Dr.

Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

SUBSONIC FLOW THEORY

1.0 LINEARIZED 2 D SUBSONIC FLOW

Compressible, subsonic flow over a thin airfoil @ small aoa.

y = f ( x ) = function that defines the shape of the airfoil in the ( x, y ) space

Tangency Condition (TC) for inviscid flow

For small perturbations

u V

TC

df

=
= tan
dx V + u

and tan

df

dx V

Now

df
= V
y
dx

Tangency Condition for Linearized Theory

xx + yy = 0
Write the LPVPE for 2-D flow

1 M 2

We can transform this eq. to the familiar Laplace eq. for 2-D incompressible flow via
a new coordinate system:

=x

= y

In this transformed space, we define a transformed perturbation velocity

potential as

(,) = ( x, y )

to convert the 2D-LPVPE in terms of the transformed variables:

=1
x

=0
y

=0
x

=
y

the derivatives of in the ( x, y ) space are related to the derivatives of in (,)

space according to:

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

x =

1 1 1
=
=
+
=
=
x x x x

xx =
y =

1 1
=
=
+
=
=
y y y y

yy =
substitute into the 2D-LPVPE

1
2 + = 0 + = 0

This is Laplaces eq., which also governs incompressible flow. Hence, represents
an incompressible flow in (,) space, which is related to a compressible flow in
the ( x, y ) space.
Shape of the airfoil:

y = f ( x ) in the ( x, y ) space

= g() in the (,) space

df 1
=
=
=

dx y y

Applying the TC in the (,) space

dg
=

d

Transform the TC

The RHS in the last 2 eqs. are equal; equating the LHS:

df dg
=
dx d

This eq. says that the slope of the airfoil in the ( x, y ) space and the (,) space is the
same. This confirms that the transformations we have been using relates the
compressible flow over an airfoil in the ( x, y ) space to the incompressible flow
over the same airfoil in the (,) space.

1.1 The Linearized Subsonic Pressure Coefficient

Following up with the pressure coefficient:

Cp =

2 u
2
2 1
2 1
=
=
=

V
V x
V x
V

Define the perturbation velocity component in the - direction by u = /

Then

1 2u
C p =
V
2

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

Since the (,) space corresponds to incompressible flow from C p =
incompressible pressure coefficient
Combine last 2 eqs:

Cp =

Cp0 =
Cp 0
1 M 2

2u

V
=

2 u
we get the
V

Cp0
Prandtl Glauert rule

Remember that the L, D, and M on an airfoil can be found by

p, distribution .

surface

For inviscid flow = 0 and D = 0

an airfoil can be found by

(d' Alembert' s paradox) , hence the L and M on

p distribution . Since the p distribution for subsonic

surface

compressible flow is related to the p distribution for incompressible flow through

the Prandtl Glauert rule it can be shown that:

Cl =

Cm =

Cl 0
1 M 2
Cm 0
1 M

Cl 0

Cm 0

Effect of compressibility is to increase the magnitude of Cl

Note that

limC , C , C
M 1

and Cm

= thats because linearized theory breaks down

near M = 1

Prandtl Glauert rule is accurate up to M 0.7

Compressibility Effects

u =

1 1 u
u
=
=
= =

x x
1 M 2

M u
i.e., compressibility strengthens the disturbance to the flow
by a solid body

In comparison to incompressible flow, a perturbation of a given strength

reaches farther away from the surface in compressible flow.

The disturbance reaches out in ALL directions, both upstream and downstream.

DAlemberts paradox is valid also for compressible subsonic flow (check

Prandtl Glauert rule for cp)

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

2.0 IMPROVED COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTIONS

Attempt to take into consideration some of the nonlinear aspects of the flow.

Came about during WWII.

Karman Tsien rule

Cp =

Cp 0

M 2 C p 0
+

1+ 2

Laitones rule

Cp =

Cp 0
2 1 2
M
M 1+

2
C p 0
+
2

2.1 Compressibility Corrections to Lift Slope

Summary of Related Incompressible Flow Eqs:
Lift slope:

High AR (AR > 4) straight (unswept) wing with an elliptical lift distribution

a=

a0

a
1+ 0
A

Prandtl

High AR (AR > 4) straight (unswept) wing with a non-elliptical lift distribution

a=

a0
a
1+ 0 (1+ )
A

= f (AR, ) induced factor for drag

induced factor for lift slope

Low AR (AR < 4) straight (unswept) wing with an elliptical lift distribution

a=

a0
a0 2 a0
1+ +
A A

H.B. Helmbold

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

a=

Low AR swept wing

a0 cos
a0 cos 2 a0 cos
1+
+
A
A

Kuchemann

Compressibility Corrections
airfoil lift slope

a0,comp =

a0
1 M

Span efficiency factor for lift slope

a0

e1 = (1+ ) 1

Compressible lift slope for a high-AR straight (unswept) wing

a0,comp
a0

acomp =
=
a0,comp
a0,comp
1+
+
e1 A
e1 A
Modified Helmbolds eq. for a low-AR straight wing

