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VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 1
Contents
1 Recommended Literature
2 Examples of Control Systems
3 General Structure of a Control Loop
4 Block Diagrams
5 Mathematical Description of Dynamic Systems
6 Differential Equations
7 Laplace-Transform
8 Frequency-Response Analysis
9 Basic Functional Elements
10 Analysis of Control Systems
11 Stability Analysis of Control Systems
12 Tuning-Rules for Control-Parameters
13 Modifications of the Standard Control Loop
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 2
Recommended Literature
[1] Nise, Norman S.
Control systems engineering, John Wiley, 2000.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 3
control knob
nr
nc
heater
nc
u
speed
sensor
motor
temperature
sensor
inertia
Speed Control
Temperature Control
controller
xc
xr
position
sensor
motor
xc
spindle
Position Control
coil
controller
hr
iron ball
pump
hc
solar
cell
lamp
level
sensor
qin
hc
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 4
nc
u(nr)
x Ks
controller
motor
x Ks
nc
nr
controller
x Ks
motor
Equivalent System
controller
process
r:
e:
error signal
y:
controller output
c:
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 5
Controlled variable:
The controlled variable is the output of the process. It is measured by a sensor
element and controlled.
Reference input:
The reference input is the desired value for the controlled variable. It may be a
constant value or may be a time-dependent signal.
Manipulated variable:
The manipulated variable is the output of the controller and the input of the
process. The goal is to affect the value of the controlled variable to minimize
the deviation of the controlled variable from the desired value.
Process:
Any operation to be controlled is called a process.
Disturbance:
A disturbance influences the process and tends to affect the value of the controlled variable.
Feedback control or closed loop control:
A system where the controlled variable is measured and compared with the
desired value. Any deviation leads to a controller output which reduces the difference between the desired value and the controlled variable.
Open loop control:
In an open-loop control system the output is not measured and thus not compared with the input signal. The effect of disturbances cannot be compensated.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 6
overshoot
accuracy
r,c
0.5
dynamics
10
15
t
20
25
30
4
3.5
3
2.5
r,c
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
10
15
t
20
25
30
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 7
r(t)
UNIT STEP
UNIT RAMP
(t)
approximation
for (t)
DIRAC PULSE
1/
Basic functions
input signal
system
output signal
Functional Block
summing point
x
branch point
G1(s)
-
Block Diagram
G2(s)
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 8
LTIsystem
output signal
y(t)
an
d n y( t )
d n1 y ( t )
dy ( t )
d m x( t )
d m1x ( t )
+
a
+
...
+
a
+
a
y
(
t
)
=
b
+
b
+...+ b0 x ( t )
1
0
m1
m
n 1
dt n
dt n1
dt
dt m
dt m1
for technical systems: n m
Differential Equation
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 9
L { f ( t )} = F ( s) = f (t )e st dt
Some rules:
L { f (t ) + g (t )} = L { f (t )} + L { g(t )}
L {a f (t )} = a L { f (t )}
df (t )
L
= s L { f (t )} f (t = 0)
dt
1
t
L f ( )d = L { f (t )}
s
0
Small Laplace Transform Table:
1
s
(t )
e a t
1
s+a
1
s2
1
s ( s + a)
1
1 e at
a
sin( at )
a
s + a2
s
2
s + a2
2
cos( at )
1 d 2
1+
sin
t
d
2
1 d
fr d<1:
d
t
T
1
(T s + 2 d T s + 1) s
1 d 2
fr d=1:
1 1 + e T
T
t
T2
T1
T2
e T1 +
e mit T1, 2 = T d d 2 1
fr d>1: 1
T1 T2
T1 T2
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 10
L e at f (t ) = F ( s + a )
f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
f (0+ ) = lim sF ( s )
s 0
an
d n y( t )
d n1 y ( t )
dy ( t )
d m x( t )
d m1x ( t )
+
a
+
+
a
+
a
y
t
=
b
+
b
+...+ b0 x ( t )
...
(
)
n 1
1
0
m
m1
dt n
dt n1
dt
dt m
dt m1
Laplace-Transformation gives:
=
= G( s)
X ( s) a n s n + a n1s n1 +...+ a 0
G(s) is the transfer-function.
To obtain the output y(t) with given input x(t) and initial conditions (here considered to
be 0) the following recipe can be used:
1. Obtain G(s)
2. Find the Laplace-transform of x(t)
3. Obtain Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
4. Find the inverse Laplace-transform of Y(s)
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 11
Example: Obtain the step response of a 1st order lowpass with initial condition =0.
