AncienRgime

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TheAncienRgime(Frenchpronunciation:
[
.sj
eim],OldorFormerRegime)wasthemonarchic,
aristocratic,socialandpoliticalsystemestablishedintheKingdomofFrancefromapproximatelythe15th
centuryuntilthelater18thcentury("earlymodernFrance")underthelateValoisandBourbondynasties.
Thetermisoccasionallyusedtorefertothesimilarfeudalsocialandpoliticalorderofthetimeelsewhere
inEurope.TheadministrativeandsocialstructuresoftheAncienRgimeweretheresultofyearsofstate
building,legislativeacts(liketheOrdinanceofVillersCotterts),internalconflictsandcivilwars,but
theyremainedaconfusingpatchworkoflocalprivilegeandhistoricdifferencesuntiltheFrench
Revolutionendedthesystem.
MuchofthemedievalpoliticalcentralizationofFrancehadbeenlostintheHundredYears'War,andthe
ValoisDynasty'sattemptsatreestablishingcontroloverthescatteredpoliticalcentresofthecountrywere
hinderedbytheWarsofReligion.MuchofthereignsofHenryIV,LouisXIIIandtheearlyyearsofLouis
XIVwerefocusedonadministrativecentralisation.Despite,however,thenotionof"absolutemonarchy"
(typifiedbytheking'srighttoissuelettresdecachet)andtheeffortsbythekingstocreateacentralized
state,AncienRgimeFranceremainedacountryofsystemicirregularities:administrative(including
taxation),legal,judicial,andecclesiasticdivisionsandprerogativesfrequentlyoverlapped,whilethe
Frenchnobilitystruggledtomaintaintheirownrightsinthemattersoflocalgovernmentandjustice,and
powerfulinternalconflicts(liketheFronde)protestedagainstthiscentralization.

LouisXIV,the"SunKing"

Theneedforcentralizationinthisperiodwasdirectlylinkedtothequestionofroyalfinancesandtheabilitytowagewar.Theinternal
conflictsanddynasticcrisesofthe16thand17thcenturies(theWarsofReligion,theconflictwiththeHabsburgs)andtheterritorialexpansion
ofFranceinthe17thcenturydemandedgreatsumswhichneededtoberaisedthroughtaxes,suchasthetailleandthegabelleandby
contributionsofmenandservicefromthenobility.
Onekeytothiscentralizationwasthereplacingofpersonal"clientele"systemsorganizedaroundthekingandothernoblesbyinstitutional
systemsaroundthestate.[1]ThecreationoftheIntendantsrepresentativesofroyalpowerintheprovincesdidmuchtounderminelocal
controlbyregionalnobles.Thesamewastrueofthegreaterrelianceshownbytheroyalcourtonthe"noblessederobe"asjudgesandroyal
counselors.Thecreationofregionalparlementshadinitiallythesamegoaloffacilitatingtheintroductionofroyalpowerintonewly
assimilatedterritories,butastheparlementsgainedinselfassurance,theybegantobesourcesofdisunity.

Contents

Contents
1Terminology
2Provincesandadministrativedivisions
2.1Territorialexpansion
2.2Administration
3Statefinances
3.1Taxationhistory
3.1.1Feesforholdingstatepositions
4Justice
4.1Lowercourts
4.2Superiorcourts
5Administration
5.1King'scounsel
5.1.117thcenturystatepositions
6TheChurch
6.1Gallicanism
6.2Monasteries
6.3Convents
6.4ReformationandtheProtestantminority
7Downfall
8Nostalgia
9References
10Furtherreading
10.1Religion
10.2Other
10.3InFrench

Terminology
TheterminFrenchmeans"oldregime"or"formerregime".However,mostEnglishlanguagebooksusetheFrenchtermAncienRgime.The
termfirstappearedinprintinEnglishin1794,andwasoriginallypejorativeinnature:SimonSchamahasobserved:"virtuallyassoonasthe
termwascoined,'oldregime'wasautomaticallyfreightedwithassociationsofbothtraditionalismandsenescence.Itconjuredupasocietyso
encrustedwithanachronismsthatonlyashockofgreatviolencecouldfreethelivingorganismwithin.Institutionallytorpid,economically
immobile,culturallyatrophiedandsociallystratified,this'oldregime'wasincapableofselfmodernization."[2]
Moregenerally,ancienrgimereferstoanypoliticalandsocialsystemhavingtheprincipalfeaturesoftheFrenchAncienRgime.Europe's
otheranciensrgimeshadsimilarorigins,butdiversefates:someeventuallyevolvedintoconstitutionalmonarchies,whereasothersweretorn
downbywarsandrevolutions.

Provincesandadministrativedivisions
Territorialexpansion
Inthemid15thcentury,Francewassignificantlysmallerthanitistoday,[3]andnumerousborderprovinces(suchasRoussillon,Cerdagne,
Conflent,Vallespir,Capcir,Calais,Barn,Navarre,CountyofFoix,Flanders,Artois,Lorraine,Alsace,Troisvchs,FrancheComt,
Savoy,Bresse,Bugey,Gex,Nice,Provence,Dauphin,andBrittany)wereeitherautonomousorbelongedtotheHolyRomanEmpire,the
CrownofAragonortheKingdomofNavarratherewerealsoforeignenclaves,liketheComtatVenaissin.
Inaddition,certainprovinceswithinFrancewereostensiblypersonalfiefdomsofnoblefamilies(liketheBourbonnais,Marche,Forezand
AuvergneprovincesheldbytheHouseofBourbonuntiltheprovinceswereforciblyintegratedintotheroyaldomainin1527afterthefallof
CharlesIII,DukeofBourbon).
Fromthelatefifteenthcenturyuptothelateseventeenthcentury(andagaininthe1760s),Franceunderwentamassiveterritorialexpansion
andanattempttobetterintegrateitsprovincesintoanadministrativewhole.
Frenchacquisitionsfrom14611768:
underLouisXIProvence(1482),Dauphin(1461,underFrenchcontrolsince1349)
underLouisXIIMilan(1500,lostin1521),Naples(1500,lostin1504)
underFrancisIBrittany(1532)

underHenryIIdefacto"Troisvchs"(Metz,Toul,
Verdun)(1552),Calais(1559)
underHenryIVCountyofFoix(1607)
underLouisXIIIBarnandNavarre(1620,underFrench
controlsince1589aspartofHenryIV'spossessions)
underLouisXIV
TreatyofWestphalia(1648)Alsaceanddejure
"TroisEvchs"
TreatyofthePyrenees(1659)Artois,Northern
Catalonia(Roussillon,Cerdagne)
TreatyofNijmegen(167879)FrancheComt,
Flanders
underLouisXVLorraine(1766),Corsica(1768)

Frenchterritorialexpansionfrom15521798.

Administration
Despiteeffortsbythekingstocreateacentralizedstateoutoftheseprovinces,Franceinthisperiodremainedapatchworkoflocalprivileges
andhistoricaldifferences.Thearbitrarypowerofthemonarch(asimpliedbytheexpression"absolutemonarchy")wasinfactmuchlimitedby
historicandregionalparticularities.Administrative(includingtaxation),legal(parlement),judicial,andecclesiasticdivisionsandprerogatives
frequentlyoverlapped(forexample,Frenchbishopricsanddiocesesrarelycoincidedwithadministrativedivisions).
Certainprovincesandcitieshadwonspecialprivileges(suchaslowerratesinthegabelleorsalttax).ThesouthofFrancewasgovernedby
writtenlawadaptedfromtheRomanlegalsystem,thenorthofFrancebycommonlaw(in1453thesecommonlawswerecodifiedintoa
writtenform).
Therepresentativeofthekinginhisprovincesandcitieswasthegouverneur.Royalofficerschosenfromthehighestnobility,provincialand
citygovernors(oversightofprovincesandcitieswasfrequentlycombined)werepredominantlymilitarypositionsinchargeofdefenseand
policing.Provincialgovernorsalsocalled"lieutenantsgnraux"alsohadtheabilityofconvokingprovincialparlements,provincial
estatesandmunicipalbodies.

