1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Composite materials are increasingly used in various fields of

science and engineering because of their unique and desirable properties. As a
result of these properties and potential applications, there is a strong need to
understand the issues associated with fabricating and machining of composite
materials better. In the past few decades, the use of composites has increased
dramatically, continually leading to new applications. Initially the cost of
these materials was very high, justified only for specialized, low volume
applications such as aerospace and defense. As these materials and their
manufacturing methods are becoming cheaper, they are finding an increasing
use in consumer-oriented applications. As confidence in composites
technology builds up, a greater fraction of commercial aircraft will be
constructed with composites.
1.1

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite material is a heterogeneous material that is formed by

the combination of two or more materials in order to obtain favorable

characteristics of each. The constituents are combined at a macro level and
are not soluble in each other. The combination of different materials can be
suitably made to possess high strength, high toughness, light weight, high
wear resistance, corrosion resistance, low cost and even a good combination
of electric, magnetic and optical properties. Naturally occurring composites
include shell, wood, bone and teeth.

2
The constituents are available typically in a reinforcing phase that is
embedded in a matrix. The reinforcing phase may be in the form of fibers,
particles or flakes. The role of the matrix material is to protect and distribute
the stress to the reinforcement materials. It provides final shape of the
composite material. The role of the reinforcement material is to provide good
mechanical properties and to reinforce the matrix in preferential directions.
Hence the properties of a composite material depend on the nature of the
reinforcement (particles, fibers, etc.) and relative content of reinforcement and
matrix expressed as volume fraction. One important consideration in
composite fabrication is that the constituents (matrix & reinforcement) should
not react chemically or metallurgically in a way that harms either. In general,
they should not have greatly different coefficients of linear expansion.
Composite materials are widely used in various applications ranging
from aerospace industry to biomedical applications, owing to their higher
specific properties of strength and stiffness as compared to metals. Examples
include graphite/epoxy, aramid/epoxy and boron/aluminium composites.
Modern day composites include plywood, plasterboards, concrete, fiberreinforced pneumatic tyres and many other important materials.
1.1.1

Classification of composites
The composite materials are broadly classified into two categories,

based on the matrix constitution and the reinforcement used. Figure 1.1 shows
the classification of composites. In particulate composites, the matrix is
reinforced by a dispersed phase in the form of particles with either random
orientation or preferred orientation. In fibrous composites, the matrix is
reinforced by a dispersed phase in the form of discontinuous fibers with
random or preferred orientation. Long fiber reinforced composites consist of a
matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in the form of either unidirectional
orientation of fibers or bidirectional orientation of fibers.

3
When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with
different orientations, it is called multilayer or angle-ply composites. In
sandwich panels, strong and stiffened sheets are bonded to lightweight core
structure, for instance honeycomb, that provides high shear strength and used
for roofs, walls and aircraft structures.

Figure 1.1 Classification of composites (Source: www.virginia.edu)

Polymers are used as matrix materials due to their relatively easy
processibility, low density, and good mechanical and dielectric properties.
The reinforcements are strong and brittle fibers incorporated into soft and
ductile polymer matrix composites (PMCs). Such PMCs are referred as fiber
reinforced plastics (FRPs). The reinforced fibers used are glass, carbon and
aramid known as glass fiber reinforced plastic

(GFRP), carbon fiber

reinforced plastic (CFRP) and aramid fiber reinforced plastic (AFRP). The
matrix materials for FRPs are either thermoset resins (polyesters, epoxy) or

4
thermoplastic resins (polyamide, polyethylene). Polyester resins have lower
shrinkage after cure allowing for higher fabrication accuracy. Epoxy is
commonly used in polymeric composites for aerospace applications, military,
prostheses, etc.
Metal matrix composites are used at higher operating temperatures
than that of PMCs. Reinforcing materials are boron, silicon carbide, alumina
and graphite in the form of short fibers (whiskers) or long fibers. Aluminium,
magnesium and titanium alloys are used as matrix materials. Ceramic matrix
composites possess higher fracture toughness, higher specific modulus and
mechanical properties at high temperature superior to those of metals. Silicon
Carbide (SiC) whiskers added to alumina increases fracture toughness from
25 to 50 MPa. Inter-metallic composites are based on aluminates that
constitute a unique class of structural materials for use at high temperature in
hostile environments. Their promising properties include low density,
excellent elevated temperature strength, higher melting points and resistance
to oxidation and corrosion. Recently, it has been shown that self-propagating
high temperature reactions can be initiated at the interface between dissimilar
metal foils to form inter-metallic composites (Rawers et al 1994).
Carbon/carbon composites are high strength carbon fibers
embedded in a graphite matrix. The low density of carbon in combination
with the very high strength of carbon fibers leads to ultra high specific
strength matrices. Hybrid composites are those composites that have a
combination of two or more reinforcement fibers.
1.1.2