Solution:
differential equation:
y + T y& = x
input signal:
initial condition:
x(t ) = (t )
y (t = 0) = 0
y (t )
Laplace-Transformation gives:
Y ( s) + T s Y ( s) = X ( s)
This equation may be solved for Y(s)!
Y ( s) =
1
1
1 1
1
1
X ( s) =
=
1+ T s
1+ T s s T s + 1 s
T
y (t ) = 1 e
t
T
This is the well-known formula for the step response of a first order lowpass.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 12
Example: Solution of a differential equation of 2nd order with nonzero initial conditions.
differential equation:
input signal:
initial conditions:
y + T 2 &y& = x
x (t ) = 0
y (t = 0 ) = y 0
to obtain signal:
y (t )
y& (t = 0) = v0
Solution:
Preliminary considerations:
The Laplace-Transform of a second derivative is:
L {&y&(t} = s L {y& (t )} y& (t = 0) = s (s L {y (t )} y (t = 0) ) y& (t = 0) =
s 2 Y ( s ) s y (t = 0) y& (t = 0)
This way the initial conditions are included in the solution process.
Y ( s) =
1
T 2 s y0 + T 2 v0
2
2
1+ T s
)
1
T
T s
T
s
v
y +T
y +
v =
2
2 0
2
2 0
1 0
1 0
1+ T s
1+ T s
s2 + 2
s2 + 2
T
T
2
t
t
y (t ) = y0 cos + Tv0 sin
T
T
This describes for example the undamped oscillation of a spring-mass-system.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 13
Example: Obtain the response of a 1st order lowpass with initial condition =0 for an
input signal x(t ) = x0 sin (t ) .
Solution:
differential equation:
y + T y& = x
input signal:
initial condition:
x(t ) = x0 sin (t )
y (t = 0) = 0
with Laplace-transformation:
Y ( s ) = x0
2
s + 1 + Ts
2
1
As + B
C
= 2
2
2
1 + Ts
s + 1 + Ts s +
2
x0
s +
2
As + B
(1 + Ts ) + C x0
=C
2
2
2
s +
1
2
+
T
1
1
1
C
= As + B +
s 2 + 2 x0
= Aj + B; x0
= Aj + B
1 + Ts
1 + Ts
1 + Tj
1 Tj
x0
1
1
= Aj + B; x0
= Aj + B
1 + Tj
1 Tj
1
1
1 Tj + 1 + Tj
2
= x0
+ x0
= 2 B = x0
(1 + Tj )(1 Tj )
(1 + Tj )(1 Tj )
1 + Tj
1 Tj
x0
B=
1 + T 2 2
x0
x0
1
1
= Aj + B; x0
= Aj + B
1 + Tj
1 Tj
1
1
1 Tj 1 Tj
2Tj
x0
= 2 Aj = x0
= x0
(1 + Tj )(1 Tj )
(1 + Tj )(1 Tj )
1 + Tj
1 Tj
T
A=
1 + T 2 2
x0
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 14
With the coefficients A,B,C from the above calculations we can write Y(s) as:
T
s
1
1
T
2
+
2
+
Y ( s ) = x0
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
1+ T s +
1 + T 1/ T + s
1+ T s +
1
T
T
sin(
)
e
cos(
t
t
y (t ) = x0
1 + T 2 2
1 + T 2 2
1 + T 2 2
T
T
e
y (t ) = x0 V sin[t arctan(T )] +
1 + T 2 2
with
V=
1 + T 2 2
(1 + T )
2
2 2
1
1 + T 2 2
y(t) has two parts: the steady state solution ysteady(t) and the transient solution
ytransient(t)
y steady (t ) = x0 V sin [t arctan(T )]
t
y transient (t ) = x0
T
T
e
1 + T 2 2
1
:
T
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 15
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
/4
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
2
0
0.5
1.5
t/T
2.5
2.5
0.8
0.6
ysteady
0.4
ytransient
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.5
1.5
t/T
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 16
For this example it can be seen that the amplification factor V is given by:
V = G ( j )
Im{G ( j )}
= G ( j )
Re{G ( j )}
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 17
Frequency-Response Analysis
The two above relations are valid for all stable LTI-systems. This is shown in the
following.
We consider a system with input signal x(t ) = x0 sin (t ) and transfer function G(s). The
output signal y(t) has the Laplace-transform:
Y ( s ) = x0
s +2
2
G ( s)
As + B ... ...