acomp =

a0
a0 2 a0
2
1 M +
+
e1 A A

Modified Kuchemann eq. for a low-AR straight wing

(replace a0 by

a0

(replace a0 by a0 / )

a0

, where M ,n is the Mach number normal

1 M
1 M 2 cos 2
to the half-chord line of the wing, which is swept by and angle )

a=

2
,n

a0 cos
a0 cos 2 a0 cos
1 M cos +
+
A
A
2

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

3.0 CRITICAL MACH NUMBER

Critical Mach Number: the free-stream Mach number @ which the flow on the
wing first becomes sonic @ the min pressure (max velocity) point on the airfoil.

NB: The min pressure point is NOT @ the max (t/c) location even for a
symmetrical airfoil @ = 0 ! This is because when the flow adjusts its velocity
as it goes around the airfoil, it takes into account the geometry of the entire
airfoil, not simply the local highest point.

Very important to know, because @ Mcruise slightly higher than Mcr the airfoil
experiences a dramatic rise in drag

If A is a point on the airfoil, from isentropic flow eqs:

1 2 1
pA pA / p0 1+ 2 M
=
=

p p / p0 1+ 1 M 2
A

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

Using the pressure coefficient for compressible flow:

Combine the 2 eqs:

C pA

2 pA
1
M 2 p

1
2
1+

M
2

2
=
1

2
M 1+ 1 M 2
A

Now if the local MA = 1, by definition

C pA =

C p,cr

M = M cr

and C p,A = C p,cr so

1
2

2 1+ 2 M cr

=
1

2
M cr 1+ 1

This eq. gives us the Cp @ any point in the flow where the local Mach = 1.

This eq. is a universal aerodynamic eq. from isentropic flow; it has no connection
with the shape of any given airfoil.

How to find the Mcr of a given airfoil

Plot C p,cr = f (M ) from the universal eq. above. Note that according to this eq.
C p,cr as M = M cr

Obtain (experimentally or theoretically) the low speed (incompressible) C p 0 @

the min pressure point of the airfoil.

Use any of the compressibility corrections to plot the variation of C p with M .

Note that according to any of these eqs. C p as M

The point @ which these two curves intersect represents the point @ which the
local flow velocity @ the min pressure point of the airfoil is sonic. By definition,
the free-stream Mach number @ this intersection point is the M cr of the airfoil.

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

4.0

DRAG DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER

Divergence Mach Number: the free-stream Mach number @ which the drag on a
body begins to increase rapidly as the Mach number increases.

This rapid increase can cause the drag coefficient to rise to more than ten times
its low speed value.

The large increase in drag is associated with strong shock waves that cause BL
separation on the airfoil surface.

A thinner airfoil will have a higher Mcr and a higher Mdiv.

Sound Barrier: a myth started by the Prandtl-Glauert formula, which predicts

CD as M 1. Wind tunnel tests @ the time were only available for
Mach close to 1 but not for M = 1.

Convair F-102: could not achieve M > 1 in level flight; had to dive, then level off:

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

Convair F 102

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

What is striking about the design of the X 1?

The tail airfoil was thinner than the wing airfoil. Why?

All moving tail. Why?

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Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

To cope with the high D near M = 1, the designers of high speed ac in WWII used
2 features:

Thin airfoils
o Bell X-1: 2 sets of wings 10% thick (NACA 65-110) for M < 1, 8% thick
(NACA 65-108) for M > 1 operations. Typical ac at the time had wings ~
15% thick or thicker.

Thinner airfoils on the horizontal stabilizer

to ensure that when the wing encountered compressibility effects (ex. buffeting)
the tail and elevator were still free of such problems to be fully functional for
stability & control
o Bell X-1: tail is 6% thick (NACA 65-006)

All-moving tails






to maintain control in case elevator effectiveness was lost

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Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

4.1 Swept Wings

Adolf Busemann (1935) & R.T. Jones (1945)

Consider a straight wing with a t/c = 0.15 airfoil.

Now the same wing swept back through = 45 0
A streamline going over the wing now sees an airfoil as thick as before (t2 = t1) but
with a longer chord (c2 = c1 / cos450)
This makes the effective t/c = 0.106

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Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

North American F-86 (Korean war)

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Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

4.2 Area Rule

Kuchemann (early 50s)

Richard Witcomb
o Zero-lift drag rise near M = 1 is due primarily to shock waves
o Shock wave formations about complex swept-wing / body combinations
@ zero-lift near M = 1 are similar to those that occur for a body of
revolution with the same axial development of cross-sectional area
normal to the airstream A(x).
o Idea: no abrupt changes in A(x) should occur; indent the body where the
wing is mounted, so that the combination has nearly the same A(x) as the
original body alone: coke bottle fuselage shape.

Area ruling reduces peak D by a factor of 2 near M = 1

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Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 264

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