Characteristics
Composite materials possess several desirable properties when

compared against conventional metal such as, their high specific strength and
specific modulus, their variable directional strength properties and their better
fatigue strength. The properties of these materials can be tailored to suit one

5
or more engineering goals. Table 1.1 describes some of the important
mechanical properties of GFRP, CFRP and AFRP.
Table 1.1 Mechanical properties of GFRP, CFRP and AFRP
(Source: R.Teti, Machining of composite materials. CIRP)

FRP material

Tensile
Elastic
Strain to Density
strength(MPa) modulus MPa) failure (g/cm3)

Unidirectional
Vf=60%

1000

45,000

2.3

2.1

Vf=20%-50%
Woven cloth

100-300

10000-20000

1.5-2.1

Unidirectional
Vf=60%
High strength

1200

145000

0.9

1.6

Unidirectional
Vf=60%
High modulus

800

220000

0.3

1.6

AFRP

Unidirectional
Vf=60%

1000

75000

1.6

1.4

1.1.3

Manufacturing Methods

GFRP

CFRP

The composites are manufactured using matrix and reinforcement

materials. Reinforcements being principal load bearing member, matrix forms
the continuous phase in the composite. The essential role of the matrix is to
hold the reinforcement phase in place and distribute the stress to the
reinforcement constituents under an applied force. Thus any solid that can be
processed so as to embed and adherently grip a reinforcing phase is a
potential matrix material. Polymers and metals are commonly used as
matrices. However, inorganic material such as glass, cements, carbon and
silicon are also being used as matrices.

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Reinforcements are used in the form of particles, flakes, whiskers,
short fibers, continuous fibers and sheets. Fibrous forms are preferred due to
their high modulus, strength and brittleness compared to resins that yield
toughness, low density, low strength, low stiffness, high thermal expansion
and low thermal stability. Cellulosic fibers in the form of cotton, jute, hemp,
sisal, etc are used in textile industries, while wood and straw are used in paper
industry. Glass fibers are used in polymer matrices. Kevler aramid fiber is
stiffer and lighter than the glass fiber. Boron, SiC, carbon and alumina fibers
have high strength and stiffness. Closed mold process includes compression
molding, autoclave, injection molding and resin transfer. Continuous process
includes pultrusion and braiding.
The manufacturing method of FRP composites are broadly
classified as open mould process, closed mould process and continuous
process. Open mould process includes spray layup, hand layup, filament
winding, sheet molding compound, expansion tool molding and contact
molding.
In hand layup process, catalyzed liquid resin is applied on the
reinforcement that may be kept on the finished surface of an open mould.
Accelerator may be added to resin and the composite laminate cures at room
temperature with external heating. Chemical reactions in resin harden the
material to a strong product with lighter weight. Thus resin serves as a matrix
for reinforcement fibers such as polyesters, glass fibers in the form of
stranded mats.
In spray up process, glass fibers reinforcement and catalyzed resin
are sprayed on a mould using a spray gun. This gun chops the continuous
fibers into suitable lengths and mixes catalyst into spray resin. Rollers are
used to remove air bubbles and for during reinforcements filler such as
calcium carbonate and alumina trihydrate are used with spray up resin to

7
reduce cost and improve fire smoke performance. Sprayed parts are cured at
room temperature. As composites become more and more popular, an
increasing emphasis is placed on manufacturing and fabricating them better,
cheaper and faster.
1.1.4

Applications
The real impetus for manufacturing advanced composites has come

from the aircraft and aerospace industries, where lightweight design and
engineering have become increasingly important. The prime objective of this
effort is to improve the performance to weight ratio. Carbon fiber/epoxy
wheels are developed to replace metal wheels on large freight trailer.
Figure 1.2 shows the different parts of the aircraft made from various types of
composite materials. Recently, large-scale substitution of fiber-reinforced
plastics for conventional materials has occurred in a variety of areas, such as

Figure 1.2

Different parts of aircraft made from various composite

materials (Source: Boeing commercial airplane company)

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automobile, machine tool and sporting goods. As more strict mileage
requirements are imposed on automotive industry, composites will inevitably
become viable for automobiles. The computer industry will increasingly use
composite laminates to tailor the thermal properties of printed wire boards
and the medical industry is considering the use of composites for prostheses
and implants.
The fiber also finds use in filtration of high-temperature gases, as an
electrode with high surface area and impeccable corrosion resistance, and as
an anti-static component in high-performance clothing. Some string
instruments, such as violins and cellos, use carbon fiber reinforced composite
bows. This is an alternative to the more common wooden bows. Many high
end frames for road bikes and mountain bikes are made of carbon fiber
reinforced composite.
CFRP composite material has occupied a prominent role in the field
of structural engineering. For example, many old bridges in the world were
designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are subject to today and
compared with the cost of replacing the bridge, reinforcing it with CFRP
composite material is quite cheaper. Due to the incredible stiffness of CFRP
composite material, it can be used underneath spans to help prevent excessive
deflections, or wrapped around beams to limit shear stresses. Much research
is also now being done using CFRP composite material as internal
reinforcement in concrete structures, such as beams and bridge decks. The
material has many advantages over conventional steel; mainly that it is much
stiffer and corrosion resistant.
An area where CFRP composite material has found good use is in
the manufacture of bicycles, especially high-end racing bicycles. The
vibration absorbing properties of CFRP composites make for a less harsh ride,
while offering weight reduction compared to traditional bicycle tubing