+ + + ...
Y ( s ) = x0 2
G(s) = 2
2
s + 2 ... ...
s +
In this expression all the terms with ... belong to the transient response which tend
towards 0 for large values of t. This is only the case if the system under consideration
is stable. For the steady state response it is only necessary to determine the values
A and B.
Multiplying both sides by s 2 + 2 we have:
... ...
x0 G ( s ) = As + B + + + ... s 2 + 2
... ...
x0 G ( j ) = Aj + B + + + ...0 = Aj + B
...
...
... ...
x0 G ( j ) = Aj + B + + + ...0 = Aj + B
...
...
These are two equations for the two unknowns A and B. It can be easily seen that:
B = x0 Re{G ( j )}
A = x0 Im{G ( j )}
So we have:
Y ( s ) = x0
Im{G ( j )} s
Re{G ( j )}
+ .....
+ x0
2
2
s2 + 2
s +
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 18
Im{G ( j )}
+ ....
y (t ) = x0 G ( j ) sin t + arctan
Re{G ( j )}
This shows that for a stable LTI-system gain V and phase shift are given by:
V = G ( j )
and:
= arctan
Im{G ( j )}
= G ( j )
Re{G ( j )}
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 19
The horizontal axis in the Bode plots show the frequency in logarithmic scale.
The magnitude is expressed in decibels (dB):
a dB = 20 lg G ( j )
Some special values are given in the following table:
Gain
adB
1
100
-40
1
10
-20
1
2
-6
2
2
-3
10
100
20
40
1
1
with T = 1s
1 + Ts
Bode Diagrams
From: U(1)
0
-10
-15
-20
0
-20
To: Y(1)
-5
-40
-60
-80
-100
10-1
100
Frequency (rad/sec)
The plot is generated with MATLAB using the command bode(tf([1],[1 1]),'k')
101
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 20
The Nyquist plot shows the real and imaginary parts of G ( j ) when is varied.
Usually is varied between 0 and . The following figure is generated with MATLAB
using the Nyquist-command2. MATLAB varies in the range -<<.The graph for
positive is shown in red color, negative values produce the black graph.
Nyquist Diagrams
From: U(1)
0.8
0.6
Imaginary Axis
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Real Axis
The following blank may be used to make additional copies for exercises with Bodediagrams and Nyquist plots.
Exercises:
1) Draw the Bode-diagram and the Nyquist plot of: G ( s ) =
1
Ts
1
Ts
10
2) Draw the Bode-diagram and the Nyquist plot of: G ( s ) =
1
1 + Ts + T 2 s 2
10
The plot is generated with MATLAB using the command nyquist(tf([1],[1 1]))
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 21
80
60
40
a/dB
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-3
10
-2
-1
10
10
10
f/f0
10
10
10
200
150
100
-50
-100
-150
-200
-3
10
-2
-1
10
10
10
f/f0
10
10
imaginary part
50
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
real part
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 22
40
100
20
50
200
60
a/dB
80
-20
-50
-40
-100
-60
-150
-80
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
-200
-3
10
10
10
-2
-1
10
10
10
f/f0
10
10
10
Nyquist-plot:
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
Examples:
Mechanical beam
Input signal is the position of the left end, output signal is the position of the
beams right end
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 23
The integrator:
Equation: y = K I xdt .
Transfer function: G ( s) =
KI
s
80
200
60
150
40
100
20
50
a/dB
Bode-diagram:
-20
-50
-40
-100
-150
-60
-80
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
-200
-3
10
10
10
-2
-1
10
10
Nyquist-plot:
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
Examples:
-
Water tank
Input: flow rate, output: liquid level
qin
valve
q out
10
f/f0
10
10
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 24
The differentiator:
Equation: y = K D x& ..
Transfer function: G ( s ) = K D s
Step response: h(t ) = K D (t ) (the Dirac pulse)
Bode-diagram:
150
40
100
20
50
200
60
a/dB
80
-20
-50
-40
-100
-60
-150
-80
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
-200
-3
10
10
10
-2
-1
10
10
Nyquist-plot:
4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
Examples:
10
f/f0
10
10
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 25
KP
1 + Ts
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
t/T
3.5
4.5
80
200
60
150
40
100
20
50
a/dB
-20
-50
-40
-100
-60
-80
-3
10
-150
-2
10
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
-200
-3
10
10
10
-2
-1
10
10
-0.5
0.5
10
f/f0
10
10
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 26
Examples:
RC-lowpass filter
input: input voltage, output: output voltage
R
U1
U2
Electrical motor
input: voltage u, output: speed
i
u
Motor
inertia
Exercise:
Draw the block diagram of an electrical motor.