Thetitle"gouverneur"firstappearedunderCharlesVI.TheordinanceofBloisof1579reducedtheirnumberto12,andanordinanceof1779
increasedtheirnumberto39(18firstclassgovernors,21secondclassgovernors).Althoughinprincipletheyweretheking'srepresentatives
andtheirchargescouldberevokedattheking'swill,somegovernorshadinstalledthemselvesandtheirheirsasaprovincialdynasty.
Thegovernorswereattheheightoftheirpowerfromthemiddleofthe16thtothemid17thcentury.Theirroleinprovincialunrestduringthe
civilwarsledCardinalRichelieutocreatethemoretractablepositionsofintendantsoffinance,policingandjustice,andinthe18thcentury
theroleofprovincialgovernorswasgreatlycurtailed.

Francein1477.Redline:BoundaryoftheKingdomofFranceLightblue:
thedirectlyheldroyaldomain.

MajorprovincesofFrance,withprovincialcapitals.Citiesinboldhadprovincial"parlements"or"conseilssouverains"duringtheAncien
Rgime.Note:ThemapreflectsFrance'smodernbordersanddoesnotindicatetheterritorialformationofFranceovertime.Provinceson
thislistmayencompassseveralotherhistoricprovincesandcounties(forexample,atthetimeoftheRevolution,Guyennewasmadeupof
eightsmallerhistoricprovinces,includingQuercyandRouergue).Foramorecompletelist,seeProvincesofFrance.
1. ledeFrance(Paris)

24. Foix(Foix)

2. Berry(Bourges)

25. Auvergne(ClermontFerrand)

3. Orlanais(Orlans)

26. Barn(Pau)

4. Normandy(Rouen)

27. Alsace(Strasbourg,cons.souv.inColmar)

5. Languedoc(Toulouse)

28. Artois(consprovinc.inArras)

6. Lyonnais(Lyon)

29. Roussillon(cons.souv.inPerpignan)

7. Dauphin(Grenoble)

30. FlandersandHainaut(Lille,parliamentfirstinTournai,then

8. Champagne(Troyes)
9. Aunis(LaRochelle)

inDouai)
31. FrancheComt(Besanon,formerlyatDole)

10. Saintonge(Saintes)

32. Lorraine(Nancy)

11. Poitou(Poitiers)

33. Corsica(offmap,Ajaccio,cons.souv.inBastia)

12. GuyenneandGascony(Bordeaux)

34. Nivernais(Nevers)

13. Burgundy(Dijon)

35. ComtatVenaissin(Avignon),aPapalfief

14. Picardy(Amiens)

36. ImperialFreeCityofMulhouse

15. Anjou(Angers)

37. Savoy,aSardinianfief(parl.inChambry153759)

16. Provence(AixenProvence)

38. Nice,aSardinianfief

17. Angoumois(Angoulme)

39. Montbliard,afiefofWrttemberg

18. Bourbonnais(Moulins)

40. (notindicated)Troisvchs(Metz,ToulandVerdun)

19. Marche(Guret)

41. (notindicated)Dombes(Trvoux)

20. Brittany(Rennes,parl.brieflyat

42. (notindicated)Navarre(SaintJeanPieddePort)

Nantes)

43. (notindicated)Soule(Maulon)
44. (notindicated)Bigorre(Tarbes)

21. Maine(LeMans)

45. (notindicated)Beaujolais(Beaujeu)

22. Touraine(Tours)

46. (notindicated)Bresse(Bourg)

23. Limousin(Limoges)

47. (notindicated)Perche(MortagneauPerche)

Inanattempttoreformthesystem,newdivisionswerecreated.Therecettesgnrales,commonlyknownas"gnralits",wereinitiallyonly
taxationdistricts(seeStatefinancesbelow).Thefirstsixteenwerecreatedin1542byedictofHenryII.Theirrolesteadilyincreasedandby
themid17thcentury,thegnralitswereundertheauthorityofan"intendant",andtheybecameavehiclefortheexpansionofroyalpowerin
mattersofjustice,taxationandpolicing.BytheRevolution,therewere36gnralitsthelasttwowerecreatedin1784.
GnralitsofFrancebycity(andprovince).Areasinredare"paysd'tat"(note:shouldalsoinclude36,37andpartsof35)white"pays
d'lection"yellow"paysd'imposition"(seeStatefinancesbelow).
1. GnralitofBordeaux,(Agen,
Guyenne)
2. GnralitofProvence,orAixen
Provence(Provence)
3. GnralitofAmiens(Picardy)
4. GnralitofBourges(Berry)

17. GnralitofMetz(Troisvchs)
18. GnralitofNantes(Brittany)
19. GnralitofLimoges(dividedintwoparts:
Angoumois&LimousinMarche)

5. GnralitofCaen(Normandy)

20. GnralitofOrlans(Orlanais)

6. GnralitofChlons

21. GnralitofMoulins(Bourbonnais)

(Champagne)
7. GnralitofBurgundy,Dijon
(Burgundy)

22. GnralitofSoissons(Picardy)
23. GnralitofMontauban(Gascony)
24. GnralitofAlenon(Perche)

8. GnralitofGrenoble(Dauphin)

25. GnralitofPerpignan(Roussillon)

9. GnralitofIssoire,laterofRiom

26. GnralitofBesanon(FrancheComt)

(Auvergne)
10. GnralitofLyon(Lyonnais,
BeaujolaisandForez)
11. GnralitofMontpellier
(Languedoc)

27. GnralitofValenciennes(Hainaut)
28. GnralitofStrasbourg(Alsace)
29. (see18)
30. GnralitofLille(Flanders)
31. GnralitofLaRochelle(AunisandSaintonge)

12. GnralitofParis(ledeFrance)

32. GnralitofNancy(Lorraine)

13. GnralitofPoitiers(Poitou)

33. GnralitofTrvoux(Dombes)

14. GnralitofRouen(Normandy)

34. GnralitofCorsica,orBastia(Corsica)

15. GnralitofToulouse

35. GnralitofAuch(Gascony)

(Languedoc)
16. GnralitofTours(Touraine,

36. GnralitofBayonne(Labourd)
37. GnralitofPau(BarnandSoule)

MaineandAnjou)

Statefinances
ThedesireformoreefficienttaxcollectionwasoneofthemajorcausesforFrenchadministrativeandroyalcentralizationintheearlymodern
period.Thetaillebecameamajorsourceofroyalincome.Exemptedfromthetaillewereclergyandnobles(exceptfornonnoblelandsthey
heldin"paysd'tat",seebelow),officersofthecrown,militarypersonnel,magistrates,universityprofessorsandstudents,andcertaincities
("villesfranches")suchasParis.

Theprovinceswereofthreesorts,the"paysd'lection",the"paysd'tat"andthe"paysd'imposition".Inthe"paysd'lection"(thelongest
heldpossessionsoftheFrenchcrownsomeoftheseprovinceshadhadtheequivalentautonomyofa"paysd'tat"inanearlierperiod,buthad
lostitthroughtheeffectsofroyalreforms)theassessmentandcollectionoftaxesweretrustedtoelectedofficials(atleastoriginally,later
thesepositionswerebought),andthetaxwasgenerally"personal",meaningitwasattachedtononnobleindividuals.
Inthe"paysd'tat"("provinceswithprovincialestates"),Brittany,Languedoc,Burgundy,Auvergne,Barn,Dauphin,Provenceandportions
ofGascony,suchasBigorre,CommingesandtheQuatreValles,recentlyacquiredprovinceswhichhadbeenabletomaintainacertainlocal
autonomyintermsoftaxation,theassessmentofthetaxwasestablishedbylocalcouncilsandthetaxwasgenerally"real",meaningthatitwas
attachedtononnoblelands(meaningthatnoblespossessingsuchlandswererequiredtopaytaxesonthem)."Paysd'imposition"wererecently
conqueredlandswhichhadtheirownlocalhistoricalinstitutions(theyweresimilartothe"paysd'tat"underwhichtheyaresometimes
grouped),althoughtaxationwasoverseenbytheroyalintendant.