9
materials such as aluminum or steel. The choice of weave can be carefully
selected to maximize stiffness. Exploitation of the variety of shapes CFRP
composites can be built into has further increased stiffness and also allowed
aerodynamic considerations into tube profiles. CFRP composite frames, forks,
handlebars, seat-posts and crank arms are becoming commonplace on
medium- and higher-priced bicycles. CFRP composite forks are used on most
new racing bicycles.
Another widespread use of carbon fiber is in the manufacture of
fishing rods. Its high flexibility and low weight make it ideal to feel every
bite. Most modern rowing shells are made of carbon fiber, which significantly
lowers the weight of the boat. Composites have casted its effect on
telecommunication field too, in the form of transmitting towers. Nanocomposites and bio-composites are finding increasing applications owing to
its tiny structures and environmental durability. An important usage concern
involves the material's entire life cycle, as carbon fiber reinforced plastics
have an almost infinite lifetime. Recycling of composites allows the abundant
availability of these materials for economic production. The recycling strategy
centers on milling, compounding or shredding the reclaimed carbon fiber, and
finding use for this end product in various industrial applications.
1.2

CFRP COMPOSITES
The unique properties and applications of CFRP composites occupy

a prominent position of all FRP composite materials. It has useful functional

and dimensional properties that extend its applications to various domains. In
the present research work, CFRP composite material is used as work piece.
1.2.1

Characteristics of CFRP composites

The CFRP composite material is widely used in various engineering

applications.

The significance of CFRP composites as compared to the

10
metallic and other composite alternatives like steel, aluminium alloys,
pinewood and other FRPs in terms of density, tensile strength and specific
strength are illustrated in Figure 1.3. It is obvious from this comparison CFRP
composite is an emerging material that can be optimally matched to any
application. The CFRP composite properties vary depending on the use of
different matrix materials and fiber types. This permits optimal adjustment to
the specific requirements of a component. CFRP composite materials are
unique for critical and demanding high-tech applications that require high
strength and stiffness with simultaneously low weight. The mechanical
properties of the CFRP composite material utilized to full extent to overcome
the physical limits of the conventional materials.

Figure 1.3

Comparison of CFRP with metallic and other composite

alternatives (Source: Benteller-SGL GmbH & co. KG, 2010)

CFRP composite has excellent static, dynamic, thermal and

chemical properties like low weight, low density, high strength-to-weight
ratio, high damping, low thermal expansion, high thermal shock resistance,
high fatigue strength, high environmental durability, smooth running through
vibration damping, high thermal stability, bio-compatibility, good acoustic
emission, good corrosion resistance and good wear resistance. The epoxy
materials used in CFRP composite includes good chemical resistance, low

11
viscosity, good dimensional stability, good thermal stability, good impact
resistance and high strength. Tensile strength is anisotropic, i.e. different
along fiber and perpendicular to it. The strength and rigidity of CFRP
composites can be controlled by varying the amount of carbon fiber
incorporated into the epoxy.
1.2.2

Applications of CFRP composites

Fiber reinforced composites are highly promising materials for

applications in the aeronautical and aerospace industry including rocket exit

nozzles, nose caps, pistons for internal combustion engines, and fusion
devices. A typical aircraft made up of CFRP composite material is shown in
Figure 1.4. It is used to build lightweight aircrafts, satellites and cars. It is
used in automotive industries as drive shafts and floor panels as shown in
Figure 1.5. Steel drive shafts can be replaced with CFRP composites to
improve lightness and rigidity. Moreover, the number of intermediary joints
can then also be reduced at the design stage. The production cost is also
reduced. When CFRP composites are used for the floor panel, the weight is
greatly reduced compared to conventional steel panels. Moreover, the number
of parts can be decreased as it is possible to mould parts with multiple
functions as a single piece that delivers various functions. This also leads to
shorter assembly time and requires fewer production tools.
Other vital applications of CFRP composite materials are
transportation, sporting goods, computer industry, biomedical industry
(Barbanti et al 2006, Wei-Cheih 2009), telecommunication and civil
applications (Garden et al 1998, Haddad et al 2008) as described earlier.
It is also used in wind energy applications especially in wind
turbines. Strategic deployment of CFRP composite facilitates lowering weight
and increasing stiffness of the fiberglass blade thereby enabling the

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Figure 1.4 A typical aircraft made of CFRP (Source: Airbus)

Figure 1.5

Lightweight composite materials used in the manufacturing

of cars (Source: Toray Industries Inc.)