input: voltage, output: angular position
i
u
Motor
inertia
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 27
KDs
1 + Ts
t
KD T
e
T
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
t/T
3.5
4.5
60
150
40
100
20
a/dB
50
0
0
-20
-50
-40
-100
-60
-80
-3
10
-150
-2
10
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
10
-200
-3
10
10
-2
10
-0.5
0.5
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
10
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 28
Examples:
RC-highpass filter
input: input voltage, output: output voltage
U1
C
R
U2
Exercise:
Represent the highpass by a series connection of a lowpass and a differentiator.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 29
KP
1 + 2dTs + T 2 s 2
Step response:
d>1
t
t
T2
T1
T1
T2
e
e +
h(t ) = K P 1
T1 T2
T1 T2
d=1
t
t
h(t ) = K P 1 1 + e T
T
d<1
d
t
T
1 d 2
e
h(t ) = K P 1
sin
t + arccos d
2
T
1 d
mit T1, 2 = T d d 2 1
d=0.1
d=0.3
1.6
d=0.5
1.4
d=0.7
1.2
d=0.9
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
d=1.1
d=1.3
d=1.5
0.2
0
10
t/T
15
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 30
Asymptote fr 0
d=1.0
d=1.4
|G| in dB
-20
d=1.8
-30
-40
-50
-60
Asymptote fr
-70
-80
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
10
/0
0
d=0.2 Asymptote fr 0
-20
d=0.6
d=1.0
-40
d=1.4
-60
d=1.8
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
Asymptote fr
-180
-200
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
10
/0
d=1.8
d=1.4
0.5
0
Imaginrteil
-0.5
d=1.0
-1
d=0.6
-1.5
-2
d=0.2
-2.5
-3
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
Realteil
1.5
2.5
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 31
Examples:
RLC-filter
input: input voltage u1, output: output voltage u2
R
U1
U2
Spring-mass-system
input: force, output: position of the mass
y
d
c
F
m
Exercise: Describe the above RLC-filter with a block diagram containing two integrators
Exercise: Replace the series connection of two identical lowpasses of first order by a
lowpass of 2nd order.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 32
Example:
Conveyor belt:
h2
h1
v
l
80
200
60
150
40
100
20
50
a/dB
-20
-50
-40
-100
-60
-150
-80
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
f/f0
10
-200
-3
10
10
10
-2
-1
10
10
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
10
f/f0
10
10
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 33
G1(s)
G2(s)
controller
process
C ( s ) = G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) [R( s ) C ( s )]
Gclosed _ loop =
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
C ( s)
=
R( s ) 1 + G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
The PID-controller:
The equation of a controller with proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control action is:
1
y = K P e + edt + Td e&
Ti
R1
Ci
Ri
Rp
R1
uin
uout
Rd
Cd
R1
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 34
1
G ( s ) = K P 1 +
+ Td s =
Ti s
2
1 + Ti s + TiTd s
G ( s) = K P
Ti s
With the help of variable resistors RP, Ri and Rd the parameters KP, Ti and Td can be
adjusted. Variation of a resistor does only affect one of the control parameters.A PIDcontroller may also be realized in a circuit with fewer components:
R3
Cd
R2
Ci
R1
uin
uout
However, varying one element affects not only one control parameter. So we prefer
the first circuit for experimental tuning of control parameters and the second for realization with reduced number of components.
Exercise:
Establish the transfer function of the above circuits and find the relation between the
control and component parameters. Hint: The resistor R3 realizes modified differentiation.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 35
r
-
1
Ts
KP
1
KP
1
C (s)
T s =
=
T
R( s) 1 + K 1
1+
s
P
T s
KP
From this transfer function we conclude that
- the control loop is stable (first order lowpass is stable)
- the control loop has no overshoot (because a first order system cannot have an
overshoot)
- the control loop is accurate (because for s=0 we obtain a gain of 1)
- the dynamics can be adjusted by the variation of KP (because the time constant
is T/KP)
Exercise: Obtain the transfer function
U ( s)
. Sketch u(t) for r=(t).
