Chapter

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF MEXICAN

CHIHUAHUA CHEESE
Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo* and Fabiola SalaisFierro
Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of
Alberta, Ag/For Centre 4-10, Edmonton Alberta, Canada

ABSTRACT
Chihuahua cheese or Mexican Mennonite-style is a typical product of
the northern of Mexico. It is mildly flavoured semi-hard cheese whose
manufacturing protocols resemble those of cheddar cheese. Chihuahua
cheese is widely consumed through the retail and food service sectors to
prepare cheese-based products and processed cheeses. This chapter
presents a critical review of the existence literature on engineering
properties of Chihuahua cheese. First, the composition and key process
parameters will be reviewed where an industrial process will be described
in detail based on the authors experience. This will be followed by a
review of sensory, texture and rheological properties. Then, thermal and
thermodynamic properties will be reviewed. Finally, highlighted will be
the promising future of Chihuahua cheese to be used as ingredient.

E-mail: simartin@ualberta.ca

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

1. INTRODUCTION
The consumption of Mexican food is increasing faster than any other
segment of the ethnic food markets in the USA (Van Hekken & Farkye, 2003).
Additionally, Mexican food has become a popular alternative for restaurants
and home preparation. Most of the Mexican food sold in USA is known as
Tex-Mex food, a term used to describe a long established culinary fusion that
spans the long border between the United States and Mexico (Pilcher, 2001).
Hispanic cheeses, shredded or melted, are essential ingredients of the TexMex cuisine due to their unique flavour and functional properties (Van
Hekken & Farkye, 2003). Among the Hispanic cheeses, Mexican Mennonitestyle or Chihuahua cheese is one of the most versatile cheeses (MartinezMonteagudo & Salais-Fierro, 2012). Chihuahua cheese is mildly flavoured
semi-hard cheese produced in the Northern of Mexico, state of Chihuahua.
The manufacture of this cheese dated from 1922, when Canadian Mennonites
settled in Mexico by invitation of the Mexican president (Macias & Torres,
2000). The production of Chihuahua cheese has changed from artisanal to
small production (<3000 kg per day) and more recently to industrial
production (>60000 kg per day) (Tunick, et al., 2008). Traditionally,
Chihuahua cheese is made of raw milk and usually consumed within 4 weeks
after manufacture (Van Hekken et al., 2007). A pasteurized version is
currently found in the market, which is widely consumed through the retail
and food service sectors to prepare cheese-based products and processed
cheeses. As an ingredient, Chihuahua cheese is usually blended with other
ingredients using thermal and mechanical treatments such as to portioning,
shredding, heating, and freezing (Martinez-Monteagudo & Salais-Fierro,
2012).
While searching for alternatives to extend the applicability of Chihuahua
cheese, some authors have characterized its composition and manufacturing
procedures (Tunick et al., 2008), rheological (Van Hekken et al., 2007),
sensorial (Van Hekken et al., 2008; Van Hekken et al., 2006), functional
(Olson et al., 2011) and thermodynamic properties (Martinez-Monteagudo &
Salais-Fierro, 2012). Table 1 summarizes studies on the characterization of
Chihuahua cheese. The behaviour of these attributes during the processing and
handling are known as engineering properties (Barbosa-Cnovas, Juliano, &
Peleg, 2004). Identification of engineering properties of Chihuahua cheese is
essential for process development and design, equipment sizing and rating, and

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

process debottlenecking and optimization. This chapter presents a critical

review of the existence literature on engineering properties of Chihuahua
cheese and a detailed description of an industrial process.

2. MANUFACTURING PROTOCOLS
Chihuahua cheese is made with cows milk of the Holstein breed and its
manufacturing protocols resemble those of Cheddar cheese. Tunick et al,
(2008) characterized the manufacturing protocols after interviewed
cheesemakers from 15 different dairy plants, including 5 plants that use
pasteurized milk. These authors found important differences in the
manufacturing protocols, depending on equipment availability and personal
preferences. Despite these variations, the overall process can be described as it
shows in Fig 1.
For those plants that use pasteurized milk (75C for 12 s), the first step is
the addition of starter into warm milk, followed by the addition of rennet to
coagulate the milk. In general, the key manufacturing steps are coagulation,
cooking, cheddaring and pressing. The coagulation is initiated by addition of
chymosin or any other suitable rennet. It is typically conducted at a
temperature range of 37-45C for 30 to 40 min. During coagulation, the rennet
hydrolyzes the casein micelles, resulting in the formation of a casein network
in which fat is physically trapped. The resulting coagulum is cut into small
cubes with size range of 7-25 mm. Then, the coagulum is cooked at a
temperature range of 32-43C for a time span of 9-90 min. The application of
heat helps to remove moisture (whey) from the coagulum. At the end of the
cooking step, the whey is drained followed by cheddaring, which is conducted
at a temperature range of 23-38C for a period of time that ranges from 15 to
90 min. Then, the curd is dry salted at a concentration of 1-4 g/kg of curd.
Finally, the curd is pressed using a pressure range of 120-550 Pa for a period
of time ranging from 6 to 20 hours.

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

Raw or pasteurised milk at 4-23 C

Warmed to 30-37 C in 15-70 min

Starter culture added (if milk was pasteurized)
CaCl2 added to concentration of 0-0.07%
Rennet added at 130 mL/1000 L milk
Curd formed in 20-40 min
Curd cut using 6.4-25.4 mm curd knives
Cooked at 30-45 C for 5-90 min
Whey drained in 5-30 min
Cheddaring in 15-90 min
Milled into pieces measuring 13-76 mm (if milled)
Salt added to concentration of 0.2-0.4%
Pressed at 120-550 kPa
Dried at 4-27 C for 1-6 d
Packaged in 1-kg blocks
Stored at 0-20 C

Figure 1. Manufacturing protocols for Chihuahua cheese. Reproduced with the

permission of Tunick et al. (2008), copyright 2008 Society of Dairy Technology.