13
achievement of larger blades which in turn produce more energy. It is used in
pressurized containers too. CFRP composite material is used to make filament
wound pressure containers to hold compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied
natural gas (LNG) and hydrogen and enables the achievement of higher burst
pressure and rupture strength while maintaining light weight. Although more
carbon-di-oxide is emitted in the manufacturing process of CFRP composite
than for steel, CFRP composites can greatly reduce fuel consumption by
making automobiles and aircraft lighter. As a result, adoption of CFRP
composites reduces carbon-di-oxide emissions over the entire life cycle of the
product, from the raw material and material manufacturing stages, till product
use and disposal.
CFRP composite material is used as a suitable alternative to steel
alloy rotors in nuclear centrifuge rotor tubes. Its chemical inertness extends its
use in nuclear reactors. CFRP material is used in consumer electronics in the
form of casings for mobile phones and laptops.
Carbon fiber composite plates are used in fuel cell technology
(Middelman et al 2003). CFRP composite is also used in other applications
such as LCD television, GPS optical tube assembly, audio tools guitar, shoes
and helmets (Lucintel 2009). The strength and durability of composite
materials make them ideal candidates for military and defense applications,
whether on land, air or sea (George 2005). It is used in seismic areas for
rehabilitation of reinforced concrete buildings (U ur Ersoy 2009). In seismic
monitoring of earthquakes, carbon-wrapping are used in bridges to increase
ductility and confinement in highly-plastic zones under near-field excitations.
Huge antenna areas of more than 40 m are required to provide a sufficient
performance for low frequency bands. Such antennas would weigh several
hundred kilograms if state of the art technology were applied. However, the
launch weight of a satellite has a dominant impact on the overall mission

14
costs. Thus, the development of a new lightweight antenna design with
competitive accuracy and robustness is carried out using CFRP composite
material.
Randolph et al (1999) described the development process used to
select the shield/antenna material satisfying the design requirements of the
solar probe mission that will encounter a flux at perihelion equivalent to
intensity 3000 times greater than that of earth, using carbon/carbon composite
materials. The various applications intend that different types of machining
are required on CFRP composite materials during fabrication.
1.3

MACHINING
Machining of CFRP composite material differs from that of

conventional metal machining. Composites are being abrasive, the tool wear
is high and hence the machining parameters are to be carefully selected while
machining CFRP composite materials. Koplev et al (1983) examined the
cutting of unidirectional carbon fiber-epoxy composite, perpendicular as well
as parallel to the fiber orientation using high speed steel tools and sintered
carbide tools.

The obtained results include the horizontal cutting forces

determined by the relief angle and the tool wear and is identified that the
surface becomes rougher when CFRP composite is machined perpendicular to
the fiber, and the surface becomes smoother when CFRP composite is
machined parallel to the fiber. Ramulu et al (1991) investigated the wear
behavior of polycrystalline diamond inserts in the machining of carbon fiberepoxy composite materials observing that the sharpness of the tool and its
microstructure has a great influence on the cutting efficiency.
1.3.1

Significance of Machining
Owing to its wide domain of applications, CFRP composite

materials require different types of machining operations, though it is

15
manufactured in near-net shape, to bring the components to their required
dimensional accuracy. An important feature of the manufacturing technology
is to obtain parts with required geometrical and dimensional tolerances.
Hence the machining of composites is inevitable. Traditional methods of
machining the composites often induce critical flaws in the component parts
during net trimming, and various degrees of delamination, splintering, fiber
pullout, and cracking have been reported (Koplev et al 1983, Konig et al
1985, Ho-Cheng & Dharan 1990, Abrate & Walton 1992, Colligan &
Ramulu 1992 and Wang et al 1992).
1.3.2

Types of Machining
The different types of machining operations are broadly categorized

into conventional and unconventional machining operations. Conventional

machining operations include turning, milling, shaping, grinding, drilling, etc.
in machining of FRP composite materials. The unconventional machining
operations include electrical discharge machining, laser beam machining,
water jet machining and so on.
1.3.2.1

Turning
Bhatnagar et al (1995) presented some observations on the

orthogonal cutting of unidirectional CFRP composite material with different

fiber orientations. They noted that the in-plane shear strength of a material
played a key role during machining. Accurate values for shear strength of the
CFRP composite material was obtained by a novel test procedure. Fiber
breakage and chip formation were identified for the fiber orientation less than
90, whereas orientations greater than 90 experience compression and
bending. Wang et al (1992) studied orthogonal cutting mechanisms in edge
trimming of graphite/epoxy laminate with polycrystalline diamond tool. Chip
formation, cutting force and surface morphology were evaluated with respect