R( s)
Exercise: Analyze the following control loop, where z is a disturbance z=z0(t). Is the
control loop still accurate?
z
r
-
KP
1
Ts
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 36
r
-
KP
K
1 + Ts
KP K
K
C ( s)
KP K
KP K +1
1+ T s =
=
=
T
R( s ) 1 + K K
1+ KP K + T s 1+
s
1+ T s
KP K +1
KP
r
-
1
Ti s
K
1 + Ts
1
K
1
C ( s)
K
T s 1+ T s
= i
=
=
R( s) 1 + 1 K
K + Ti s (1 + T s ) 1 + Ti s + Ti T s 2
K
Ti s 1 + T s
K
From this transfer function we conclude that
- the control loop is stable (2nd order lowpass is stable)
- the control loop may have an overshoot. See the exercise below.
- the control loop is accurate (because for s=0 we obtain a gain of 1 )
Exercise: For which values of Ti does the step response of the closed loop have an
overshoot?
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 37
Solution:
We compare the transfer function with the standard form of a 2nd order lowpass.
1
1+
T T
Ti
s + i s2
K
K
1
1 + 2dT ' s + T '2 s 2
Now we find:
T '=
Ti
T
T K
T
Ti T
and 2dT ' = i d = i = i
=
2 KT ' 2 K Ti T 2 K T
K
K
Ti
2 K T
< 1 Ti < 4 KT
e
-
KP
1
Ti s
K
1 + Ts
PI-control combines the advantages of P-control (fast response) and I-control (accuracy).
In the following we assume that Ti is chosen to be equal to T. This is called the compensation of the process pole.
K
1
KP K
K
1 + Ti s
K P 1 +
KP
C (s)
1
Ti s
Ti s 1 + T s
Ti s 1 + T s =
=
=
=
K
K K
T
1 + Ti s
R( s)
K
1
s
1+ P
1+
1+ KP
1 + K P 1 +
Ti s 1 + T s
Ti s
KP K
Ti s 1 + T s
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 38
1
Ti s
KP
K
1 + 2dTs + T 2 s 2
Td s
1
K
+ Td s
K P 1 +
1 + 2dTs + T 2 s 2
Ti s
C ( s)
=
=
R( s)
1
K
1 + K P 1 +
+ Td s
2 2
Ti s
1 + 2dTs + T s
1 + Ti s + Td Ti s 2
KP K
K
2 2
1
1 + 2dTs + T s
Ti s
Ti s
=
=
2
K
K
T
1 + Ti s + Td Ti s
K
i
1+ P
1+
s
1+ KP
2 2
Ti s
KP K
1 + 2dTs + T s
Ti s
KP
T2
T
=
Ti
2d
uin
R2
uout
R3
Note that we usually choose a high gain of the non-inverting amplifier, so it may also
go in saturation. Let umax and umin denote the maximum and minimum output voltage
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 39
duout
u
= max/ min . With the negative feedback it is ensured
dt max/ min
RC
that the output voltage always follows the input voltage. Note that the output is inverted, so one needs an additional inverter to have the correct sign.
e
-
KP
1
1 + Ts
1
1 + Ts
1
1 + Ts
Exercise: Find the transfer function of the closed loop. What is the steady state error
for KP=1, KP=3 and KP=9?
Here we find that the control loop is unstable if the controller gain KP exceeds a certain threshold (Kcritical=8). For KP<Kcritical however the control loop is stable.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 40
Stability Analysis
We will introduce two stability criterions.
The first is based on the closed loops transfer function and its pole locations in the
complex plane.
The second is the Nyquist criterion. It analyzes the open loops Nyquist curve.
The pole location criterion states:
A system is stable if all poles of its transfer function are located in the left half
of the complex plane if all poles have a negative real part.
Note that this stability criterion can only be applied if the system does not contain any
delay elements.
For the above example we may evaluate the pole locations depending on the parameter K. Often the pole locations are visualized in the so-called root-locus-diagram.
The corresponding MATLAB-command is rlocus. The following graph is obtained with
this procedure:
Root Locus
2
1.5
Imaginary Axis
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
Real Axis
There are three poles. As K is increasing one pole (blue line) is moving to the left, the
other poles however are approaching the imaginary axis and for K>8 they are entering the right half plane and the closed loop gets unstable.
As another example consider P-control of a 2nd order lowpass. The corresponding
root locus plot looks like this:
Root Locus
2
1.5
Imaginary Axis
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
Real Axis
From this we conclude that the control loop cannot get unstable.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 41
A powerful and complex theory has been developed on the basis of root locus plots
including also the design of controllers. However these details are not treated in this
lecture.