Table 1. Summary of studies on engineering properties of Chihuahua cheese

Property
Sensorial

Sensorial and
rheological

Rheological

Rheological

Meltability,
sliceability and
color

Thermodynamic
properties

Conditions
- 9 raw milk chesses
- 5 pasteurized milk cheeses
- Descriptive analyses.
- 4 cheeses (raw and pasteurized).
- Product specific spectrum intensity.
- Texture profile, small amplitude oscillatory
shear and torsion analyses.
- Texture profile, and torsion and small
amplitude oscillatory shear analyses.
- Texture profile, and torsion and small
amplitude oscillatory shear analyses.
- Seasonality effect (winter, mid spring, late
summer).
-Color: Heat at 232 C for 5 min or 130 C for
75 min.
-Meltability (Schreiber melt test) 232 C at 5
min.
-Sliceabiliy (force to cut through) Texture
analyzer.
-Proteolysis (sodium dodecyl sulfate- PAGE).
- Adsorption moisture isotherm using the static
gravimetric method (4, 8, and 12 C and
water activity from 0.08-0.96).
- Fresh (10 days) and ripened cheese (6
months).

Remarks
- Prominent flavor: salty, sour, diacetyl, cooked, whey, bitter,
and milk-fat.
- Raw milk chesses had sourer and bitter.
- Rheological: raw milk cheeses were softer.
- No seasonal differences between brands.
- Raw milk cheeses had more variability than pasteurized
cheeses.
- Rheology properties varied among the brands.
- Pasteurized cheeses were harder, chewier and more
cohesive.
- Raw milk cheeses underwent more extensive proteolysis
than the pasteurized milk cheeses.
- The texture of raw milk cheese is affected by season.

Reference
Van Hekken et
al., (2006)

Tunik et
(2007)

al.,

- Raw milk cheese was less browning upon heating, melted

more at 232 C and required greater cutting force.
- With aging, cheeses increased in meltability, decreased in
whiteness when measured before heating, and required
less cutting force to slice.
- Seasonal variations in the cheese milk had minimal or no
effect on the functional properties.

Olson et
(2011)

al.,

- GAB model best described the isotherms.

- Water adsorption by cheese matrix was a multilayer
process.
- For both samples, the isosteric heat and differential entropy
decreased with moisture content in exponential fashion.

MartinezMonteagudo and
Salais-Fierro
(2012).

Van Hekken et
al., (2008)

Van Hekken et
al., (2007)

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

The manufacturing protocols of Chihuahua cheese at industrial scale are

within the framework of Fig 1. For the purpose of this chapter, we considered
the manufacturing protocols as the sequence of operations performed within
the first 36 hours. An engineering evaluation of an industrial process of
Chihuahua cheese consists in monitoring key process variables during the
different manufacturing steps. Such key parameters are moisture, protein and
fat content, water activity and pH. Fig 2 shows the changes in key parameters
during the manufacturing steps of Chihuahua cheese. The manufacture of
cheese is a dehydration process where the moisture is removed from the curd
while the proteins and fat are concentrated until reach a desirable value
(Walstra, 2004). In the case of Chihuahua cheese, the proteins and fat are
concentrated 5.5-fold and 5.8-fold, respectively. At the beginning of the
Table 2. Syneresis parameters of industrial production of Chihuahua
cheese. The values are an average of 6 runs (18, 000 L of milk each)
at industrial facility located in Chihuahua, Mexico
Parameter
Whey fat
loss (WFR)

Equation

Value
0.76
0.21

Curd yield
wet basis (CYwb)

94.31
2.51

Curd yield
dry basis (CYdb)

65.12
1.94

Curd fat
retention (CFR)

90.31
1.22

M mass of milk; C mass of curd; Fw fat content on the whet; FM

fat content on the milk.
coagulation, the moisture content is around 87% and gradually decreased
during the subsequent steps (Fig 2a). On the other hand, the water activity (aw)
slightly changed throughout the manufacture. The pH remained unchanged
during coagulation, cutting and cooking (6.52). Afterwards, the pH dropped
in every step until reached a value of 5.6 in the pressing step.

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

(a)

Moisture/Protein/Fat content (%)

100

Moisture
Protein
Fat

80

60

40

20

0
Coagulation Cutting

Cooking

Draining Cheddaring

Salting

Pressing

(b)
6.9

pH
aw

6.6

1.00

6.3
pH

0.96

6.0

0.94

5.7

0.92

5.4

Water activity

0.98

0.90
Coagulation Cutting

Cooking

Draining Cheddaring

Salting

Pressing

Figure 2. Changes in key variables during the industrial process of Chihuahua cheese:
(a) moisture, protein and fat content and (b) pH and water activity.

The first three manufacturing steps (coagulation, cutting and cooking) are
perhaps the most important sequence of events during cheesemaking. Several
physical and chemical changes occur during coagulation, cutting and cooking.
During coagulation, the milk is clotted to form a relative weak gel, which is
cut into small pieces. Then, the casein micelles rearrange into clusters,
strengthen the gel. Further mechanical (stirring) and heat treatment cause the
expulsion of the whey from the gel, forming a curd. The removal of a liquid