Taxationhistory
Taxationdistrictshadgonethroughavarietyofmutationsfromthe14thcenturyon.Beforethe14thcentury,oversightofthecollectionof
royaltaxesfellgenerallytothebaillisandsnchauxintheircircumscriptions.Reformsinthe14thand15thcenturiessawFrance'sroyal
financialadministrationrunbytwofinancialboardswhichworkedinacollegialmanner:thefourGnrauxdesfinances(alsocalled"gnral
conseiller"or"receveurgnral")oversawthecollectionoftaxes(taille,aides,etc.)bytaxcollectingagents(receveurs)andthefour
TrsoriersdeFrance(Treasurers)oversawrevenuesfromroyallands(the"domaineroyal").
TogethertheyweretheMessieursdesfinances.Thefourmembersofeachboardweredividedbygeographicalcircumscriptions(althoughthe
termgnralitisn'tfoundbeforetheendofthe15thcentury).TheareaswerenamedLanguedol,Languedoc,OutreSeineandYonne,and
Nomandy(thelatterwascreatedin1449theotherthreewerecreatedearlier),withthedirectorsofthe"Languedol"regiontypicallyhaving
anhonorificpreeminence.By1484,thenumberofgnralitshadincreasedto6.
Inthe16thcentury,thekingsofFrance,inanefforttoexertmoredirectcontroloverroyalfinancesandtocircumventthedoubleboard
(accusedofpooroversight)institutednumerousadministrativereforms,includingtherestructuringofthefinancialadministrationandan
increaseinthenumberof"gnralits".In1542,HenryII,Francewasdividedinto16"gnralits".Thenumberincreasedto21attheendof
the16thcentury,andto36atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolutionthelasttwowerecreatedin1784.
TheadministrationofthegnralitsoftheRenaissancewentthroughavarietyofreforms.In1577,HenryIIIestablished5treasurers
("trsoriersgnraux")ineachgnralitwhoformedabureauoffinances.Inthe17thcentury,oversightofthegnralitswassubsumedby
theintendantsoffinance,justiceandpolice,andtheexpression"gnralit"and"intendance"becameroughlysynonymous.
Untilthelate17thcentury,taxcollectorswerecalledreceveurs.In1680,thesystemoftheFermeGnralewasestablished,afranchised
customsandexciseoperationinwhichindividualsboughttherighttocollectthetailleonbehalfoftheking,through6yearsadjudications
(certaintaxesliketheaidesandthegabellehadbeenfarmedoutinthiswayasearlyas1604).Themajortaxcollectorsinthatsystemwere

knownasthefermiersgnraux(farmersgeneralinEnglish).
Thetaillewasonlyoneofanumberoftaxes.Therealsoexistedthe"taillon"(ataxformilitarypurposes),anationalsalttax(thegabelle),
nationaltariffs(the"aides")onvariousproducts(wine,beer,oil,andothergoods),localtariffsonspecialityproducts(the"douane")orlevied
onproductsenteringthecity(the"octroi")orsoldatfairs,andlocaltaxes.Finally,thechurchbenefitedfromamandatorytaxortithecalled
the"dme".
LouisXIVcreatedseveraladditionaltaxsystems,includingthe"capitation"(begunin1695)whichtouchedeverypersonincludingnoblesand
theclergy(althoughexemptioncouldbeboughtforalargeonetimesum)andthe"dixime"(171017,restartedin1733),enactedtosupport
themilitary,whichwasatruetaxonincomeandonpropertyvalue.In1749,underLouisXV,anewtaxbasedonthe"dixime",the
"vingtime"(or"onetwentieth"),wasenactedtoreducetheroyaldeficit,andthistaxcontinuedthroughtheremainingyearsoftheAncien
Rgime.
Feesforholdingstatepositions
Anotherkeysourceofstatefinancingwasthroughchargingfeesforstatepositions(suchasmostmembersofparlements,magistrates,matre
desrequtesandfinancialofficers).Manyofthesefeeswerequiteelevated,butsomeoftheseofficesconferrednobilityandcouldbe
financiallyadvantageous.Theuseofofficestoseekprofithadbecomestandardpracticeasearlyasthe12thand13thcenturies.Alawin1467
madetheseofficesirrevocable,exceptthroughthedeath,resignationorforfeitureofthetitleholder,andtheseoffices,oncebought,tendedto
becomehereditarycharges(withafeefortransferoftitle)passedonwithinfamilies.[4]
Inanefforttoincreaserevenues,thestateoftenturnedtothecreationofnewoffices.Beforeitwasmadeillegalin1521,Ithadbeenpossible
toleaveopenendedthedatethatthetransferoftitlewastotakeeffect.In1534,the"fortydaysrule"wasinstituted(adaptedfromchurch
practice),whichmadethesuccessor'srightvoidiftheprecedingofficeholderdiedwithinfortydaysofthetransferandtheofficereturnedto
thestatehowever,anewfee,calledthesurvivancejouissanteprotectedagainstthefortydaysrule.[4]In1604,Sullycreatedanewtax,the
"paulette"or"annualtax"(1/60oftheamountoftheofficialcharge),whichpermittedthetitleholdertobefreeofthe40dayrule.The
"paulette"andthevenalityofofficesbecamekeyconcernsintheparlementarianrevoltsofthe1640s(LaFronde).
Thestatealsodemandedofthechurcha"freegift",whichthechurchcollectedfromholdersofeccleciasticofficesthroughtaxescalledthe
"dcime"(roughly1/20thoftheofficialcharge,createdunderFrancisI).
Statefinancesalsoreliedheavilyonborrowing,bothprivate(fromthegreatbankingfamiliesinEurope)andpublic.Themostimportant
publicsourceforborrowingwasthroughthesystemofrentessurl'HteldeVilleofParis,akindofgovernmentbondsystemoffering
investorsannualinterest.Thissystemfirstcametousein1522underFrancisI.

Until1661,theheadofthefinancialsysteminFrancewasgenerallythesurintendantdesfinanceswiththefallofFouquet,thiswasreplaced
bythelesserpositionofcontrleurgnraldesfinances.

