Corrugations PART 2

Now there were many theories about how corrugations formed on dirt roads, but it was Keith B. Mather from the University of Melbourne, way back in 1962, who did the experiment that finally gave the real answer. He attached a small wheel to an arm
about one metre long, and then drove it around in circles with a variable-speed electric motor. The wheel travelled on a circular concrete track, which he covered with different materials. In fact, to be thorough, not only did he use a fine-sifted sand, but he
used different coarse sands, and various dry products like gravel, rice grains, and even split peas and sugar! And he found that provided that these materials did not stick together, and were dry, he could always generate corrugations.
He found that corrugations came quickly if he had hard tyres, but slowly with soft tyres. The corrugations came readily in dry materials, but very slowly, if at all, in wet sand. It made no difference to the corrugations if the wheel was a driving wheel, or a
driven (or rolling or idling) wheel. And he found that the major factor in generating corrugations was the road speed of the vehicle.
Now you can never make a road perfectly smooth. There will always be tiny little bumps. Once the wheel gets up to a certain minimum speed (which, on his set-up, was about 4 mph) it would bounce in a little hop after hitting one of these tiny bumps. When
the wheel came down and hit the sand, it would spray sand both forwards and sideways off the track, leaving behind a little crater - which would then be the valley of a corrugation. As the wheel came up out of the valley, it would jump into the air again, and
so the pattern of valley-and-mountain would repeat itself.
At they began to appear on the smooth road, the first few corrugations would be quite shallow, and very close to each other. But as the corrugations got deeper, they would gradually move apart from each other, until their height and their distance apart had
settled into a stable pattern. Once this stable pattern of corrugations was set up, then the entire pattern of corrugation would migrate down the road in the direction of travel of the wheel. In the Australian Outback, engineers have seen corrugations heading
in opposite directions on each side of the road - each set heading in the direction of travel of the cars.
Now even if the vehicles on the road all look different, they all make similar corrugations as far as the road is concerned. In general, the vehicles on the open road all tend to travel around the same speed. So, a bump on the road that makes one car's
wheels bounce, will also make pretty well any other cars' wheels bounce. These bouncing wheels will all tend to land at the same point. And that's how the corrugations form. The faster the road traffic, the further apart are the corrugations.
However, since this research was done, a whole new type of 4WD suspension has arrived on the scene - the long-travel, high-compliance coil suspension started by Range Rover, and then copied, with varying degrees of success, by the Japanese. If we
could manage to get the different suspensions to travel on different roads, I'd be really interested to see if the corrugations caused by the long-travel, high-compliance coil springs were different from the corrugations caused by short-travel, low-compliance
leaf springs. (You'd have to do this experiment after the road was freshly graded). I suspect that the corrugations would be different. Now corrugations don't appear only on dry Outback roads. You can occasionally see them on bitumen and even concrete
roads - usually after some kind of break in the road surface.
You can see corrugations on railroad tracks, where the train makes so much noise going over these corrugations, that railroad people call these sections of track "roaring rails". Skiers in the snow country often find rough corrugated washboard patterns on
a well-travelled ski trail. And if you ever have replaced wheel bearings because they were noisy, you'll see regular wear patterns on the roller or ball bearings. Trains and trams that get their power from overhead copper conductors, often show corrugations.
The little valleys are the locations where the pantograph (the device that transfers the power from the wires to the train) broke contact from the copper wire, and set up an electric arc that vaporised away some of the copper wire.
Now Keith Mather discovered another unfortunate result. A smooth flat road is unstable, and will rapidly turn into its stable form - the corrugated road. So when you're driving, all you can do is to try to go outside the resonance speed of the corrugations either faster or slower. So there aren't many things we can do to prevent corrugated roads in the Outback. If we had the money, we could use something like concrete to make the road surface so tough that it won't deform - but that is too expensive for a
country like Oz with so many roads and so few people. We could add silica gel (which absorbs water) to the road to keep it damp - but it's expensive, and has to be constantly replenished. It seems that corrugations on our Outback roads will be around for
a long time.