16
to tool geometry, process conditions and ply distribution in the laminate.
Wang et al (1995) developed empirical cutting force models for principal and
thrust force components using factorial design and regression methods.
Arola and Ramulu (1997) conducted a 2-D finite element method
(FEM) analysis of the chip formation process of unidirectional fiber
reinforced plastic composites. The measured values for the cutting force
agreed well with the model. Ramesh et al (1998) proposed a FEM model for
the machining of unidirectional fiber reinforced plastic composites based on
anisotropic plasticity theory. Mahdi and Zhang (2001a) proposed an adaptive
3-D algorithm for FEM analysis that allowed a fiber and its surrounding
matrix material to be modeled as a composite cell. In further work Mahdi and
Zhang (2001b) presented a 2-D cutting model to predict the cutting force
behavior of FRP composite in relation to the fiber angle. Sakuma and Seto
(1983) conducted face turning tests on unidirectional wound GFRP pipes in
order to study the effects of fiber orientation on tool wear and cutting forces.
1.3.2.2

Milling
Hocheng et al (1993) conducted milling tests on unidirectional (UD)

CFRP composite material in an attempt to observe chip characteristics and

evaluate machinability as a function of fiber direction and cutting conditions.
Surface roughness and cutting force were analyzed with respect to cutting
speed and feed rate.
Helical milling is used to generate boreholes by means of a milling
tool being operated on a helical path into the work piece. The bore diameter
can be adjusted through the diameter of the helical path. In comparison to
conventional drilling operations this process often results in lower burr
formation and fiber delamination. Therefore helical milling is used in the
aircraft industry for cutting composites and composite-metal compounds. One

17
of these compounds, which is regarded as difficult to machine, is a layer
compound consisting of unidirectional CFRP and titanium alloys. Denkena et
al (2008) presents the impact of the axial and tangential feed during helical
milling on process forces and borehole quality is shown.
Lopez et al (2009) deals with the new development of a family of
router milling tools for the high-performance milling of carbon fiber
reinforced plastics. The new milling tools are shaped by multiple left-hand
and right-hand helical edges, which form small pyramidal edges along the
cutting length. The specific cutting forces, tool wear, and others aspects are
discussed in detail.
Hashmi et al (2009) presents the main results of several tests carried
out to define the best milling tools for routing carbon fiber reinforcement
plastics, mainly in use for airframes. The new milling tools are shaped by
multiple left-hand and right-hand helical edges, which form small pyramidal
edges along the cutting length. Several carbide substrates and coatings were
tested. After the analysis of tests and modifications on the tool prototypes, the
final results allow the definition of routing end mills optimized for carbon
fiber composites machining.
Extra experiments are generally carried out in machining in order to
find the significant factors. However, Chao and Hwang (1997) proposed two
methods to avoid extra experiments in milling CFRP composite. It was found
that some significant effects that are originally regarded as errors in Taguchi's
method, and the best operating conditions thus obtained are more accurate,
while the extra experiments are no longer required.
1.3.2.3

Drilling
Drilling experiments were carried out by many researchers and the

quality of drilled holes was improved through a consistent study of drilling

18
parameters. Zhang et al (2001) investigated the formation of the exit defects
in CFRP composite plates and characterized their features in terms of drilling
conditions. High speed drilling of CFRP composite material was reported by
Lin and Chen (1996). Thrust force with respect to feed rate was analyzed and
concluded that tool wear is one of the major problem encountered when
drilling CFRP composite plate at high speed. The delamination factor in
drilling is studied by Chen (1997) with respect to tool geometry, cutting
temperature, cutting speed and feed rate. Similar work was carried out by Jain
and Yang (1994) and the chisel edge was identified to be the most
contributing factor. Hocheng and Tsao (2006) identified the effects of special
drill bits on drilling-induced delamination of composite materials. The thrust
force is identified to be distributed towards the drill periphery instead of being
concentrated at the center.
1.3.3

Problems Encountered in CFRP Machining

Machining of these materials poses particular problems that are

seldom seen with metals due to the inhomogeneity, anisotropy and abrasive
characteristics of the composites (Abrate and Walton 1992). Conventional
machining practices such as turning, milling and drilling are used with
composites because of the availability of equipment and experience in
conventional machining. Caprino and Nele 1996, Koplev et al 1983 explored
that some of the fibers used in composites are hard (sometimes even harder
than the tool material) and abrasive and conventional machining is still used,
as the fibers are very brittle and material removal is accomplished by a series
of brittle fractures rather than plastic deformation ahead of the tool. An
investigation conducted by Ramulu (1997) on the compression, flexural and
impact strength of graphite/epoxy composites machined by both traditional
and non-traditional techniques, confirms that manufacturing characteristics
may not only affect bulk properties but also influence the initiation and