Justice
Lowercourts
Justiceinseigneuriallands(includingthoseheldbythechurchorwithincities)wasgenerallyoverseenbytheseigneurorhisdelegated
officers.Sincethe15thcentury,muchoftheseigneur'slegalpurviewhadbeengiventothebailliagesorsnchaussesandtheprsidiaux(see
below),leavingonlyaffairsconcerningseigneurialduesandduties,andsmallaffairsoflocaljustice.Onlycertainseigneursthosewiththe
powerofhautejustice(seigneurialjusticewasdividedinto"high""middle"and"low"justice)couldenactthedeathpenalty,andonlywith
theconsentoftheprsidiaux.
Crimesofdesertion,highwayrobbery,andmendicants(socalledcasprvtaux)wereunderthesupervisionoftheprvtdesmarchaux,
whoexactedquickandimpartialjustice.In1670,theirpurviewwasoverseenbytheprsidiaux(seebelow).
Thenationaljudicialsystemwasmadeupoftribunalsdividedintobailliages(innorthernFrance)andsnchausses(insouthernFrance)
thesetribunals(numberingaround90inthe16thcentury,andfarmoreattheendofthe18th)weresupervisedbyalieutenantgnraland
weresubdividedinto:
prvtssupervisedbyaprvt
or(aswasthecaseinNormandy)intovicomtssupervisedbyavicomte(thepositioncouldbeheldbynonnobles)
or(inpartsofnorthernFrance)intochtelleniessupervisedbyachtelain(thepositioncouldbeheldbynonnobles)
or,inthesouth,intovigueriesorbayliessupervisedbyaviguierorabayle.
Inanefforttoreducethecaseloadintheparlements,certainbailliagesweregivenextendedpowersbyHenryIIofFrance:thesewerecalled
prsidiaux.
Theprvtsortheirequivalentwerethefirstleveljudgesfornonnoblesandecclesiastics.Intheexerciseoftheirlegalfunctions,theysat
alone,buthadtoconsultwithcertainlawyers(avocatsorprocureurs)chosenbythemselves,whom,tousethetechnicalphrase,they
"summonedtotheircouncil".Theappealsfromtheirsentenceswenttothebailliages,whoalsohadjurisdictioninthefirstinstanceover
actionsbroughtagainstnobles.Bailliagesandprsidiauxwerealsothefirstcourtforcertaincrimes(socalledcasroyauxthesecaseshad
formerlybeenunderthesupervisionofthelocalseigneurs):sacrilege,lsemajest,kidnapping,rape,heresy,alterationofmoney,sedition,
insurrections,andtheillegalcarryingofarms.Toappealabailliage'sdecisions,oneturnedtotheregionalparlements.

Themostimportantoftheseroyaltribunalswastheprvt[5]andprsidialofParis,theChtelet,whichwasoverseenbytheprvtofParis,
civilandcriminallieutenants,andaroyalofficerinchargeofmaintainingpublicorderinthecapital,theLieutenantGeneralofPoliceof
Paris.

Superiorcourts
Thefollowingwerecourssouveraines,orsuperiorcourts,whosedecisionscouldonlyberevokedby"thekinginhisconseil"(see
administrationsectionbelow).
Parlementseventually14innumber:Paris,Languedoc(Toulouse),Provence(Aix),FrancheComt(Besanon),Guyenne(Bordeaux),
Burgundy(Dijon),Flanders(Douai),Dauphin(Grenoble),Troisvchs(Metz),Lorraine(Nancy),Navarre(Pau),Brittany(Rennes,
brieflyinNantes),Normandy(Rouen)and(from15231771)Dombes(Trvoux).TherewasalsoparlementinSavoy(Chambry)from
153759.Theparlementswereoriginallyonlyjudicialinnature(appellatecourtsforlowercivilandecclesiasticalcourts),butbeganto
subsumelimitedlegislativefunctions(seeadministrationsectionbelow).Themostimportantoftheparlements,bothinadministrative
area(coveringthemajorpartofnorthernandcentralFrance)andprestige,wastheparliamentofParis,whichalsowasthecourtoffirst
instanceforpeersoftherealmandforregalianaffairs.
ConseilssouverainsAlsace(Colmar),Roussillon(Perpignan),Artois(aconseilprovincial,Arras)and(from155359)Corsica
(Bastia)formerlyFlanders,NavarreandLorraine(convertedintoparlements).Theconseilssouverainswereregionalparliamentsin
recentlyconqueredlands.
ChambredescomptesParis,Dijon,Blois,Grenoble,Nantes.Thechambredescomptessupervisedthespendingofpublicfunds,the
protectionofroyallands(domaineroyal),andlegalissuesinvolvingtheseareas.
CoursdesaidesParis,Clermont,Bordeaux,Montauban.Thecoursdesaidessupervisedaffairsinthepaysd'lections,often
concerningtaxesonwine,beer,soap,oil,metals,etc.
ChambredescomptescombinedwithCoursdesaidesAix,BarleDuc,Dole,Nancy,Montpellier,Pau,Rouen
CoursdesmonnaiesParisadditionallyLyon(170471),and(after1766),thechambredescomptesofBarleDucandNancy.The
coursdesmonnaiesoversawmoney,coinsandpreciousmetals.

GrandConseilcreatedin1497tooverseeaffairsconcerningecclesiasticalbeneficesoccasionallythekingsoughttheGrandConseil's
interventioninaffairsconsideredtobetoocontentiousfortheparliament.
TheheadofthejudicialsysteminFrancewasthechancellor.

Administration
OneoftheestablishedprinciplesoftheFrenchmonarchywasthatthekingcouldnotactwithouttheadviceofhiscounseltheformula"leroi
ensonconseil"expressedthisdeliberativeaspect.TheadministrationoftheFrenchstateintheearlymodernperiodwentthroughalong
evolution,asatrulyadministrativeapparatusrelyingonoldnobility,newerchancellornobility("noblessederobe")andadministrative
professionalswassubstitutedtothefeudalclientelsystem.

King'scounsel
UnderCharlesVIIIandLouisXIItheking'scounselwasdominatedbymembersoftwentyorsonobleorrichfamiliesunderFrancisIthe
numberofcounsellorsincreasedtoroughly70individuals(althoughtheoldnobilitywasproportionallymoreimportantthanintheprevious
century).ThemostimportantpositionsinthecourtwerethoseoftheGreatOfficersoftheCrownofFrance,headedbytheconntable(chief
militaryofficeroftherealmpositioneliminatedin1627)andthechancellor.
TheroyaladministrationduringtheRenaissancewasdividedbetweenasmallcounsel(the"secret"andlater"high"counsel)of6orfewer
members(3membersin1535,4in1554)forimportantmattersofstateandalargercounselforjudicialorfinancialaffairs.FrancisIwas
sometimescriticizedforrelyingtooheavilyonasmallnumberofadvisors,whileHenryII,CatherinedeMediciandtheirsonsfound
themselvesfrequentlyunabletonegotiatebetweentheopposingGuiseandMontmorencyfamiliesintheircounsel.
Overtime,thedecisionmakingapparatusoftheKing'sCouncilwasdividedintoseveralroyalcounsels.ThesubcouncilsoftheKing'sCouncil
canbegenerallygroupedas"governmentalcouncils","financialcouncils"and"judicialandadministrativecouncils".Withthenamesand
subdivisionsofthe1718thcentury,thesesubcouncilswere:
GovernmentalCouncils:
Conseild'enhaut("HighCouncil",concerningthemostimportantmattersofstate)composedoftheking,thecrownprince(the
"dauphin"),thechancellor,thecontrleurgnraldesfinances,andthesecretaryofstateinchargeofforeignaffairs.
Conseildesdpches("CouncilofMessages",concerningnoticesandadministrativereportsfromtheprovinces)composedofthe

king,thechancellor,thesecretariesofstate,thecontrleurgnraldesfinances,andothercouncillorsaccordingtotheissuesdiscussed.
ConseildeConscience
FinancialCouncils:
Conseilroyaldesfinances("RoyalCouncilofFinances")composedoftheking,the"chefduconseildesfinances"(anhonorarypost),
thechancellor,thecontrleurgnraldesfinancesandtwoofhisconsellors,andtheintendantsoffinance.
Conseilroyaldecommerce
JudicialandAdministrativeCouncils:
Conseild'tatetdesFinancesorConseilordinairedesFinancesbythelate17thcentury,itsfunctionswerelargelytakenoverbythe
threefollowingsections.
ConseilprivorConseildespartiesorConseild'tat("PrivyCouncil"or"CouncilofState",concerningthejudicialsystem,officially
institutedin1557)thelargestoftheroyalcouncils,composedofthechancellor,thedukeswithpeerage,theministersandsecretaries
ofstate,thecontrleurgnraldesfinances,the30councillorsofstate,the80matredesrequtesandtheintendantsoffinance.
GrandeDirectiondesFinances
PetiteDirectiondesFinances
Inadditiontotheaboveadministrativeinstitutions,thekingwasalsosurroundedbyanextensivepersonalandcourtretinue(royalfamily,
valetdechambres,guards,honorificofficers),regroupedunderthename"MaisonduRoi".
AtthedeathofLouisXIV,theRegentPhilippeII,DukeofOrlansabandonedseveraloftheaboveadministrativestructures,mostnotablythe
SecretariesofState,whichwerereplacedbyCounsels.Thissystemofgovernment,calledthePolysynody,lastedfrom171518.
17thcenturystatepositions
UnderHenryIVandLouisXIIItheadministrativeapparatusofthecourtanditscouncilswasexpandedandtheproportionofthe"noblessede
robe"increased,culminatinginthefollowingpositionsduringthe17thcentury:

FirstMinister:ministersandsecretariesofstatesuchasSully,Concini(whowasalsogovernorofseveralprovinces),Richelieu,
Mazarin,JeanBaptisteColbert,CardinaldeFleury,Turgot,etc.exertedapowerfulcontroloverstateadministrationinthe17thand
18thcentury.Thetitle"principalministredel'tat"washoweveronlygivensixtimesinthisperiodandLouisXIVhimselfrefusedto
choosea"primeminister"afterthedeathofMazarin.
ChancellorofFrance(alsocalledthe"gardedessceaux",or"KeeperoftheSeals"inthecaseofincapacityordisfavor,theChancellor
wasgenerallypermittedtoretainhistitle,buttheroyalsealswerepassedtoadeputy,calledthe"gardedessceaux"[6])
ControllerGeneralofFinances(contrleurgnraldesfinances,formerlycalledthesurintendantdesfinances).
SecretariesofState:createdin1547byHenryII,ofgreaterimportanceafter1588,generally4innumber,butoccasionally5:
SecretaryofStateforForeignAffairs
SecretaryofStateforWar,alsooversawFrance'sborderprovinces.
SecretaryofStateoftheNavy
SecretaryofStateoftheMaisonduRoi(theking'sroyalentourageandpersonalmilitaryguard),whoalsooversawtheclergy,the
affairsofParisandthenonborderprovinces.
SecretaryofStateforProtestantAffairs(combinedwiththesecretaryoftheMaisonduRoiin1749).
Councillorsofstate(generally30)
Matredesrequtes(generally80)
Intendantsoffinance(6)
Intendantsofcommerce(4or5)
MinistersofState(variable)
Treasurers
FarmersGeneral
Superintendentofthepostalsystem
Directeurgnralofbuildings
Directeurgnraloffortifications
LieutenantGeneralofPoliceofParis(inchargeofpublicorderinthecapital)
ArchbishopofParis
Royalconfessor

RoyaladministrationintheprovinceshadbeentheroleofthebailliagesandsnchaussesintheMiddleAges,butthisdeclinedintheearly
modernperiod,andbytheendofthe18thcentury,thebailliagesservedonlyajudicialfunction.Themainsourceofroyaladministrative
powerintheprovincesinthe16thandearly17thcenturiesfelltothegouverneurs(whorepresented"thepresenceofthekinginhis
province"),positionswhichhadlongbeenheldbyonlythehighestrankedfamiliesintherealm.Withthecivilwarsoftheearlymodern
period,thekingincreasingturnedtomoretractableandsubservientemissaries,andthiswasthereasonforthegrowthoftheprovincial
intendantsunderLouisXIIIandLouisXIV.Indendantswerechosenfromamongthematredesrequtes.Intendantsattachedtoaprovince
hadjurisdictionoverfinances,justiceandpolicing.
Bythe18thcentury,royaladministrativepowerwasfirmlyestablishedintheprovinces,despiteprotestationsbylocalparlements.Inaddition
totheirroleasappellatecourts,regionalparlementshadgainedtheprivilegetoregistertheedictsofthekingandtopresentthekingwith
officialcomplaintsconcerningtheedictsinthisway,theyhadacquiredalimitedroleastherepresentativevoiceof(predominantly)the
magistrateclass.Incaseofrefusalonparliament'sparttoregistertheedicts(frequentlyconcerningfiscalmatters),thekingcouldimpose
registrationthrougharoyalassize("litdejustice").
TheothertraditionalrepresentativesbodiesintherealmweretheEtatsgnraux(createdin1302)whichreunitedthethreeestatesofthe
realm(clergy,nobility,thethirdestate)andthe"tatsprovinciaux"(ProvincialEstates).The"Etatsgnraux"(convokedinthisperiodin
1484,156061,157677,158889,1593,1614,and1789)hadbeenreunitedintimesoffiscalcrisisorconvokedbypartiesmalcontentwith
royalprerogatives(theLigue,theHuguenots),buttheyhadnotruepower,thedissensionsbetweenthethreeordersrenderedthemweakand
theyweredissolvedbeforehavingcompletedtheirwork.AsasignofFrenchabsolutism,theyceasedtobeconvokedfrom1614to1789.The
provincialestatesprovedmoreeffective,andwereconvokedbythekingtorespondtofiscalandtaxpolicies.

TheChurch
TheFrenchmonarchywasirrevocablylinkedtotheCatholicChurch(theformulasays"laFranceestlafilleanedel'glise",or"Franceisthe
eldestdaughterofthechurch"),andFrenchtheoristsofthedivinerightofkingsandsacerdotalpowerintheRenaissancehadmadetheselinks
explicit:HenryIVwasabletoascendtothethroneonlyafterabjuringProtestantism.ThesymbolicpoweroftheCatholicmonarchwas
apparentinhiscrowning(thekingwasanointedbyblessedoilinRheims)andhewaspopularlybelievedtobeabletocurescrofulabythe
layingonofhishands(accompaniedbytheformula"thekingtouchesyou,butGodhealsyou").
In1500,Francehad14archbishoprics(Lyon,Rouen,Tours,Sens,Bourges,Bordeaux,Auch,Toulouse,Narbonne,AixenProvence,Embrun,
Vienne,Arles,andRheims)and100bishoprics.Bythe18thcentury,archbishopricsandbishopricshadexpandedtoatotalof139(seeListof
AncienRgimediocesesofFrance).TheupperlevelsoftheFrenchchurchweremadeuppredominantlyofoldnobility,bothfromprovincial
familiesandfromroyalcourtfamilies,andmanyoftheofficeshadbecomedefactohereditarypossessions,withsomememberspossessing
multipleoffices.Inadditiontofiefsthatchurchmemberspossessedasseigneurs,thechurchalsopossessedseigneuriallandsinitsownright
andenactedjusticeuponthem.