Bleeding or flushing is shiny, black surface film of asphalt on the road surface caused by upward movement of asphalt in the pavement surface.[1][2] Common causes of bleeding are too much asphalt in asphalt concrete, hot weather, low space air void
content and quality of asphalt. [3]

Bleeding is a safety concern since it results in a very smooth surface, without the texture required to prevent hydroplaning. Bleeding occurs in bituminous pavement when a film of asphalt binder appears on road surface. Insufficient air void
is a cause of bleeding in which there is insufficient room for asphalt to expand in hot weather and it forces its way to expand to pavement surface. Too much asphalt binder in bituminous material is also a common cause of
bleeding. Bleeding is an irreversible process (the bleeded asphalt on pavement surface would not withdraw in winter) so that the amount of asphalt binder on pavement surface increases with time.

Problem
Loss of skid resistance when wet
Possible Causes
Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot weather and then expands onto the pavement surface. Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather, asphalt binder will accumulate on the pavement surface over time. This
can be caused by one or a combination of the following:
Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to mix design or manufacturing)
Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application (as in the above figures)
Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough room for the asphalt to expand into during hot weather)
Repair
The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder film on the pavements surface but may not correct the underlying problem that caused the bleeding:
Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to blot up the excess asphalt binder.
Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a motor grader or removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting surface is excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary (APAI, no date given).

- See more at: http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/bleeding/#sthash.6SRiPiio.dpuf

. PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY FORM

The Pavement Condition Survey forms have been specifically

designed to determine the amounts and severities of several

distresses for flexible, rigid, and overlays over rigid

pavements. Each rater should pay attention to all instructions

so that the condition survey can be correctly completed.

Missing or improperly marked data will require correction and

possible considerable time and effort in rechecking a particular

section.

There are two forms used in the rating survey. One form

for evaluating the restoration index of rigid pavements, the

other form is for evaluating bituminous and bituminous overlay

over rigid pavements. Completed forms are shown in Figures 1

and Figure 2 (located in back of manual). In 1994 these two

forms have been duplicated in a Microsoft Access database and

loaded on a laptop computer.

1) Rigid Pavements

The method of rating rigid pavements is similar to the

method and form used for rating bituminous pavements. On this

form one line or record represents a test section of pavement.

Each test section represents a mile of pavement or less. A

detailed analysis is conducted on a segment of pavement within

the mile section. This segment consists of ten joints and

panels. For a two lane pavement this will consist of five

joints in each lane. The remaining portion of the test section

is evaluated using a "windshield" survey. The windshield survey

will be explained later in this manual.

Detailed condition analysis shall be conducted starting at

the first joint past the reference post. At each sample site

the highway number and date (month, day, year) shall be

recorded.

If a pavement is being rated in a direction of increasing

reference post number, the rater shall first perform a detailed

observation followed by a "windshield" survey. For surveys

conducted in direction of decreasing reference post number, the

rater shall conduct the "windshield" survey followed by a

detailed inspection at or near the reference post. When rating

interstate pavements the detailed survey always begins at the

first sawed joint past the reference post even when traveling in

decreasing reference post number. This allows the rater to

inspect the pavement from the vehicle without having to backup

on the shoulder.

A visual "windshield" survey shall be used to evaluate the

general surface condition of segments of pavement between

routine or detail sampling test sites. Evaluations will be done

at normal highway speeds or less. Ratings shall be entered into

the laptop when the vehicle is stopped for the next restoration

index rating. General condition of the segment is to be6

evaluated with the "windshield" survey on rigid pavements. The

general condition of the test section is then compared to the

site survey. Further details for this type of survey will be

found in following sections.

For each observation the rater shall get out of his vehicle

and quickly evaluate the distresses on the pavement surface

within the ten lane joint and panel region. For rigid pavements

the frequency of 1) joint and panel repairs, 2) joint and panel

spalls and 3) panel cracks are recorded. The condition of 1)

joints, 2) joint seal, 3) panel pattern cracking and 4) panel

crack seal are recorded by an alphabetical code system.