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

from a solid matrix is known as syneresis. Many authors point out that
syneresis is the most critical step in determining the final characteristics of the
cheese (Fagan, et al., 2008). An excellent review on the theory and importance
of syneresis is provided elsewhere (Walstra, 2004). There are various methods
to qualitatively and quantitatively determine the syneresis. A convenient and
simple way is to determine the moisture and fat content in the curd and the
whey, from which, the syneresis parameter can be calculated (Fagan, et al.,
2007). The syneresis parameters and their respective equations are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2 shows the whey fat loss (WFL), curd yield wet basis (CYwb), curd
yield dry basis (CYdb), and curd fat retention (CFR) obtained in the industrial
production of Chihuahua cheese. An investigation of coagulation of milk with
chymosin showed that the parameters WFL and CFR were strongly related to
the cutting time and the applied temperature while the curd yield, either dry or
and wet basis, was function of temperature and added calcium (Fagan, et al.,
2007). More importantly, these authors optimized the syneresis parameters,
curd composition and gel firmness. Consequently, the optimum gel firmness
was found where desirable moisture content can be achieved while
maximizing the retention of fat and curd yield.
The parameters shown in Table 2 can be used for calculating the
theoretical cheese yield and forecasting process troubleshooting. Within the
conditions used (time and temperature) during cheese-making (coagulation,
cutting and cooking), 90% of the fat is retained in the curd (CFR) during the
industrial production of Chihuahua cheese. This is the first time that syneresis
or cheese-making parameters of Chihuahua cheese are reported.
Unfortunately, the relationship with curd firmness and moisture content has
not been established yet. Such relationships are essential for determining
equipment size and time needed.
At the end of the cooking step, the whey is drained as shown in Figure 2,
where the most important change is the reduction in the pH from 6.24-5.61.
After cheddaring and salting, the curds, which still have relative high moisture
content are vacuumed to a pressing tower (10 m tall), where the salted curds
are pressed, expulsing the remaining whey and achieving values of moisture
content of 48%. The proteins and fat are further concentrated from 14 to 21%
and 18 to 28%, respectively. The tower has a guillotine system that cuts cheese
block of 18-kg. Then, the blocks are packed and cool down from 35 to 4C.

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

(a)

(b)

35
A - 14 cm
B - 7 cm
C - 0 cm

28

21

B
A

14

18 cm

Temperature (C)

0
0

15

30

45
Time (hours)

60

75

90
36 cm

Figure 3. Cooling step of Chihuahua cheese: (a) Temperature profile during cooling of
18-kg block of Chihuahua cheese and (b) dimensions of 18-kg cheese block and
sampling spots. The thermocouples were inserted 10 cm depth and 0 (A), 7 (B) and 14
cm (C) from the middle of the cheese block.

During cooling, an important characteristic that is oftentimes overlooked

is the temperature gradients within the cheese block. In Figure 3, the
temperature profile of an 18-kg block of Chihuahua cheese is exemplified.
Three thermocouples (type K) were inserted 10 cm depth at different spots
within the Chihuahua cheese block (Figure 3a). The first spot was located in
the middle of the block, named point A, and was considered as 0 cm located
from the center. The second spot was located 7 cm from the center of the
block, point B, and the last thermocouple was inserted 14 cm far from the
center, point C.
The external part of the cheese block is being cooled faster than the rest of
the block, creating a temperature gradient of 6C, which eventually
disappears with the cooling time. Temperature is considered an important
factor in developing texture and flavor. The effect of the gradient temperature
existed within the cheese block on the composition and sensory properties will
be reviewed in the following sections.

3. COMPOSITION
The composition of Chihuahua cheese reported in the literature is shown
in Table 3. For comparison, the composition and the limits established by the
Mexican official standard (MOS) are also provided in Table 3. A moisture

10

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

content of 45% is the maximum level permitted by the MOS. The reported
values for moisture content were in the range of 35 to 45%, including those
cheeses made with raw milk. In the case of fat and protein content, the
reported values were within the range of the MOS (>21 and >23%,
respectively). The amount of salt reported in the literature were below the
MOS limit (<3%). In the case of pH, the values reported in the literature were
considerably low (5.01-5.25) compared with the limit proposed by the MOS. It
should be highlighted that only 3 papers reported water activity values for
Chihuahua cheese, ranging from 0.951-0.962.
Interestingly, Martinez-Monteagudo & Salais-Fierro (2012) compared the
composition of fresh Chihuahua cheese and 6-months-old cheese and no
significant difference was found, except for pH and aw where both parameters
were higher in 6-months-old cheeses. During ripening, a progressive
hydrolysis of para-casein leads to a formation of -carboxylic and -amino
groups, increasing the water binding capacity of cheese matrix, which reduces
the free water (McSweeney, et al., 2006). Tunick et al. (2008) reported the
average composition of Chihuahua cheese made with raw and pasteurized
milk. The average moisture content was higher in cheese made with
pasteurized milk compared with the cheese obtained with raw milk. In general,
the composition of the Chihuahua cheese reported in the literature lied within
the Mexican official standard, except for the pH.
The effect of non-uniform cooling on the composition of 18-kg cheese
block is shown in Fig 4. For this experiment, the cheese block (right after
cooling) was cut in four equal parts (Fig 4a) and samples were taken from the
internal and external zone at three different heights (0, 7 and 18 cm, Fig 4b).
Finally, the samples from the different spots were analyzed for fat (Fig 4c) and
protein content (Fig 4d), moisture (Fig 4f) and salt content (Fig 4e), pH (Fig
4g) and water activity (Fig 4h).
In general, no substantial difference was detected in the composition
within the cheese block. For fat and protein content (Fig 4c and 4d,
respectively), no significant difference was observed within the cheese block,
obtaining values in the range of 30-32% for fat and 22-23% for protein,
regardless the sampling spot. In the case of moisture content (Fig 4e), the
values in the internal zone slightly varied between 40 and 41%, regardless the
height. In the external zone, at a distance of 18 cm (height), the moisture
content was significantly higher (46%) compared to rest of the cheese block.
Contrary results were reported in 292-kg Cheddar cheese blocks (Reinbold &
Ernstrom, 1988). These authors found that the gradient temperature generated
during cooling induces migration of moisture through the block from high to