Atthestartofthe16thcentury,thesecularclergy(curates,vicars,canons,etc.)numberedaround100,000individualsinFrance.[7]
Othertemporalpowersofthechurchincludedplayingapoliticalroleasthefirstestateinthe"tatsGnraux"andthe"tatsProvinciaux"
(ProvincialAssemblies)andinProvincialConcilesorSynodsconvokedbythekingtodiscussreligiousissues.Thechurchalsoclaimeda
prerogativetojudgecertaincrimes,mostnotablyheresy,althoughtheWarsofReligiondidmuchtoplacethiscrimeinthepurviewofthe
royalcourtsandparliament.Finally,abbots,cardinalsandotherprelateswerefrequentlyemployedbythekingsasambassadors,membersof
hiscouncils(suchasRichelieuandMazarin)andinotheradministrativepositions.
ThefacultyoftheologyofParis(oftencalledtheSorbonne),maintainedacensorboardwhichreviewedpublicationsfortheirreligious
orthodoxy.TheWarsofReligionsawthiscontrolovercensorshiphoweverpasstotheparliament,andinthe17thcenturytotheroyalcensors,
althoughthechurchmaintainedarighttopetition.
Thechurchwastheprimaryproviderofschools(primaryschoolsand"colleges")andhospitals("htelDieu",theSistersofCharity)and
distributorofrelieftothepoorinprerevolutionaryFrance
ThePragmaticSanctionofBourges(1438,suppressedbyLouisXI
butbroughtbackbythetatsGnrauxofToursin1484)gavethe
electionofbishopsandabbotstothecathedralchapterhousesand
abbeysofFrance,thusstrippingthepopeofeffectivecontrolofthe
FrenchchurchandpermittingthebeginningofaGallicanchurch.
However,in1515,FrancisIsignedanewagreementwithPopeLeo
X,theConcordatofBologna,whichgavethekingtherightto
nominatecandidatesandthepopetherightofinvestiturethis
agreementinfuriatedgallicans,butgavethekingcontrolover
importantecclesiasticalofficeswithwhichtobenefitnobles.
Althoughexemptedfromthetaille,thechurchwasrequiredtopay
thecrownataxcalledthe"freegift"("dongratuit"),whichit
collectedfromitsofficeholders,atroughly1/20thepriceofthe
office(thiswasthe"dcime",reapportionedeveryfiveyears).Inits
turn,thechurchexactedamandatorytithefromitsparishioners,
calledthe"dme".
TheCounterReformationsawtheFrenchchurchcreatenumerous
religiousorders(suchastheJesuits)andmakegreatimprovements
onthequalityofitsparishprieststhefirstdecadesofthe17th
centurywerecharacterizedbyamassiveoutpouringofdevotional

DiocesesofFrancein1789.

textsandreligiousfervor(exemplifiedinSaintFrancisofSales,SaintVincentdePaul,etc.).AlthoughtheEdictofNantes(1598)permitted
theexistenceofProstestantchurchesintherealm(characterizedas"astatewithinastate"),thenexteightyyearssawtherightsofthe
Huguenotsslowlystrippedaway,untilLouisXIVfinallyrevokedtheedictin1685,producingamassiveemigrationofHuguenotstoother
countries.ReligiouspracticeswhichveeredtooclosetoProtestantism(likeJansenism)ortothemystical(likeQuietism)werealsoseverely
suppressed,astoolibertinageorovertatheism.
Regularclergy(i.e.thoseinCatholicreligiousorders)inFrancenumberedintothetensofthousandsinthe16thcentury.Someorders,likethe
Benedictines,werelargelyruralothers,liketheDominicans(alsocalled"Jacobins")andtheFranciscans(alsocalled"cordeliers")operatedin
cities.[7]
AlthoughthechurchcameunderattackintheeighteenthcenturybythephilosophersoftheEnlightenmentandrecruitmentofclergyand
monasticordersdroppedafter1750,figuresshowthat,onthewhole,thepopulationremainedaprofoundlyCatholiccountry(absenteeism
fromservicesdidnotexceed1%inthemiddleofthecentury[8]).Attheeveoftherevolution,thechurchpossessedupwardsof7%ofthe
country'sland(figuresvary)andgeneratedyearlyrevenuesof150millionlivres.

Gallicanism
LouisXIVsupportedtheGallicancausethatgavethegovernmentagreaterrolethanthepopeinchoosingbishops,andgavethegovernment
therevenueswhenabishopricwasvacant.TherewouldbenoinquisitioninFrance,andpapaldecreescouldoperateonlyafterthegovernment
approvedthem.LouisavoidedschismhewantedmoreroyalpowerovertheFrenchChurchbutdidnotwanttobreakfreeofRome.The
popelikewiserecognizedthe"mostChristianking"wasapowerfulallywhocouldnotbealienated.[9]

Monasteries
UntiltheFrenchRevolution,themonasticcommunityconstitutedacentralelementoftheeconomic,social,andreligiouslifeofmany
localitiesundertheOldRegime.FromtheendoftheWarsofReligiontotheFrenchRevolution,Menat,aCluniacabbeydatingbackto1107,
ruledovertheSiouleValleyinthenorthwestregionoftheClermontdiocese.Themonkswerelargelandholdersanddevelopedadiversified
andcomplexsetoflinkswiththeirneighborstheyreceivedseigniorialrights,providedworktotheruralpoor,andwereindailycontactwith
notariespublic,merchants,andsurgeons.Whiletheydidnotdirectlymanagethereligiouslifeofthefaithful(parishpriestsdidthat),monks
didconstituteamotivatingforceinitthroughtheirsettingupofaparishclergy,providingalmsandsocialservices,andplayingtheroleof
intercessors.

Convents

CommunitiesofnunsinFranceontheeveofRevolutionhad,onaverage,25membersandamedianageof48years.Nunswerebothentering
theprofessionlaterandlivinglongerthanbefore.Ingeneral,theyhadlittlewealth.Recruitmentvariedfromregiontoregionandbyconvent
lifestyle(activeorcontemplative,austereoropulent,lowerclassormiddleclass).Thenatureofmaleandfemalemonasticismdifferedgreatly
inFrancebothbeforeandduringtherevolution.Conventstendedtobemoreisolatedandlesscentrallycontrolled.Thismadeforgreater
diversityamongthemthanamongmalemonasteries.[10]

ReformationandtheProtestantminority
FrenchProtestantism,whichwaslargelyCalvinist,deriveditssupportfromthelessernoblesandtradingclasses.Itstwomainstrongholds
weresouthwestFranceandNormandy,buteveninthesedistrictstheCatholicswereamajority.ProtestantisminFrancewasconsidereda
gravethreattonationalunity,astheHuguenotminorityfeltacloseraffinitywithGermanandDutchCalviniststhanwiththeirfellow
Frenchmen.InanefforttocementtheirpositiontheyoftenalliedwithFrenchenemies.TheanimositybetweenthetwosidesledtotheFrench
WarsofReligionandthetragicSt.Bartholomew'sDayMassacre.Thereligiouswarsendedin1593,whentheHuguenotHenryofNavarre
(15531610),whowasalreadyeffectivelykingofFrancebecameaCatholicandwasrecognizedbybothCatholicsandProtestantsasKing
HenryIV(reigned15891610).
ThemainprovisionsoftheEdictofNantes(1598),whichHenryIVhadissuedasacharterofreligiousfreedomsfortheHuguenots,wereas
followsfirst)Huguenotswereallowedtoholdreligiousservicesincertaintownsineachprovincesecond)Theywereallowedtocontroland
fortifyeightcitiesthird)SpecialcourtswereestablishedtotryHuguenotoffendersd)Huguenotsweretohaveequalcivilrightswiththe
Catholics.
ThemilitaryprivilegeswereincorporatedintheEdictinordertoallaythefearsoftheminority.Overtimeitbecamecleartheseprivileges
wereopentoabuseandwhenin1620theHuguenotsproclaimedaconstitutionforthe"RepublicoftheReformedChurchesofFrance",the
PrimeMinisterCardinalRichelieu(15851642)invokedthefullpowersofthestateHecapturedLaRochelleafteralongsiegein1628.The
subsequentTreatyofAlaislefttheHuguenotstheirreligiousfreedombutrevokedtheirmilitaryfreedoms.
Montpellierwasamongthemostimportantofthe66"villesdesret"thattheEdictof1598grantedtotheHuguenots.Thecity'spolitical
institutionsandtheuniversitywereallhandedovertotheHuguenots.TensionwithParisledtoasiegebytheroyalarmyin1622.Peaceterms
calledforthedismantlingofthecity'sfortifications.AroyalcitadelwasbuiltandtheuniversityandconsulateweretakenoverbytheCatholic
party.EvenbeforetheEdictofAls(1629),Protestantrulewasdeadandthevilledesretwasnomore.
By1620theHuguenotswereonthedefensive,andthegovernmentincreasinglyappliedpressure.Aseriesofsmallcivilwarsthatbrokeoutin
southernFrancebetween1610and1635werelongconsideredbyhistorianstoberegionalsquabblesbetweenrivalnoblefamilies.New
analysisshowsthatthesecivilwarswereinfactreligiousinnature,remnantsoftheFrenchWarsofReligionthatlargelyendedwiththeEdict
ofNantesin1598.SmallwarsintheprovincesofLanguedocandGuyenneshowCatholicandCalvinistgroupsusingdestructionofchurches,
iconoclasm,forcedconversions,andtheexecutionofhereticsasweaponsofchoice.