19
propagation of failure. The cutting tool geometry and materials are chosen to
minimize wear due to the hard abrasive constituents of the fibers.
Hocheng & Dharan (1990) have discussed the earlier investigations
in the peculiarities of machining composites. Abrate & Walton (1992)
described the feasibility of applying conventional machining techniques to
machining composites and has observed that conventional methods of
machining composites damage the work piece through chipping, cracking,
delamination and high wear on the cutting tools. Konig et al (1984) and
Snoeys et al (1986) have revealed that several non traditional methods such as
water jet machining, abrasive jet machining, and so on are applicable for
machining composite materials. Hashish (1989) found that piercing holes in
composite laminates with a high pressure water jet resulted in fracture,
cracking and delamination.
CFRP composite materials apart from being distinguishably
inhomogeneous and anisotropic are often laminate-structured. These factors
lead to the complexity of developing a sound analysis of the cutting process.
The application of conventional metal cutting theories based on plastic
deformation should be transplanted with care. Drilling is probably the most
frequently used operation in industry. Sometimes, as many as 55,000 holes
are generally required to be drilled in a complete single unit production of the
Airbus A350 aircraft. The CFRP composites, owing to their anisotropy and
abrasive nature of their carbon fiber content, exhibit totally different drilling
results as compared to those of drilling conventional metals and other
materials. Different challenges faced in drilling CFRP composites in
particular, and machining FRPs in general could be classified on the one hand
as the excessive tool wear, while on the other hand as work piece materialrelated problems.

20
When machining CFRP composites, using coolants can be
problematic. In many applications, the use of any foreign material such as a
coolant is forbidden. Effective chip evacuation is critical in drilling
composites because of the confined nature of the operation. When drilling
through a composite to a metal layer, the hard metal chips must be effectively
removed to prevent them from scarring and damaging the walls of the drilled
hole. In some cases it is necessary to drill and ream the metal layer first so
chips do not have to pass through the composite layer.
1.4

DRILLING OF CFRP COMPOSITES

Drilling of hole is a common operation for joining of the parts by

means of suitable fasteners like bolt-nuts, screws and rivets, and it is

commonly performed on lathe, drilling machine, vertical machining center
(VMC) and other special purpose machines. It is a more cost effective
method, as large amount of metal is removed at once as compared to other
unconventional machining operation used for material removal process.
1.4.1

Challenges in drilling
Owing to its anisotropy/in-homogeneity, limited plastic deformation

and abrasive characteristics, drilling of CFRP composites are considered to be

a more constrained job. Drilling of CFRP composite materials were carried
out by many researchers and the following problems are faced:
1.4.1.1

Delamination
It is the effect caused in drilling where the drilled hole is not exactly

a round hole of the same size as that of the drill tool diameter. This is due to
the non-uniform fiber breakage at weaker areas that possess high stress
values. Two modes of delamination failure were identified, peel-up during
drill entry and push-out during drill exit as shown in Figure 1.6. Peel-up
delamination occurs as the cutting action introduces a peeling force upwards

21
forcing the layers to delaminate as shown in Figure 1.6(a). During push-out
delamination as shown in Figure 1.6(b), the uncut-thickness decreases as the
drill is fed through the material and at a critical point the drilling thrust force
exceeds the interlaminar bond strength resulting in delamination. Hocheng
and Dharan (1990) found that damage takes place both at the entrance and the
exit and thus differentiated the damage as peel-up at entrance and push-out at
the exit.

(a) Peel up

(b) Push out

Figure 1.6 Delamination at the entry and exit

1.4.1.2

Spalling
Zhang et al (2001) presented a detailed study which looked at two

kinds of defects during drilling of FRPs spalling and fuzzing. Spalling refers
to the delamination damage and fuzzing refers to the uncut fibers around the
hole. An empirical relationship between the size of the delamination zone and
various process parameters was developed, with fuzzing damage described in
quantitative terms. Figure 1.7 shows the schematic of the formation process of
spalling defect. Spalling and fuzzing co-exist and both their magnitudes have
similar variation tendency, i.e. the bigger the spalling, the more severe the
fuzzing and vice versa. However, when spalling decreases to a certain extent,
fuzzing disappears.

22

Figure 1.7 Schematic of the formation of spalling defect (Zhang et al, 2001)
Bhatnagar et al (2004) quantified the drilling-induced damage in
GFRP and measured the defect size by dye-injection and correlated the
damage to process parameters and drill geometry. Their experiments showed
that the drilling included damage was lesser for an 8-faceted drill point and a
Jodrill compared to a standard 4-faceted drill point.
1.4.1.3

Other damages
Mathew et al (1999) identified matrix burning, debonding, fiber

pullout as other major sources of damage. DiPaolo et al (1996) stated three

distinguishable mechanisms for damage, namelyviz. plate bulge, crack
opening and fiber tearing/twisting. Piquet et al (2000) carried out a series of
experiments using a conventional twist drill and a specific tool made of
micrograin tungsten carbide with a small rake angle. This minimizes the
commonly occurring damages such as entrance damage, plate exit defects,
fiber bending, buckling, brittle shear failure, and roundness error. It was
observed that the roundness error is due the materials anisotropy. For each
angular position of the drills cutting edge in relation to fiber orientation,
there exists a different relative reinforcement direction. The change in
circularity is indicated in Figure 1.8 along with the real, practical and
theoretical diameters. The use of a conventional twist drill is limited when
drilling thin composites without a backing plate.
Roy Meade (1987) observed that the relatively large range of the
non-cutting chisel edge is the main drawback of conventional twist drill in