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

11

low temperature zones via diffusion and capillarity. It should be noted that the
size of Chihuahua cheese block (Fig 4a) allows a relative small temperature
gradient (6C) compared to the gradient (up to 27C) reported Cheddar
cheese blocks (Whetstine, et al., 2007).
The salt distribution within the cheese block is shown in Fig 4f. In both
zones, external and internal, the salt content gradually decreased as the
samples approached to the bottom (0 cm). The differences in the salt content
through the cheese block are due to diffusion of salt. The salt content affects
the growth of acid production by bacteria, which results in a pH gradient.
Indeed, Fig 4g shows the pH values within the cheese block. Overall, the pH
in the external zone ranged from 5.01-5.04 increasing with the height. On the
other hand, the pH values in the internal zone varied from 4.99 to 5.02 from
top to bottom (18 to 0 cm height). Similarly, localized differences of pH were
reported in a 12-kg Cheddar cheese block (Sheehan, et al., 2009). A pH
gradient within the block might result in a non-uniform syneresis, which
impact the final quality of the cheese.
In the case of water activity, the salt content also influences the aw values
as it shows in Fig 4h. In the internal zone, the aw values slightly increased
when the samples approached to the bottom of the cheese block (0.961 to
0.974). The same tendency was observed in the aw values obtained from the
external zone (0.968 to 0.978). The gradient temperature generated during the
cooling did not significantly affect the composition within the cheese block.
Moreover, the composition within the block was further evaluated during the
storage up 10 days at 4C. The composition evaluated at the same sampling
stops did not significantly change within the block, except for the pH (Fig 5),
where the zone from which the samples was taken influenced the pH value. In
addition, the pH was influenced by the storage time.
Knowledge of the changes in composition during the manufacturing steps
is needed for developing standards of identity. This section provided a detailed
composition profile of Chihuahua cheese during the manufacturing steps. This
information is essential since differences in equipment size and process
variables might affect the final quality of the product.

Table 3. Composition of Chihuahua cheese reported in the literature

Reference
MOS a

Moisture (%)
45 max

Fat (%)
25 min

Parameter
Protein (%)
Salt (%)
22 min
3 max

pH
5.5-6.0

NR

Diaz et al, 1992

45

21.2 0.2

26.4 1.1

2.3 1.3

5.25

0.952

2.18

5.21

NR

aw

Saltijeral et al,
1999
Solano et al, 2000

35.1

37

NR

36.4

31.9

24.9

2.9

5.8

NR

Martinez & Salais,

2012 b
Martinez & Salais,
2012 c
Tunick et al, 2008

42.2 1.5

31.7 1.5

23.8 0.9

1.9 0.9

5.04 0.1

0.961

41.1 1.1

32.3 0.5

24.9 0.3

1.7 0.7

5.01 0.2

0.952

39.4 1.4

32.6 1.2

26.9 1.3

NR

5.01 0.1

NR

42.1 1.4

31.5 0.8

25.2 1.2

NR

5.15 0.1

NR

Tunick et al, 2008

e
a

MOS Mexican official standard; b Values of fresh cheese (<5 d); c values of 6 m old cheese; d cheese made with raw milk; e
cheese made with pasteurized milk; f NR not reported

13

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

(a) Cheese block dimensions

(b) Sampling spots

36 cm

External zone

(c) Fat content

18 cm

0.56%

2.22

0.12%

0.968

0.002

0.969

0.002

0.07

5.01

0.05

0.967

0.003

0.974

0.001

5.00

0.004

External zone

0.03

0.961

0.05

5.04

5.02

External zone

0.978

0.003

18 cm

0.05

0.13

0.16%

(h) Water activity

5.00

2.26

1.11%

2.32

18 cm
0.05

0.15%

41.11

0.13%

(g) pH

4.99

2.31

1.04%

2.31

40.36

0.11%

External zone

2.57

1.26%

2.51%

40.91

46.92

1.41%

0.25%

22.96

18 cm

41.12

1.01%

0.33

(f) Salt content

18 cm
40.51

23.26

(e) Moisture content

External zone

0.55%

0.53%

22.62

23.11

31.36

0.36%

0.71%

23.26

31.54

0.63%

External zone

22.98

0.67%

0.58%

30.94

31.36

0.12%

31.98

0.76%

0 cm

(d) Protein content

18 cm
31.16

7 cm

0 cm

18 cm

7 cm

18 cm

18 cm
18 cm

External zone

Figure 4. Characterization of composition within 18-kg block of Chihuahua cheese: (a)

cheese block dimensions; (b) sampling spots; (c) fat content, (d) protein content, (e)
moisture content, (f) salt content, (g) pH and (h) water activity.

14

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

(a) External zone

5.3

0 cm
7 cm
18 cm

5.2

5.1

5.1

pH

pH

5.2

5.0

5.0

4.9

4.9

4.8

4.8
0

(b) Internal zone

5.3

0 cm
7 cm
18 cm

10

10

Storage time (days)

Storage time (days)

Figure 5. Effect of storage on the pH values within the 18-kg Chihuahua cheese block:
(a) samples obtained from external zone and (b) samples obtained from internal zone.

4. SENSORIAL
The flavours and textures of Chihuahua cheese have been characterized by
Van Hekken et al. (2006), whom selected 9 brands of Chihuahua cheese for a
descriptive analysis using a standardized descriptive language developed for
Cheddar cheese (Drake, et al., 2001). The sensory analysis included 4 brands
that used raw milk and 5 brands using pasteurized milk. More details on the
sensorial analysis are given in Table 1. In both cases (raw and pasteurized
cheese), the most predominant flavours were salty, sour, diacetyl, cooked,
whey, bitter and milk fat, being sour and bitter more intense in raw milk
cheeses. In another investigation, Van Hekken et al. (2008) showed that
sensory attributes of Chihuahua cheese slightly changed with the season.
These authors also showed that the texture of Chihuahua cheese was high in
hand firmness, hand springiness and first bite firmness. These attributes are
characteristics of a semi-hard cheese. Chihuahua cheese was defined as firm
but not hard and was smooth and sticky when it is chewed (Van Hekken et al.,
2006).
In an attempt to develop a lexicon for Chihuahua cheese, a descriptive
sensorial analysis was performed with 11 well trained panelists (unpublished
data). After roundtable discussions, the panelists summarized a list of terms
that describes the sensory attributes of Chihuahua cheese (Table 4). The
sensory description includes appearance, aroma and flavour. The analysis was
performed in 1, 2, 3 and 24-months-old Chihuahua cheeses (Fig 6). The
sensory profile was similar for cheese between 1- and 3-months-old, where
salty, milkfat, and sour were the predominant flavours. This is in agreement