LouisXIVactedmoreandmoreaggressivelytoforcetheHuguenotstoconvert.Atfirsthesentmissionariestoconvertthem,backedbya
fundtofinanciallyrewardconvertstoCatholicism.Thenheimposedpenaltiesandclosedtheirschoolsandexcludedthemfromfavorite
professions.Escalatingtheattack,hetriedtoforciblyreCatholicizetheHuguenotsbytheemploymentofarmeddragonnades(soldiers)to
occupyandloottheirhouses,andfinallybytherevocation(Oct.18,1685)oftheliberalEdictofNantesof1598.[11]
TherevocationforbadeProtestantservices,thechildrenweretobeeducatedasCatholics,andemigrationwasprohibited.Itproveddisastrous
totheHuguenotsandcostlyforFrance.Itprecipitatedcivilbloodshed,ruinedcommerce,andresultedintheillegalflightfromthecountryof
about180,000Protestants,manyofwhombecameintellectuals,doctorsandbusinessleadersinBritainaswellasHolland,PrussiaandSouth
Africa.4000wenttotheAmericancolonies.[11]
TheEnglishwelcomedtheFrenchrefugees,providingmoneyfrombothgovernmentandprivateagenciestoaidtheirrelocation.Those
HuguenotswhostayedinFrancebecameCatholicsandwerecalled"newconverts."OnlyafewProtestantvillagesremainedinisolated
areas.[11]
Bythe1780s,Protestantscomprisedabout700,000people,or2%ofthepopulation.Theirswasnolongerafavoritereligionoftheelitemost
Protestantswerepeasants.TobeaProtestantwasstillillegal.Althoughthelawwasseldomenforceditcouldbeathreatoranuisanceto
Protestants.CalvinistlivedprimarilyintheMidiabout200,000LutheranslivedinAlsace,wherethe1648TreatyofWestphaliastillprotected
them.[12]Inaddition,therewereabout40,000to50,000JewsinFrance,chieflycenteredinBordeaux,Metzandafewothercities.Theyhad
verylimitedrightsandopportunities,apartfromthemoneylendingbusiness,buttheirstatuswasnotillegal.[13]

Downfall
In1789,theAncienRgimewasviolentlyoverthrownbytheFrenchRevolution.AlthoughFrance
in1785facedeconomicdifficulties,mostlyconcerningtheequitabilityoftaxation,itwasoneof
therichestandmostpowerfulnationsofEurope.[14]TheFrenchpeoplealsoenjoyedmorepolitical
freedomandalowerincidenceofarbitrarypunishmentthanmanyoftheirfellowEuropeans.
However,LouisXVI,hisministers,andthewidespreadFrenchnobilityhadbecomeimmensely
unpopular.Thiswasaconsequenceofthefactthatpeasantsand,toalesserextent,thebourgeoisie,
wereburdenedwithruinouslyhightaxesleviedtosupportwealthyaristocratsandtheirsumptuous
lifestyles.
HistoriansexplainthesuddencollapseoftheAncienRgimeinpart,onitsownrigidity.
Aristocratswereconfrontedbytherisingambitionsofthemerchants,tradesmenandprosperous
farmers,whowerealliedwithaggrievedpeasants,wageearnersandintellectualsinfluencedbythe

OneoftheassistantsofSansonshowsthe
headofLouisXVI.

ideasofEnlightenmentphilosophers.Astherevolutionproceeded,powerdevolvedfromthemonarchyandtheprivilegedbybirthtomore
representativepoliticalbodies,likelegislativeassemblies,butconflictsamongtheformerlyalliedrepublicangroupsbecamethesourceof
considerablediscordandbloodshed.
AgrowingnumberoftheFrenchcitizenryhadabsorbedtheideasof"equality"and"freedomoftheindividual"aspresentedbyVoltaire,Denis
Diderot,Turgot,andotherphilosophersandsocialtheoristsoftheEnlightenment.TheAmericanRevolutionhaddemonstratedthatitwas
possibleforEnlightenmentideasabouthowgovernanceshouldbeorganizedtoactuallybeputintopractice.SomeAmericandiplomats,like
BenjaminFranklinandThomasJefferson,hadlivedinPariswheretheyconsortedfreelywithmembersoftheFrenchintellectualclass.
Furthermore,contactbetweenAmericanrevolutionariesandtheFrenchtroopswhoservedasantiBritishmercenariesinNorthAmericahelped
spreadrevolutionaryidealstotheFrenchpeople.Afteratime,manyoftheFrenchbegantoattacktheundemocraticnatureoftheirown
government,pushforfreedomofspeech,challengetheRomanCatholicChurch,anddecrytheprerogativesofthenobles.[15]
Revolutionwasnotduetoasingleeventbuttoaseriesofevents,thattogetherirreversiblychangedtheorganizationofpoliticalpower,the
natureofsociety,andtheexerciseofindividualfreedoms.

Nostalgia
Forsomeobserversthetermcametodenoteacertainnostalgia.Talleyrandfamouslyquipped:

Celuiquin'apasvcuaudixhuitimesicleavantlaRvolutionneconnatpasladouceurdevivre:[16]("Thosewhohavenot
livedintheeighteenthcenturybeforetheRevolutiondonotknowthesweetnessofliving")

ThereasonforthisaffectionwastheperceiveddeclineincultureandvaluesfollowingtheRevolution,wherethearistocracylostmuchofits
economicandpoliticalpowertowhatwasseenasarich,butcoarseandmaterialisticbourgeoisie.Thethemerecursthroughoutnineteenth
centuryFrenchliterature,withBalzacandFlaubertalikeattackingthemoresofthenewupperclasses.Tothismindset,theAncienRgime
expressedabygoneeraofrefinementandgrace,beforetheRevolutionanditsassociatedchangesdisruptedthearistocratictraditionand
usheredinacrude,uncertainmodernity.
ThehistorianAlexisdeTocquevillearguedagainstthisdefiningnarrativeinhisclassicstudy,L'AncienRgimeetlaRvolution,highlighting
thecontinuitiesbetweenpreandpostrevolutionaryFrenchinstitutions.

References
1. Major1994,pp.xxxxi
2. Schama,Simon(1989).Citizens:AChronicleoftheFrenchRevolution.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.p.184.

