas stream. The convection coefficient between the junction
surface and the gas is known to be h = 400 W/m2 K, and the junction properties are k = 20
W/m K, Cp = 400 J/kg K, and = 8500 kg/m3. Determine the junction diameter needed for the
thermocouple to have a time constant of 1 s. If the junction is at 25C and is placed in a gas
stream that is at 200C, how long will it take for the junction to reach 199C?
Solution
Assumptions:
1. Temperature of junction is uniform at any instant.
2. Radiation exchange with the surroundings is negligible.
3. Losses by conduction through the leads are negligible.
4. Constant properties.
5. Using the lumped capacitance method.
As = D2 and V = D3/6 for a sphere
1
1 D 3
t = (
Cp
)( VC p ) =
hAs
hD 2 6
D=
6h
= 7.07 10 4 m = 0.71mm
C p
Lc=r/3
t=
Lc C p
h
ln
Ti T
T T
53
Closed-form solutions have been obtained for Three Cases of changes in surface
conditions, instantaneously applied at t = 0: These three cases are
Case 1 Change in surface temperature: a sudden change in surface temperature
T (0, t ) = Ts
T ( x, t ) Ts
x
= erf m
Ti Ts
2 t
3.8
3.9
Case 2 Constant surface heat flux: a sudden application of a specified heat flux q''s =q''o
as, for example, exposing the surface to radiation
3.10
Case 3. Surface convection a sudden exposure of the surface to a fluid at a different
temperature through a uniform and constant heat transfer coefficient h
3.11
3.12
the specific temperature histories computed from Eq. (3.12) are plotted in next Fig.
54
B.C. 1
B.C. 2
55
erf(x)
0.00000
0.02256
0.04511
0.06762
0.09008
0.11246
0.13476
0.15695
0.17901
0.20094
0.22270
0.24430
0.26570
0.28690
0.30788
0.32863
0.34913
0.36936
0.38933
0.40901
0.42839
0.44749
0.46622
0.48466
0.50275
0.52050
0.53790
0.55494
0.57162
0.58792
0.60386
0.61941
0.63459
0.64938
0.66378
0.67780
0.69143
0.70468
x
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.42
1.44
1.46
1.48
1.50
erf(x)
0.71754
0.73001
0.74210
0.75381
0.76514
0.77610
0.78669
0.79691
0.80677
0.81627
0.82542
0.83423
0.84270
0.85084
0.85865
0.86614
0.87333
0.88020
0.88679
0.89308
0.89910
0.90484
0.91031
0.91553
0.92050
0.92524
0.92973
0.93401
0.93806
0.94191
0.94556
0.94902
0.95228
0.95538
0.95830
0.96105
0.96365
0.96610
x
1.52
1.54
1.56
1.58
1.60
1.62
1.64
1.66
1.68
1.70
1.72
1.74
1.76
1.78
1.80
1.82
1.84
1.86
1.88
1.90
1.92
1.94
1.96
1.98
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.70
2.80
2.90
3.00
3.20
3.40
3.60
erf(x)
0.96841
0.97059
0.97263
0.97455
0.97635
0.97804
0.97962
0.98110
0.98249
0.98379
0.98500
0.98613
0.98719
0.98817
0.98909
0.98994
0.99074
0.99147
0.99216
0.99279
0.99338
0.99392
0.99443
0.99489
0.99532
0.997020
0.998137
0.998857
0.999311
0.999593
0.999764
0.999866
0.999925
0.999959
0.999978
0.999994
0.999998
1.000000
56
Example 3.2
Estimate the minimum depth xm at which one must place a water main below the surface
to avoid freezing. The soil is initially at a uniform temperature of 20C. Assume that under
the worst conditions anticipated it is subjected to a surface temperature of -15C for a period
of 60 days. Use the following properties for soil (300 K):
= 2050 kg/m3
k = 0.52 W/m K
Cp= 1840 J/kg K
=0.138 x 10-6 m2/s
Solution To simplify the problem assume that
1. Conduction is one-dimensional
2. The soil is a semi-infinite medium
3. The soil has uniform and constant properties.
xm = 0.4 2 t = 0.68m
Another Solution:
To use Fig. 2.35, first calculate
T ( x, t ) Ts
0 20
=
= 0.57
15 20
T Ts
and
h t / k =
Then enter the curve Fig.(3.5) obtain xm / 2 t = 0.4, the same result as above.