23
thin plates. Adhesion failure in the matrix leads to bending and delamination
of the remaining plies. Hence specific tool geometry is used to improve
composite drilling. Certain modifications have been reported in the drill
geometry that can lead to minimization of damage. Effect of tool geometry on
cutting forces has been analyzed by Chen (1997). Miller (1987) studied on
drill bit configurations and concluded that 8-faceted drill gave better results
for graphite-epoxy laminates. Greater number of holes to failure was
encountered while drilling with carbide drills as reported by Ramulu et al
(2001).

Figure 1.8 Hole defects

The tool wear is one of the main challenges that are faced during
drilling of composite materials due to its highly abrasive nature. Lin and Chen
(1996) carried out a study on drilling of CFRP at high speed and concluded
that an increase of the cutting velocity increases the drill wear greatly and
thus thrust force increases. Chen (1997) concluded that delamination free
drilling is possible by a suitable selection of tool geometry and drilling
parameters. Hocheng and Tsao ( 2006) reviewed the application of special
drill bits, step drilling, pilot hole, backup plate and various non traditional
methods in order to reduce the damages. Ali Faraz et al (2009) studied the
cutting edge rounding (CER), a latent wear characteristic as a measure of
sharpness /bluntness, of uncoated cemented carbide tools during drilling
CFRP composite laminates. Four different types of tools were tested to assess
the applicability and relevance of this new wear feature.

24
Shyha et al (2010) studied the effect of laminate configuration on
cutting performance when drilling holes in CFRP composite materials. The
majority of drills tested at the higher feed rate experience catastrophic failure.
This was attributed to the reduction in strength of the drill due to the smaller
diameter of the pilot segment of the tool. The drilled hole diameter was found
to be undersize at the end of tool life. Iliescu et al (2010) described the
development of a phenomenological model between the thrust force, the
drilling parameters and the tool life. A model is designed that predicts the
parallel evolution of axial load and tool wear with the different drilling
sequences that a tool will face during its life.
1.4.2

Controlling Factors
The controlling factors of drilling are the parameters of interest that

affect the drilling induced damages. The input variables that control the
drilling process are - drill diameter, spindle speed, feed rate and point angle of
the drill bit. The output variables that relate to the damage of the process are
thrust force, torque, delamination, surface roughness, eccentricity, circularity,
roundness error and so on.
The input variables and their values can be decided before
conducting the experiments. The output variables are measured for the given
set of input variables. An empirical/analytical model of the experiment that
relates the input and output variables can be developed.
1.4.3

Tool Material
Generally FRPs are materials that are heat insulating and abrasive in

nature; hence the cutting tools have to encounter a relatively more hazardous
environment and undergo thermal associated wear processes. The available
reports on cutting temperature and associated influences are mostly related to
applications involving High Speed Steel (HSS) and cemented carbide tools

25
(Tseuda 1968, Sakuma and Seto 1981). Hence high performance cutting tools
such as polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools are tried for machining ablative
material and their performance evaluated for proper selection and
recommendation. Sreejith et al (2000) identified a range of temperature for
effective machining of composite material beyond which tool deterioration
and thereby specific cutting pressure increases considerably. The study also
enabled the determination of the effective hardness of the tool material at
which steady machining can be performed.
Precision tooling like diamond is suggested, while HSS tool suffers
extreme wear and thereby not suited for the composite removal process.
Carbide instead can be a good alternative. Among composite removal
processes, drilling is the most frequently practiced in industry due to the need
for assembly of components in mechanical structures. Improper usage of the
tool results in damage to drills. Hence the damages during drilling can be
eliminated by using specially designed carbide tools, PCD tools, solid carbide
tools, but these tools are very costly. Thakur et al (2003) used HSS drill bit of
6 mm diameter on the basis of availability, facility to maintain a sharp edge,
toughness and easy grindability. Murphy et al (2002) were concerned with the
effect of coatings on the performance of tungsten carbide drills in the drilling
of CFRP composites. Two coated drills, viz. titanium nitride coated and
diamond-like-carbon were investigated and for comparative purpose an
uncoated drill. The coatings were not found to reduce either tool wear or
damage to the composite.
1.5

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH

In addition to lightweight, CFRP composites offer high strength,

high modulus and, most importantly, excellent fatigue performance. The

properties of these materials can be tailored to suit one or more engineering
goals. The CFRP composite material is proven to be one of the widely used