Distress severities and their respective codes are none (blank),

low (L), medium or moderate (M) and high (H). Severity levels

of distress shall be classified by comparisons with the

photographs given in the Appendix A. The Nebraska Profiler

collects the fault depth measurement on all joints and

transverse cracks.

When rating rigid pavement all ten lane joints are observed

and the nominal severities recorded. The nominal severity of

the ten panels is observed and recorded. Next the "windshield"

survey or consistency is evaluated. This is to determine if the

test site is representative of the surface condition of the test

segment or mile. The fault measurement on the longitudinal

cracks is then entered and the shoulders are rated.

2) Bituminous Pavements

Bituminous pavements will be rated in a similar manner as

the rigid pavements. One line or record represents a test

section of pavement. Each test section represents a mile of

pavement or less. A detailed analysis is conducted on a segment

of pavement within the mile section. This segment is about 200

foot in length. The remaining portion of the test section is

evaluated using a "windshield" survey.

Detailed condition analyses shall be conducted at the

beginning of a uniform segment. Subsequent ratings will be

conducted at or near the highway reference posts. At each

sample site, the highway number, reference post number,

direction of travel, and date (month, day, year) of the

observation shall be recorded.

If a pavement is being rated in the direction of increasing

reference post number, the rater shall first perform a detailed

observation followed by the windshield survey. For surveys

conducted in the direction of decreasing reference post number,

the rater shall conduct the windshield survey followed by the

detailed inspection at or near the reference post.

A visual "windshield" survey shall be used to evaluate the

general surface condition of segments of pavement between

routine or restoration index sampling test sites. Evaluations

will be done at normal highway speeds or less. Ratings shall

also be entered into the database when the vehicle is stopped7

for succeeding restoration index ratings. General extent and

severity of the major categories of distress are to be evaluated

with the "windshield" survey. Further details for this type of

survey will be found in following sections.

For each observation, the rater shall get out of his or her

vehicle and quickly evaluate the distresses on the pavement

surface within the region defined by the pavement width and

centerline length of about 200 feet. Each distress will be

rated relative to the severity and/or the extent of the

distress, beginning with the first distress shown on the left

side of the form and continuing to the right.

Distress severity on bituminous pavements can be identified

by comparison with catalog photographs of the various distresses

accompanied by word descriptions. The severity is usually

categorized in one of five simple terms----absent (blank), low,

moderate, high, or extra high. Further details regarding this

may be found in the section on "Severity Condition".

Extent of an observed distress will be obtained either by

comparison of the manifestation to the catalog of reference

photographs depicting area or by measurement. Extremely precise

measurements are not required. Further details can be found

elsewhere in this report.

Upon conclusion of the surface distress rating at each

observation site, the shoulder area within the region should be

evaluated. Each condition should be evaluated in sequence and

the proper rating noted in the appropriate column on the

database.

The distress manifestations listed are the types evaluated

for Nebraska's bituminous pavements:

Distress Mode Distress Type

Fracture Cracking

Alligatoring

Edge

Longitudinal (WP, CLJ, BWP)

Transverse

Random/Block

Disintegration Raveling

Weathering

Stripping

Polishing

Scaling

Other Patching

Pot Holes, Failures

Excess Asphalt8

At highway speeds of 45 to 55 miles per hour, it is

impossible to evaluate in detail severity and extent of all

distress forms. However, perceptions of major pavement distress

are easily attained by visual evaluations at these speeds and a

reasonable determination of extent of distress can be made.

A visual "windshield" survey shall be used to evaluate the

surface condition of segments of pavement between routine

sampling test sites. On moving from one test location to the

next the surface will be observed. On stopping at a designated

test site on a bituminous pavement, the rater will weigh the

severity and extent of the distresses observed during the

windshield survey with what is observed at the test site.

This will be done during the completion of the more

comprehensive restoration index information.