15

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

with the sensory description reported by Van Hekken et al. (2006). On the
other hand, the 24-months-old Chihuahua cheese showed a different sensory
profile with strong tendency for strong aroma and flavour.
Table 4. Terms, definition and reference used for the descriptive
analysis of Chihuahua cheese
Term
Color

Definition
Appearance
Tendency to yellow

Fatty

Brightness over a surface

Butter

Aroma
Aromatics associated with butter

Age
Sour
Cooked

Milkfat
Salty
Bitter
Creamy
Sour
Curd

Aromatics associated with aged

cheese
Aromatics associated with sour
cream
Aromatics associated with cooked
milk
Flavour
Flavour associated with butter
Fundamental taste sensation caused
by salt
Fundamental taste sensation caused
by caffeine
Flavour associated with cream
Fundamental taste sensation caused
by acids
Flavour associated with fresh curd

Reference
Commercial
butter
Commercial
butter

unsalted
unsalted

Commercial
unsalted
butter
Aged Cheddar cheese
Commercial sour cream
Heated milk (90C/15
min)
Commercial
unsalted
butter
0.3% Sodium chloride
in water
0.1% caffeine in water
Commercial cream
0.08% citric acid in
water
Commercial
fresh
cheese

An informal acceptability test shows that the majority of the consumers

strongly prefer the Chihuahua cheese within 3 months after manufacture while
the 24-months-old cheeses were the least accepted (Fig 7). Van Hekken et al.

16

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

(2008) reported that Chihuahua cheese is usually consumed between 1 to 6

weeks, which is in agreement with the reuslts shown in Fig 7.

Figure 6. Sensory profile of Chihuahua cheese: 1-, 2-, 3- and 24-months-old cheeses.

5. TEXTURE
One important parameter in determining the final use of any cheese is the
texture, which can be characterized by a double compression test. This test is
known as texture profile analysis (TPA) and it is a useful tool for evaluating
general aspects of cheese texture (Tunick, 2000). TPA consists of 7
parameters: 1) fracturability, applied force to fracture a solid food; 2)
hardness, applied force to deform a solid food; 3) adhesiveness, work required
to overcome attractive force between a solid food and other surface; 4)
cohesiveness, a measure of the strength of the internal bonds; 5) springiness, a

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

17

measure of the ability of a solid food to return to its original height; 6)

gumminess, force needed to disintegrate a solid food and 7) chewiness, force
needed to masticate a solid food to a state ready for swallowing (Tunick,
2000). In this section, the TPA of Chihuahua cheese reported in literature (3
papers) is reviewed, followed by unpublished results.

100
High
Medium
Low

Number of consumers

80

60

40

20

0
1-month

2-months

3-months

24-months

Figure 7. Global acceptability test for Chihuahua cheese: 1-, 2-, 3- and 24-months-old.
The test was conducted in a local supermarket (n=100).

The texture profile of Chihuahua cheese has been characterized in fresh

cheeses (10 days after manufacture) made with raw or pasteurized milk (Van
Hekken et al., 2007; Van Hekken et al., 2008; Tunick et al., 2007). Although
important variations were reported among the different brands, cheeses made
with pasteurized milk were generally harder, chewier and more cohesive than
those cheese made with raw milk. In cheeses made with raw milk, the
indigenous microflora strongly influences the degree of proteolysis and
lipolysis within the cheese matrix, affecting the texture profile. Indeed, Tunick
et al, (2007) found more casein peptides in cheese made with raw milk
compared with those cheeses made with pasteurized milk, where the
indigenous microflora is not present. In addition, the effect of seasonality of

18

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

cheesemilk on the texture profile of Chihuahua cheese was evaluated (Van

Hekken et al., 2008; Tunick et al., 2007). The evaluated TPA parameters
showed variations with the change in season, being average values of hardness
and chewiness higher in the summer.
(a)
100

250

Chewiness (mJ)

80

Hardness (N)

(b)

300

60

40

200

150

100

20
50
0
Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

(d)

0.5

12

0.4

10

Springiness (mm)

Cohesiveness

(c)

0.3

0.2

0.1
2
0.0
Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

0
Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

Figure 8. Comparison of texture profile analysis between Chihuahua cheese and other
fresh cheeses: a) hardness, b) chewiness, c) cohesiveness, and d) springiness. Adapted
from Van Hekken et al., 2007.

The average values of TPA parameters for Chihuahua cheese were

compared with other cheeses of the same aged (Van Hekken et al., 2007). Fig
8 shows the TPA parameters for Brick, Cheddar, Mozzarella, Colby, Havarty
and Chihuahua. In the case of hardness (Fig 8a), Chihuahua cheese possesses a
middle hardness similar to that of Mozzarella. Additionally, Chihuahua cheese
is chewed similar to Colby (Fig 8b). Among the 6 cheeses evaluated,
Chihuahua cheese was ranked as middle in cohesiveness, being similar to that
of Brick and Colby (Fig 8c). On the other hand, Chihuahua cheese shows
similar springiness to that obtained for Mozzarella, both being ranked high
(Fig 8d). It should be highlighted that these cheeses were characterized under

19

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

the same test conditions (Tunick & Van Hekken, 2003; Van Hekken et al.,
2007).
(b) Adhesiveness

(a) Hardness

18 cm

18 cm

-8.91

2.4 J

0.11 mm

7.53

0.42 mm

393

64.41

378

44.32

7.16

37.51

7.17

352

66.77

593

58.44

52.76

75.15

9.41

343

External zone

54.41

6.17

External zone

284

68.36

18 cm

57.52

7.19

2.26 mm

(f) Chewiness

6.21

43.56

0.11 mm

0.06

10.34

18 cm
10.11

7.25

0.76

0.45 mm

(e) Gumminess

46.96

1.7 J

-4.33

0.01

8.03

0.75

0.11 mm

External zone

7.32

0.02

0.02

0.74

0.74

0.01

2.2 J

18 cm

0.78

0.02

-8.54

(d) Springiness

18 cm
0.79

2.9 J

(c) Cohesiveness

External zone

-8.37

13.8 N

1.5 J

50.37

-7.36

9.3 N

1.3 J

70.45

-7.86

External zone

8.3 N

14.6 N

77.31

73.94

7.3 N

55.97

14.5 N

59.73

External zone

Figure 9. Comparison of texture profile analysis within 18-kg block of Chihuahua

cheese: (a) hardness, (b) adhesiveness, (c) cohesiveness, (d) springiness, (e)
gumminess and (f) chewiness.