26
composite materials in many of the industries from aerospace, satellite,
marine, military, computers, sports, biomedical, telecommunication up to
consumer industries too. Owing to the wide variety of application, different
structures of composites are to be manufactured. While most components
produced from composites are molded to a near-net shape, machining is often
necessary for final part surface finish, dimensional accuracy and assembly.
Hence different types machining of composites is to be carried out ranging
from milling, turning, drilling, scribing to other non conventional machining
methods like water jet machining, electrical discharge machining and laser cut
machining. Since drilling is essentially required to join two parts by means of
bolting/screwing/riveting, in this work, drilling of CFRP composite material
is carried out.
Three types of drill bits, based on the type of material are used in
the experimentation, viz., HSS, carbide and PCD coated drill bits. Each type
of drill bit is designed with three different point angle 100, 118 and 135.
The experimental plan is based on Taguchis L27 orthogonal array of
experiments. The experiment is carried out on a computer numerical
controlled vertical machining center. The KISTLER make piezoelectric
dynamometer is used to observe thrust force and corresponding torque. The
drilled holes are photographed using a Nikon D 200 camera and the maximum
diameter of damaged zone of each hole is measured from which delamination
factor is calculated at the entry and exit side of the drill. The eccentricity and
surface roughness are measured using universal measuring machine and
surface roughness measuring equipment respectively. The effect of the
various drilling parameters, spindle speed, feed rate and point angle on thrust
force, torque, delamination, eccentricity and surface roughness is studied.
The experimental data is analyzed and the regression models were
developed. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) gives the most significant factors

27
and their interactions that affect the performance of the experiments. A more
accurate model using adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
approach that inherits the advantages of both fuzzy logic and artificial neural
network (ANN) approach is used in the present work.
The optimization of the drilling parameters is carried out using grey
fuzzy logic approach. The grey coefficients are identified for the various
responses and the grey relational grade is calculated. A fuzzy inference
system is used to improve the grey relational grade. The grey fuzzy reasoning
grade is used to obtain the optimum value of the drilling parameters that can
minimize the damage of the drilled holes.
1.6

THESIS ORGANIZATION
Chapter 1 presents an introduction to various composite materials

that covers classification, characteristics, manufacturing methods and its

applications in the field of engineering. The significance of CFRP composite
materials among the various composites is explained. Machining of these
composite materials is an important operation in any application. Hence the
significance of machining, the different types of machining operations like
turning, milling and drilling, and the corresponding problems encountered in
these machining operations are discussed. The basic study of this research is
about drilling of CFRP composite materials and hence the various challenges
faced in drilling of CFRP composites and their controlling factors are
identified. This identification of various controlling factors has turned as a
motivation for the present research work. The overview of the research work
is explained.
Chapter 2 presents the literature review on CFRP machining,
drilling and analysis of drilling parameters. The effect of various tools (tool
geometry and material) on delamination and surface roughness is studied. The

28
effect of process parameters and its interaction effects on the delamination
and surface roughness are studied. The theory and the experimental work
using ANOVA and ANFIS are explored. The works carried out in drilling
using grey relational analysis and grey fuzzy approach is presented. Thus the
earlier works carried out in this field of study are explored in this chapter.
From a detailed study of the literature review, the problem identified for the
present research work and the solution proposed is described.
Chapter 3 describes the experimental work carried out in detail.
The experimental plan is described which is carried out using Taguchis L27
approach. Three different tools used in this research work are described and
their details are presented. The fabrication of CFRP composite plates used in
the present research work is presented. The experimental setup used in this
work is described. The drilling experiment is carried out using a drill jig and
the photographs of the drilled plates are shown. The drilling parameters and
the measured/calculated responses obtained are presented along with the
various equipments used. The schematic of the research work is also
presented.
Chapter 4 presents the model of the drilling process carried out in
the experimentation. A model is developed using response surface regression
approach. However, an improved model can be obtained using other soft
computing approaches ANN, fuzzy logic and ANFIS. The model obtained
using ANFIS approach is presented in this chapter. The predicted values
obtained using the two proposed models are plotted and a comparison
between the models is presented. The results of the confirmation experiments
are presented to validate the obtained models.
Chapter 5 focuses on the optimization strategy used in this research
work. There are various optimization tools and the algorithms available.
However, in the present work, grey fuzzy approach is used. The response

29
table and the ANOVA table is presented for the grey fuzzy reasoning grade
obtained with six different inputs viz., thrust force, torque, delamination at the
entry, delamination at the exit, eccentricity and surface roughness of the
holes. The optimum value of the input drilling parameter set is obtained that
can be used to minimize the damage of the drilled holes.
Chapter 6 illustrates the results and discussion of the drilling
parameters and the corresponding responses. The effect of spindle speed,
point angle and feed rate on various responses is discussed in detail. A
comparison is carried out among the results of the three drill tools in order to
select the best tool material and the geometry. The photographs of the drilled
holes and tool materials are presented for clarity of experimentation
performed. The scanned electron microscope (SEM) pictures of the drilled
holes are shown for further exploration of results.