The "windshield" pavement condition will focus on these

measures of pavement quality:

1. The distress types generally resulting from environmental

factors in conjunction with traffic:

random or grid block cracking

transverse cracking

2. Load associated distress manifestations:

alligatoring

edge cracking

shear failure

patching

Extent for the detailed restoration index defines the

density of the distress forms throughout the pavement surface.

However, for a "windshield" type survey the extent shall be

categorized for a much greater length than used for the

restoration index. For the "windshield" survey, the extent

shall represent the typical or nominal density of all the

distresses. The extent photographs in the catalog can be used

as a classification or reference criteria. The categories of

extent are none (blank), trace, occasional, frequent, extensive

Since the first strip of concrete pavement was completed in 1893, concrete has been used extensively for paving highways and airports as well as business and residential streets. There are four types of concrete pavement:

Plain pavements with dowels that use dowels to provide load transfer and prevent faulting,

Plain pavements without dowels, in which aggregate interlock transfers loads across joints and prevents faulting,

Conventionally reinforced pavements that contain steel reinforcement and use dowels in contraction joints, and

Continuously reinforced pavements that have no contraction joints and are reinforced with continuous longitudinal steel.
To prepare for paving, the subgradethe native soil on which the pavement is builtmust be graded and compacted. Preparation of the subgrade is often followed by the placing of a subbasea layer of material that lies immediately below the concrete.
The essential function of the subbase is to prevent the displacement of soil from underneath the pavement. Subbases may be constructed of granular materials, cement-treated materials, lean concrete, or open-graded, highly-permeable materials,
stabilized or unstabilized. Once the subbase has hardened sufficiently to resist marring or distortion by construction traffic, dowels, tiebars, or reinforcing steel are placed and properly aligned in preparation for paving.
There are two methods for paving with concreteslipform and fixed form. In slipform paving, a machine rides on treads over the area to be pavedsimilar to a train moving on a set of tracks. Fresh concrete is deposited in front of the paving machine
which then spreads, shapes, consolidates, screeds, and float finishes the concrete in one continuous operation. This operation requires close coordination between the concrete placement and the forward speed of the paver.
In fixed-form paving, stationary metal forms are set and aligned on a solid foundation and staked rigidly. Final preparation and shaping of the subgrade or subbase is completed after the forms are set. Forms are cleaned and oiled first to ensure that they
release from the concrete after the concrete hardens. Once concrete is deposited near its final position on the subgrade, spreading is completed by a mechanical spreader riding on top of the preset forms and the concrete. The spreading machine is
followed by one or more machines that shape, consolidate, and float finish the concrete. After the concrete has reached a required strength, the forms are removed and curing of the edges begins immediately.
Click here for more on Paving.
Joints Control Cracking
After placing and finishing concrete pavement, joints are created to control cracking and to provide relief for concrete expansion caused by temperature and moisture changes. Joints are normally created by sawing.
Once joints have been inserted, the surface must be textured. To obtain the desired amount of skid resistance, texturing should be done just after the water sheen has disappeared and just before the concrete becomes non-plastic. Texturing is done using
burlap drag, artificial-turf drag, wire brooming, grooving the plastic concrete with a roller or comb equipped with steel tines, or a combination of these methods.
The chosen method of texturing depends on the environment, and the speed and density of expected traffic. Curing begins immediately after finishing operations and as soon as the surface will not be marred by the curing medium. Common curing
methods include using white pigmented liquid membrane curing compounds. Occasionally, curing is accomplished by waterproof paper or plastic covers such as polyethylene sheets, or wet cotton mats or burlap.
As the concrete pavement hardens, it contracts and cracks. If the contraction joints have been correctly designed and constructed, the cracks will occur below the joints. As the concrete continues to contract, the joints will open-providing room for the
concrete to expand in hot weather and in moist conditions. Once the pavement hardens, the joints are cleaned and sealed to exclude foreign material that would be damaging to the concrete when it expands. The pavement is opened to traffic after the
specified curing period and when tests indicate that the concrete has reached the required strength. Immediately before the pavement is opened to public traffic, the shoulders are finished and the pavement is cleaned.