A comparison of the texture profile analysis within 18-kg block of

Chihuahua cheese is shown in Fig 9. The cheese block was analyzed after 10
days of being manufactured. In general, the parameters of the TPA showed
high variability, which can be explained due to sampling error. The hardness
of the Chihuahua cheese block is similar on both zones (external and internal,
Fig 9a). The external zone of the cheese block is less adhesive than the internal
zone (Fig 9b). In the case of cohesiveness (Fig 9c), springiness (Fig 9d),
gumminess (Fig 9e), and chewinnes (Fig 9f), no significant difference was

20

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

observed within the cheese block. The mean values of hardness, cohesiveness,
springiness, and chewiness within the Chihuahua cheese block are in the range
of those values reported by Van Hekken et al. (2007). Mapping the microflora
within the cheese block, it will help to establish relationship with the degree of
proteolysis and TPA paramaters.

6. RHEOLOGY
The rheology properties of Chihuahua cheese has been characterized in
terms of torsion analysis and small amplitude oscillatory shear analysis
(Tunick et al., 2007; Van Hekken et al., 2008; Van Hekken et al., 2007). An
excellent review on the fundamentals and applications of rheological
measurements in dairy products is provided elsewhere (Tunick, 2000). During
the torsion test, a sample is twisted until it breaks and three parameters are
typically obtained: 1) shear stress, a measure of sample hardness; 2) shear
strain, a measure of deformability; 3) shear rigidity, a measure of the stiffness.
In the small amplitude oscillatory shear analysis, the sample is placed between
two plates and subjected to a sinusoidal oscillation, from which the elastic
modulus (G), viscous modulus (G) and complex viscosity (*) are obtained.
These parameters are known as viscoelastic properties, where G measures the
elastic behavior, G measures the viscous behavior and * measures the
viscoelastic flow of the sample.
The torsion analysis for the Chihuahua cheese (raw and pasteurized) is
shown in Fig 10. Overall, the shear stress ranged from 33-64 kPa, decreasing
with the storage time (Fig 10a). The shear strain values range from 0.96-1.39,
slightly decreasing with the storage time (Fig 10b). Finally, the shear rigidity
values for raw cheese ranged 50-87 while for pasteurized chesses ranged from
43-51, slightly decreasing with storage time. During storage, solubilisation of
calcium phosphate and a progressive hydrolysis of casein leads to a
breakdown of the casein network, softening the cheese.

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

21

(a) Shar stress

70
Raw cheese
Pasteurized cheese

Shear stress (kPa)

60

50

40

30

20
0

10

12

14

16

12

14

16

Storage time (weeks)

(b) Shear strain
1.2

Shear strain (kPa)

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Raw cheese
Pasteurized cheese

0.0
0

10

Storage time (weeks)

(c) Shear rigidity

Shear rigidity (kPa)

80

60

40

20
Raw cheese
Pasteurized cheese

0
0

10

12

14

16

Storage time (weeks)

Figure 10. Torsion analysis for Chihuahua cheese during storage: (a) shear stress, (b)
shear strain, and (c) shear rigidity.

22

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

(b) Shear strain

(a) Shear stress

1.8

60

Shear strain

Shear stress (kPa)

1.5

50

1.2

0.9
40

0.0
Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

Brick

Havarty Chihuahua

(d) Elastic modulus

(c) Shear rigidity

60

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

100

Elastic modulus (kPa)

Shear rigidity (kPa)

80
50

40

60

40

20

30

0
Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Brick

Havarty Chihuahua

(e) Viscous modulus

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

(f) Complex modulus

10

35
30

Complex modulus (kPa)

Viscous modulus

25
20
15
10

2
5
0

0
Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

Brick

Cheddar Mozzarella Colby

Havarty Chihuahua

Figure 11. Comparison of rheological properties between Chihuahua cheese and other
cheeses: (a) shear stress, (b) shear strain, (c) shear rigidity, (d) elastic modulus, (e)
viscous modulus, and (f) complex modulus. Adapted from Van Hekken et al., 2007.

A correlation between sensory texture and rheological parameters for

Chihuahua cheese was reported by Van Hekken et al. (2008). Shear stress and
shear strain positivelly correlated with first-bite. Shear strain was correlated to
hand rate of recovery. Interestingly, none of the viscoelastic terms correlated
with the sensory texture. Van Hekken et al. (2007) compared the rheolgical
properties of Chihuahua cheese with other fresh cheese (Fig 11). In terms of
shear stress, Chihuahua cheese had similar values than Cheddar and Colby,
meaning that these cheeses had similar hardness (Fig 11a). Chihuahua cheese

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

23

showed a tolerance to defermation similar to that observed in Colby cheese

(Fig 11b, shear strain). The stiffness (shear rigidity, Fig 11c) of Chihuahua
cheese resemble that observed for Brick and Colby. In the case of viscoelastic
properties (Figs 11d-e), Chihuahua cheese had similar values than those
observed for Colby. Interestingly, the rheological behavior of Chihuahua
properties resembles to that of Colby cheese.