3. Bly1994,p.21.In1492,roughly450,000kmversus550,000kmtoday.
4. Salmon1975,p.77
5. Despitebeingcalledaprvt,theprvtofPariswaseffectivelyabailliage.SeeSalmon1975,p.73
6. Salmon1975,p.67
7. Bly1994,p.50
8. Viguerie1995,p.280
9. JohnWolf,LouisXIV,38892
10. ElizabethRapleyandRobertRapley,"AnImageofReligiousWomeninthe'AncienRegime':the'EtatsDesReligieuses'of17901791."French
History199711(4):387410
11. JohnWolf,LouisXIV,ch24BertrandVanRuymbeke,"EscapefromBabylon."ChristianHistory200120(3):3842.Issn:08919666Fulltext:Ebsco
12. NigelAston,ReligionandRevolutioninFrance,17801804(2000)pp6172
13. Aston,ReligionandRevolutioninFrance,17801804(2000)pp7289
14. NormanGash,ReflectionsontherevolutionFrenchRevolution,NationalReview,July14,1790:"Yetin1789Francewasthelargest,wealthiest,and
mostpowerfulstateinWesternEurope."
15. TheOriginsoftheFrenchRevolution(http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture11a.html).Historyguide.org(20061030).Retrievedon20111118.
16. "Celuiquin'apasvcuaudixhuitimesicleavantlaRvolutionneconnatpasladouceurdevivreetnepeutimaginercequ'ilpeutyavoirdebonheur
danslavie.C'estlesiclequiaforgtouteslesarmesvictorieusescontrecetinsaisissableadversairequ'onappellel'ennui.L'Amour,laPosie,la
Musique,leThtre,laPeinture,l'Architecture,laCour,lesSalons,lesParcsetlesJardins,laGastronomie,lesLettres,lesArts,lesSciences,tout
concouraitlasatisfactiondesapptitsphysiques,intellectuelsetmmemoraux,auraffinementdetouteslesvolupts,detoutesleslgancesetdetous
lesplaisirs.L'existencetaitsibienrempliequisiledixseptimesicleatleGrandSicledesgloires,ledixhuitimeatceluidesindigestions."
CharlesMauricedeTalleyrandPrigord:MmoiresduPrincedeTalleyrand:LaConfessiondeTalleyrand,V.15Chapter:LajeunesseLecerclede
MadameduBarry.

Furtherreading
Baker,KeithMichael(1987).TheFrenchRevolutionandthecreationofmodernpoliticalculture.Volume1,ThePoliticalCultureof
OldRegime.Oxford:PergamonPress.
Behrens,C.B.A.AncienRegime(1989)
Black,Jeremy.FromLouisXIVtoNapoleon:TheFateofaGreatPower(1999)
Brockliss,LaurenceandColinJones.TheMedicalWorldofEarlyModernFrance(1997)984pphighlydetailedsurvey,16001790s

excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/MedicalWorldEarlyModernFrance/dp/0198227507/)
Doyle,William,ed.OldRegimeFrance:16481788(2001)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731299)
Doyle,William,ed.TheOxfordHandbookoftheAncienRgime(2012)656ppexcerptandtextsearch
(http://www.amazon.com/OxfordHandbookAncienHandbooksHistory/dp/0199291209/)32topicalchaptersbyexperts
Goubert,Pierre.LouisXIVandTwentyMillionFrenchmen(1972),socialhistoryfromAnnalesSchool
Goubert,Pierre.TheFrenchPeasantryintheSeventeenthCentury(1986)excerptandtextsearch
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521312698)
Holt,MackP.RenaissanceandReformationFrance:15001648(2002)excerptandtextsearch
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731655)
Jones,Colin.TheGreatNation:FrancefromLouisXVtoNapoleon,171599(2002).excerptandtextsearch
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0140130934)
ScholarlybibliographybyColinJones(2002)(http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/cdhjones/documents/gn_pdf.pdf)
Kendall,PaulMurray.LouisXI:TheUniversalSpider.(1971).ISBN0393302601
Kors,AlanCharles.EncyclopediaoftheEnlightenment(4vol.19902nded.2003),1984ppexcerptandtextsearch
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195104307)
Knecht,R.J.TheRiseandFallofRenaissanceFrance.(1996).ISBN0006861679
LeRoyLadurie,Emmanuel.TheAncienRegime:AHistoryofFrance16101774(1999),politicalsurveyexcerptandtextsearch
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0631211969)
Lynn,JohnA.TheWarsofLouisXIV,16671714(1999)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0582056292)
Major,J.Russell(1994).FromRenaissanceMonarchytoAbsoluteMonarchy:FrenchKings,Nobles&Estates.ISBN0801856310.
Mayer,Arno(2010)[1981].ThePersistenceoftheOldRegime:EuropetotheGreatWar.London&Brooklyn,NY:Verso.ISBN978
1844676361.
O'Gorman,Frank."EighteenthCenturyEnglandasanAncienRegime,"inStephenTaylor,ed.HanoverianBritainandEmpire(1998)
arguesthataclosecomparisonwithEnglandshowsthatFrancedidhaveanAncienRgimeandEnglanddidnot(anattackonJonathan
Clark.EnglishSociety,16881832(1985))
Perkins,JamesBreck.FranceunderLouisXV(2vol1897)onlinevol1(http://www.questia.com/read/95943782)onlinevol2
(http://www.questia.com/read/92007973)

Potter,David.AHistoryofFrance,14601560:TheEmergenceofaNationState(1995)
Riley,JamesC."FrenchFinances,17271768,"JournalofModernHistory(1987)59#2pp.209243inJSTOR
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Salmon,J.H.M.(1975).SocietyinCrisis:FranceintheSixteenthCentury.Universitypaperbacks,v.681.London:Methuen.ISBN0
416730507.
Schaeper,T.J.TheEconomyofFranceintheSecondHalfoftheReignofLouisXIV(Montreal,1980).
Spencer,SamiaI.,ed.FrenchWomenandtheAgeofEnlightenment.1984.
Sutherland,D.M.G."Peasants,Lords,andLeviathan:WinnersandLosersfromtheAbolitionofFrenchFeudalism,17801820,"
JournalofEconomicHistory(2002)62#1pp.124inJSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/2697970)
Tocqueville,Alexisde.AncienRegimeandtheFrenchRevolution(18562008edition)excerptandtextsearch
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Wolf,JohnB.LouisXIV(1968),thestandardscholarlybiographyonlineedition(http://www.questia.com/read/103250721)

Religion
Aston,Nigel.ReligionandRevolutioninFrance,17801804(2000)comprehensiveoverview
McManners,John.ChurchandSocietyinEighteenthCenturyFrance.Vol.1:TheClericalEstablishmentandItsSocialRamifications
Vol.2:TheReligionofthePeopleandthePoliticsofReligion(1999)
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VanKley,Dale.TheReligiousOriginsoftheFrenchRevolution:FromCalvintotheCivilConstitution,15601791(1996)
Ward,W.R.ChristianityundertheAncienRgime,16481789(1999).

Other
Importantpersonsmentionedinthisarticleputonatimeline
(http://www.weple.org/timeline.html#ids=77413,70506,77655,77606,703438,50012,75910,44154,57876,491257,85254,77062,187067,1

8553,54247,15941,51271,48542,&title=Ancien%20R%E9gime%20in%20France)
Henry,LucienEdward(1882).TheRoyalFamilyofFrance:twelvelecturesoncurrenFrenchhistory.Europein1882:Outofthe
shadow.Paris:LibrairieGalignani.

InFrench
Bly,Lucien(1994).LaFrancemoderne:14981789.Collection:PremierCycle(inFrench).Paris:PUF.ISBN2130474063.
(French)Bluche,Franois.L'AncienRgime:Institutionsetsocit.Collection:Livredepoche.Paris:Fallois,1993.ISBN225306423

8
(French)Jouanna,ArletteandPhilippeHamon,DominiqueBiloghi,GuyThiec.LaFrancedelaRenaissanceHistoireetdictionnaire.

Collection:Bouquins.Paris:Laffont,2001.ISBN2221074262
(French)Jouanna,ArletteandJacquelineBoucher,DominiqueBiloghi,GuyThiec.HistoireetdictionnairedesGuerresdereligion.

Collection:Bouquins.Paris:Laffont,1998.ISBN2221074254
(French)Pillorget,RenandSuzannePillorget.FranceBaroque,FranceClassique15891715.Collection:Bouquins.Paris:Laffont,

1995.ISBN2221081102
Viguerie,Jeande(1995).HistoireetdictionnairedutempsdesLumires17151789.Collection:Bouquins(inFrench).Paris:Laffont.
ISBN2221048105.
Precededby
HundredYearsWar

FrenchHistory
14531789

Succeededby
Revolutionary
Period

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