The Rouths criterion allows us to determine whether the system is stable without
explicitly evaluating the poles. Rouths stability criterion is outlined in the following:
Write the polynomial (denominator of the closed loop) in the following form (it is assumed that an 0 ):
a0 s n + a1s n1 + a2 s n2 + a3 s n3 + ... + an
Check if all the coefficients are nonzero and have the same sign. If not, the system is
not stable or there are roots which are imaginary. However this is only a necessary
but not a sufficient condition.
Arrange the coefficients in rows and columns according to the following scheme:
sn
sn-1
sn-2
sn-3
.
.
.
s0
a0
a1
b1
c1
a2
a3
b2
c2
a4
a5
b3
c3
a6
a7
b4
c4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
g1
b1 =
a1a2 a0 a3
a1
b2 =
a1a4 a0 a5
a1
b1a3 a1b2
ba ab
c2 = 1 5 1 3
b1
b1
The table is filled until we have completed the line with label s0.
c1 =
The system is stable if all coefficients in the first column have the same sign.
.
.
.
.
.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 42
Exercise: Find the necessary and sufficient conditions for a system with transfer1
function G ( s) =
to be stable.
3
2
a0 s + a1s + a2 s + a3
e
-
controller
process
If we use a sinusoidal input (e.g. from a function generator) for the controller the
steady state output c(t) will also be a phase-shifted sine-function (provided the open
loop is stable). In the case of our academic example it is found that the phase shift
3
may be -1800 (for a frequency =
) and the gain may be 1 (for a controller gain
T
K P = 8 ). This may be shown by analytical calculation and verified by simulation (see
the following SIMULINK-model).
Sine Wave
8
Ground
Subtract
Manual Switch
Slider
Gain2
1
tau*tau*tau.s3+3*tau*taus2+3*taus+1
Scope
Transfer Fcn
If we now toggle the switch and close the control loop the oscillation continues without changing the amplitude. This means the control loop is at the verge to instability.
For higher values of the gain however the amplitude will increase: the control loop is
unstable. For gains less than 8 the oscillation is damped and goes towards 0: the
control loop is stable.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 43
Im
unit circle
representing the
gain margin
Re
1
phase margin
The gain and phase margin is easily obtained with the MATLAB-command margin.
The next figure shows the result of margin when applied to the academic example.
Bode Diagram
Gm = 18.1 dB (at 1.73 rad/sec) , Pm = -180 deg (at 0 rad/sec)
0
Magnitude (dB)
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
0
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-135
-180
-225
-270
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 44
The gain margin is stated to be 18.1 dB. This corresponds to the well-known maximum gain of 8, for which the control loop is still stable. As the Nyquist plot touches
the unit circle at s=1, the phase margin is 180o.
Controller
P-Controller
PI-Controller
PID-Controller
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 45
0.5 Kcritical
0.45. Kcritical
0.6. Kcritical
TI
0.83.Tcritical
0.50.Tcritical
TD
0.125.Tcritical
These parameter values may not give satisfactory results. But they may be good initial values for further improving the dynamic behaviour of the control loop experimentally. Note that increasing the integral control action usually produces more oscillations and increasing the differential control action has a damping effect. The reason
for this is best seen in the Nyquist plot.
Start with P-control and increase the controller gain until the step response
shows a damped oscillation. On a scope one should see 4-5 periods of oscillation.
Continue with PD-control. Increase the differential control action to get rid of the
oscillations.
Activate the integral control action and increase its weight until settling time is
found to be good.
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 46
r
-
controller
2
controller
1
process
part 1
process
part 2
The tuning of the controller is of course done starting with the parameters of controller 1, and then adjusting the parameters of the outer control loop.
Example: Position control with an inner control loop for speed control.
controller
f-1(u)
f(u)
process
f-1(u) is the inverse of f(u) and must be realized as part of the controller. In analog
technique this is often very difficult, in digital controllers it may be easily done with the
help of lookup-tables.
Compensation of disturbances
Sometimes an information about the disturbance z is available and it may be compensated as shown in the next figure. With this method we may efficiently suppress
the effect of the disturbance before it affects the error signal and has to be compen-
VGU_Control_Theory_new.DOC
page 47
sated by the controller. In the ideal case Gz(s) is the inverse of the transfer function of
process part 1, however an approximate realization of Gz(s) also may show significant effect.
z
Gz(s)
r
-
controller
process
part 1
process
part 2
rate
limiter
e
-
controller
process