7. THERMAL
The thermal properties of Chihuahua cheese have been determined by
Soto-Caballero et al. (2008). These authors evaluated the thermal conductivity
(k), thermal diffusivity () and heat capacity (Cp). Fig 12a shows the variation
of k as function of the tested temperature. These values ranged from 0.25 to
0.39 W/m K within the temperature span of 278-318 K. Similarly, Rahman
(1995) reported k values in the range of 0.30-0.32 W/m K obtained in the
temperature range of 273-313 K. In Fig 12a, the k increased with the
temperature until reached a maximum value of 0.39 W/m K at 298 K. Then,
the k decreased with temperature, reaching values in the range of 0.31 W/m K
at 318 K. As the temperature increases, the cheese matrix suffers physical
changes in their principal components (proteins and fat), which increased the
heat flow resistance.
The thermal diffusivity () of Chihuahua cheese ranged from 9.2x10-5 to
1.0x10-4 m2/s at a temperature range of 278-318 K (Fig 12b). The linearly
increased with the temperature until reaching a value of 1.0x10-4 m2/s at 288
K. At temperatures higher than 288 K, did not change. Upon heating, the fat
globules are disrupted affecting the heat propagation. On the other hand, the
changes in the Cp of Chihuahua cheese as function of temperature are shown
in Fig 12c. From 278 to 281 K, the Cp increased linearly until reached a
maximum value of 4.48 kJ/kg K. Further increased in the temperature results
in a decreasing tendency of the Cp (3.12 kJ/kg K at 287 K).
The k is a measure of the ability to conduct heat while the is a measure
how rapidly a heat flow diffuse through a material. On the other hand, the Cp
measures the heat needed in order to change the temperature of the material.
The determination of thermal properties is needed for controlling and
simulating thermal processes.

24

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

(a)
0.40

Thermal conductivity
(k, W m-1 C-1)

0.36

0.32

0.28

0.24

0.20
278

286

294

302

310

318

Temperature (K)
(b)

Thermal diffusivity
(, mm2s-1 )

0.101

0.099

0.097

0.094

0.092

0.090
278

286

294

302

310

318

Temperature (K)
(c) Heat capacity

Heat capacity (Cp, kJ kg-1 K-1)

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0
0

10

20

30

40

50

Temperature (K)

Figure 12. Thermal properties of Chihuahua cheese: (a) thermal conductivity, (b)
thermal diffusivity, and (c) heat capacity.

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

25

8. THERMODYNAMICS
The thermodynamic properties of Chihuahua cheese have been reported
by Martinez-Monteagudo & Salais-Fierro (2012), whom from adsorption
isotherms derived the energy of sorption, which is expressed in terms of
isosteric enthalpy (His) and entropy (Sis). For details on theoretical
description of adsorption isotherms and their thermodynamic properties, the
review of Rizvi (2005) is recommended. Fig 13 shows the moisture adsorption
isotherms of fresh and ripened Chihuahua cheese within the temperature range
of 4-12C and aw range of 0.08-0.95. The adsorption isotherms for both
cheeses were best described by GAB model. The parameters of GAB model
are given in Table 5. The C parameter measures of how strong the water
molecules are bound to the primary sorption sites. On the other hand, k is a
measure of the water mobility in bulk compared with water molecules
structured in the multilayer. Finally, the parameter mo, is the amount of water
needed to cover and form a continuous adsorbed layer.
The estimated GAB parameters for fresh Chihuahua cheese (C >>1 and
k1, Table 5) indicates the existence of two classes of water. The first class
consists of water molecules strongly bound to the primary sorption sites,
forming a strong monolayer whose properties differs from the multilayers. The
second class of water is the subsequent layers that are slightly structured
having properties comparable with bulk liquid water. Similarly, the ripened
Chihuahua cheese shows two classes of water (C >>1 and k1, Table 5) but
water molecules are less strongly bound in the monolayer compared with fresh
samples, and the subsequent structured layers have similar properties to liquid
water.

26

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

(a) Fresh cheese

Moisture content (g water/g solid)

3.0

2.4

1.8

1.2

0.6

0.0
12

Te 10
mp
era 8
tur
e(
K) 6
4

0.15

0.30

0.45

0.60

0.75

0.90

ity
r activ
Wate

(b) Ripened cheese

Moisture content (g water/g solid)

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
12

Te 10
mp
era 8
tur
e(
K) 6
4

0.15

0.30

0.45

0.60

0.75

0.90

ity

r activ
Wate

Figure 13. Moisture adsorption isotherms of Chihuahua cheese: (a) fresh cheese (10
days) and (b) ripened cheese (180 days). Adapted from Martinez-Monteagudo &
Salais-Fierro, (2012).

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

27

Table 5. Parameters of GAB model for the adsorption of Chihuahua

cheese.
Parameters of
GAB model
C
k
mo
C
k
mo

Fresh Chihuahua cheese

4C
8C
12C
7.6 1.4
5.1 0.51
3.3 0.29
0.95 0.001
0.96 0.005
0.96 0.005
0.029 0.001
0.024 0.001
0.017 0.001
Ripened Chihuahua cheese
4.5 0.92
3.5 0.37
3.1 0.28
0.94 0.01
0.97 0.005
0.97 0.005
0.035 0.003
0.022 0.001
0.018 0.001

From Martinez-Monteagudo & Salais-Fierro, (2012) printed with permission

The His for both samples were positive, indicating that adsorption of
water molecules by cheese matrix is an endothermic process. The obtained
His were correlated to moisture content through an exponential equation of
the form:

For fresh sample:

H d 133.4 exp

For ripened samples:

0.035

H d 91.8 exp

0.051

R2=0.986

R2=0.987

The thermodynamic analysis of adsorption of water by Chihuahua cheese

revealed an underestimation of the true monolayer value. This is because the
assumptions of GAB equation are that the sorption sites are identical,
distinguishable, and independent (Nikitas, 1996). In porous surfaces (cheese
surface) heterogeneity and lateral interaction of adsorbed molecules might
create a first sub-monolayer, leading to an underestimation of the monolayer
value obtained with GAB equation.