57
FO =
k
> 0.2
C p
58
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.7 Dimensionless Transient Temperatures and Heat Flow in an Infinite Plate of Width 2L
59
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.8 Dimensionless Transient Temperatures and Heat Flow for a Long Cylinder.
60
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.9 Dimensionless transient temperatures and heat flow for a sphere.
61
Example 3.3
In a fabrication process, steel components are formed hot and then quenched in water.
Consider a 2.0 m long, 0.2 m diameter steel cylinder (k = 40 W/m K, = 1.0 x10-5 m2/s),
initially at 400C, that is suddenly quenched in water at 50C. If the heat transfer coefficient
is 200 W/m2 K, calculate the following 20 min after immersion:
1. the center temperature
2. the surface temperature
3. the heat transferred to the water during the initial 20 min
Solution
Since the cylinder has a length 10 times the diameter, we can neglect end effects. we
calculate first the Biot number
hr
200 0.1
Bi = o =
= 0.5 > 0.1
k
40
1. we cannot use the lumped-capacitance method. To use the chart solution we calculate
the appropriate dimensionless parameters:
t
and
Bi2 FO = (0.52)(1.2) = 0.3
Fo = 2 = 1.2
ro
The dimensionless centerline temperature for 1/Bi = 2.0 and Fo = 1.2 from Fig. 2.38(a) is
T ( 0 , t ) T
T (0, t ) 50
= 0 . 35
= 0.35
Ti T
400 50
T(0,t) = 172.5 C
2. The surface temperature at r/ro =1.0 and t = 1200 s is obtained from Fig. 3.8(b) in
terms of the centerline temperature:
T (ro , t ) T
= 0.8
T (0, t ) T
T (ro , t ) 50
= 0.8
172.5 50
and the surface temperature after 20 min is: T(ro, t) = 148C
3. The initial amount of internal energy stored in the cylinder per unit length is
2
2
Qi = C pro (Ti T ) = (k / Fo )ro (Ti T ) = 4.4 10 7 W / m
Then the amount of heat transferred from the steel rod to the water can be obtained from
Fig. 3.8(c). Since Q(t)/Qi = 0.61
2m 4.4 10 7 W s / m
Q(t ) = 0.61
= 14.9kW hr
3600hr
62
Example 3.4
A large concrete wall 50 cm thick is initially at 60C. One side of the wall is insulated.
The other side is suddenly exposed to hot combustion gases at 900C through a heat transfer
coefficient of 25 W/m2 K. Determine
(a) the time required for the insulated surface to reach 600C.
(b) the temperature distribution in the wall at that instant
(c) the heat transferred during the process.
The following average physical properties are given:
k = 1.25 W/m K ,
Cp=837 J/kg K ,
= 500 kg/m3 ,
=0.30 x 10-5 m2/s
Solution
(a). that the wall thickness is equal to L since the insulated surface corresponds to the
center plane of a slab of thickness 2L when both surfaces experience a thermal change. The
temperature ratio for the insulated face at the time sought is
Ts (t ) T
600 900
=
= 0.357
60 900
Ts (0) T x =0
1
t
and
= 0.1
Fo = 2 = 0.7
Bi
L
From Fig. 2.37(a) we find that
0.7 0.52
t=
= 58333s = 16.2hr
0.3 10 5
(b). The temperature distribution in the wall 16 hr after the transient was initiated can be
obtained from Fig. 2.37(b) for various values of x/L, as shown below:
Bi=10
Assume of positions
From the above dimensionless data we can obtain the temperature distribution as a
function of distance from the insulated surface:
63
861
777
708
651
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
612
0.1
900
850
800
750
700
600 650
600
550
500
0
T(x)
Temeratue Distrbution
x
(c). The heat transferred to the wall per square meter of surface area during the transient
can be obtained from Fig. 3.7(c). for Bi = 10 and Bi2 Fo = 70 is
Q(t)/Qi=0.70.
Q(t) = C p L(Ti - T )837 500 0.5 (-840 ) = -1.758 108 J/m 2
The minus sign indicates that the heat was transferred into the wall and the internal
energy increased during the process.
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