28

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

9. FUNCTIONAL
The color, meltability and slicrability of raw and pasteurized Chihuahua
cheeses were determined by Olson et al. (2011). These authors defined the
meltability of cheese as the ability to extent and spread during heating. When
it is heated, the cheese matrix collapsed and flowed due to the phase change of
lipids from solid to liquid. In general, Chihuahua cheese had excellent
meltability, being a suitable candidate for baking and pizza. The meltability
was higher in raw cheese compared with that of pasteurized Chihuahua
cheeses. In addition, the meltability of raw cheeses increased with aging, while
the pasteurized cheeses only increased during the first month.
A pale-yellow color was determined on the Chihuahua cheese surface
(raw and pasteurized cheeses) with average values of L*, a*, and b* of 84.2
2.02, 1.3 0.21, and 20.6 3.41, respectively (Olson et al., 2011). The raw
cheeses retained a whitish color during heating, which is a desirable
appereance for many Hispanic-style dishes. Contrary, pasteruized cheeses
developed browning upon heating, which might limit its applicability for some
dishes. The sliceability of Chihuahua cheese decreased with storage time due
to proteolysis, which results in a softening of the protein matrx. Overall,
pasteurization of milkcheese and aging play an important role in developing
the functional properties (meltability, sliceability and color) of Chihuahua
cheese. Remarkably, the seasonality of cheesemilk did not have effect on the
functional properties of Chihuahua cheese.
Our own results on the meltability of Chihuahua cheese are shown in Fig
14 (unpublished results). The degree of melting (DM) and the melting rate
(MR) were calculated followed the procedure reported by Wang & Sun
(2002). The DM of pasteurized Chihuaua cheese after heating the sample at 80
and 120C for 6 min is shown in (Fig 14a). In 6 min of heating at 120C, the
samples extended thier area 1.5 times of the original area after 10 days of
storage. As the storage time was prolonged, the samples further extended their
area up to 2.8 times the original area after 30 days of storage. Similar
behaviour was observed in those samples heating at 80C but in a lesser
extend. This is in agrement with the results reported by Olson et al. (2011),
whom reported an increased in meltability upon storage due to the softining of
the cheese matrix.

29

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

(a) Melting degree

300

Melting degree (%)

250

200

150

100

50

80oC for 6 min

120oC for 6 min

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

25

30

Storage time (days)

(b) Melting rate

70
o

80 C
120oC

60

Melting rate (min-1)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

15

20

Storage time (days)

Figure 14. Meltability of Chihuahua cheese during storage: (a) degree of melting and
(b) melting rate within the first minute.

30

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

The melting rate (MR) calculated within the first minute of heating is
shown in Fig 14b. The rate was claculated from the slope of MD curves. As
the storage time was prolonged, the rate of melting increased for both cooking
temperatures until reahed a similar value of 55 min-1. During melting of
cheese, the fat changes its phase from solid to liquid, part of the mositure is
removed and the protein matrix collapses. Consequently, the fat is being
released from the cheese matrix and flows to certain area.
The knowledge of the functional properties of Chihuahua cheese is of
great importance for the food industry to manufacture a cheese with desirable
functionality that meet the standards for Hispanic cheeses.

10.CONCLUDING REMARKS
This chapter presented an overview of the engineering properties of
Chihuahua cheese, the composition at each processing step, and the variables
involved in the manufacture, leading to the following remarks:
The manufacturing protocols of Chihuahua varied from plan to plant,
depending on equipment availability. Nevertheless, the overall
process resembles than of Cheddar cheese.
The composition of Chihuahua cheese was within the established
limits of Mexican official standards.
At industrial scale, the composition within the 18-kg cheese block
minimally varied, except for the pH.
The sensory attributes of Chihuahua cheese resemble those of mild
Cheddar cheese with a salty, sour, diacetyl, cooked, whey, bitter, and
milk-fat as predominant flavours.
Chihuahua cheese was firm but not hard and sticky on the surface.
The majority of consumers prefer the Chihuahua cheese within 3
months after manufacture.
Seasonality of the cheesemilk had minimal effect on the texture.
Although the manufacturing protocols and the sensory attributes of
Chihuahua cheese resemble those of mild Cheddar cheese, its texture
and rheology profile are similar to that of fresh Colby cheese.
The thermal properties of Chihuahua cheese varied with the tested
temperature.
The adsorption isotherms of Chihuahua cheese were best described by
GAB model.

Engineering Properties of Mexican Chihuahua Cheese

31

The adsorption of water by the cheese matrix was a multilayer process

where two classes of water were identify.
The thermodynamic analysis revealed that the porous surfaces of
Chihuahua cheese can create a first sub-monolayer, underestimating
the true monolayer.
The heat of sorption of Chihuahua cheese varied with respect of
moisture content in an exponential fashion.
Pasteurization influences the meltability, sliceability and the color of
Chihuahua cheese.
A pale-yellow color was found to be the typical color of Chihuahua
cheese.
An excellent meltability which increases with aging was observed for
Chihuahua cheese.

11.OUTLOOK
Chihuahua cheese represents a major potential market to be used as
ingredient in a variety of cheese-based products and culinary dishes. Although
the tremendous effort performed to characterize the Chihuahua cheese (led by
Dr Tunick and Van Hekken from the Dairy Processing and Porducts Research
Unit, USA), standards of identity are still under development and far from
being implemented. Research strategies for expanding the applicability of
Chihuahua cheese are needed. In the authors opinion, the following list
represents research strategies that might contribute to develop and further
implement standards of identity for Chihuahua cheese:
Mapping the microflora within the cheese block.
Identification and quantification of volatiles compounds associated
with flavor development.
Identification and quantification bioactives compounds naturally
present in milk fat, such as conjugated linoleic acid and transvaccenic acid.
Morphology characterization of milk fat structure and molecular
organization of fat and their polymorphic form.
Quantify the amount of solid fat content within the cheese matrix.
Determination of state diagram of cheese, including glass transition
temperature.

32

Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo and Fabiola Salais-Fierro

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