FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN IN INDIA: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Sanjay Garg*
Abstract
In India, during twentieth century new flexible pavements were designed by
California Bearing Ratio method, an empirical method, based on subgrade strength
measured in terms of CBR value which was, with the advent of twenty first century, taken
over by Mechanistic-Empirical methods. Continued improvement in traffic
characterization, material characterization and quality, mix designs, pavement design
approaches and construction methodologies, performance prediction models and laboratory
testing procedures, and maintenance approaches will call for a review of the present stateof-the art pavement design approaches. In this paper, journey of the flexible pavement
design in India is briefly outlined along with the shortcomings of the current flexible
pavement design method. Future steps to be taken up for its further refinement and
improvement are also discussed in view of current developments in order to optimize the
pavement structure and its performance, and to evolve a sustainable pavement structure.
1.

BACKGROUND:
Surface course BC
Binder course DBM
Granular Base course
WMM or WBM
Granular Sub-base
course GSB
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade

Figure 1 Conventional flexible

pavement used in India

Broadly, there are three types of pavements; flexible

pavements, rigid pavements and composite
pavements. In this paper, discussion is limited to
flexible pavements only. In flexible pavements,
wheel loads stresses are transferred by grain-to-grain
contact of the aggregate through the granular
structure which acts like a flexible sheet due to less
flexural strength. The wheel load acting on the
pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the
stresses decreases with the depth. Taking advantage
of this distinct stress distribution characteristic,
flexible pavement normally has many layers in which
material quality deceases from top to bottom.

In India on all National Highways, a conventional flexible pavement consists

usually five layers surface or wearing course (BC), binder course (DBM), granular base
course (WMM or WBM), granular sub-base course (GSB) and compacted subgrade over
natural subgrade as shown in figure 1. If combined thickness of all bituminous layers
(surfacing and binder course) is about 75 mm or less, then it is termed as thin bituminous
pavement while a thick bituminous pavement usually have combined thickness of all
bituminous layers equal to 150 mm or more.
Unlike other civil engineering structures, the structural design of a pavement
structure is, practically, a complex and daunting task due to uncertainty, variability and
approximations of everything associated with the design of new and rehabilitated
pavements. Traffic loading is a heterogeneous mix of vehicles, axle types, and axle loads
with distributions that vary with time throughout the day, from season to season, and over
the pavement design life. Traffic forecasting is very difficult. Pavement materials respond
to traffic loading in complex ways influenced by stress state and magnitude, temperature,
moisture, time, loading rate, and other factors. Pavement construction also introduces a
*Superintending Engineer, M/o RT&H, Regional Office (C), Guwahati (India) 781 003,
Email sgarg70@rediffmail.com, sgarg1970@gmail.com.

significant measure of variability. Pavements as a function of time and maintenance

strategies exhibit significant variation in condition over its design life and therefore,
performance predictions and its relation to input variables add further complications.
1.1

ERA OF EMPIRICAL METHODS:

Due to all these complexities, empirical methods were resorted to design a

pavement structure during twentieth century. Pavement design consisted basically of
defining thicknesses of layered materials that would provide strength and protection to a
soft and weak subgrade. In an empirical pavement design approach, the relationship
between design inputs (e.g., traffic loads, materials, layer configurations and environment)
and pavement (performance) failure were arrived through empirical correlations between
required pavement thickness and soil classification or simple strength tests of subgrade
materials using the data of past experience (based on successes and failures of previous
projects), experiments or a combination of both. Index-value-based characterizations of
material properties (layer coefficients, R-value, California Bearing Ratio etc.), and
engineering judgment with failure criteria of limiting shear failure or deflections in
subgrade layer or serviceability loss were used for pavement designs.
As experience evolved, several pavement design methods based on soil
classification and subgrade shear strength were developed. First empirical method for
flexible pavement design was based on the soil classifications developed during 1920s,
which lead to Group Index Method. In 1929, California Bearing Ratio (CBR) method[1, 2]
was developed by the California Highway Department using the CBR strength test which
relates the subgrade materials shear resistance evaluated by CBR value to the required
thickness of overlaid layer (cover). The thickness computed was defined for the standard
crushed stone used in definition of the CBR test.
The empirical AASHTO method (1993) was, based on the pavement performance
data collected during American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) Road
Test carried out in 1960s, mainly used in USA and Canada. The AASHTO design equation
were developed through regression models to link the performance data with design inputs
and represent a relationship between the number of load cycles, pavement structural
capacity, and performance, measured in terms of serviceability loss. The concept of
serviceability, based on surface distresses commonly found in pavements, was introduced
in the AASHTO method as an indirect measure of the pavements ride quality.
Although all these empirical methods were used for over fifty years and exhibit
good accuracy, however, they were valid only for the local circumstances [like material
selection, traffic (type, volume and axle loading), climatic conditions, drainage measures,
and construction techniques etc.] in which they were developed. As an empirical procedure
relies entirely on past observations of field performance, therefore, these methods could not
be used for traffic load levels and in environments well beyond their observational domain.
In other words, it allows no extrapolation beyond the range of these observations. Further,
these index and empirical models do not include[2] effects of multidimensional geometry,
loading, material behavior and spatial distribution of displacements, stresses and strains in
the multilayered pavement systems. Hence, such empirical approaches are considered to
possess only limited capabilities. The AASHTO method, for example, was adjusted several
times over the years to incorporate extensive modifications based on theory and experience
that allowed the design equation to be used under conditions other than those of the
AASHO Road Test. CBR method was also improved consistently and became the most
popular design method around the world. In India also, CBR method was used for flexible
pavement design till 2001.

1.2

ERA of MECHANISTIC-EMPIRICAL PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD:

During last decades of twentieth century, traffic volume and loading have increased
and new materials started to be used in pavement structures that provided better subgrade
protection, but with their own failure modes which also bring changes in the design
criterion. Besides providing subgrade support, it became equally important to evaluate
pavement performance through ride quality that governs the rate and/or extent of
deterioration of pavement structures. Performance became the focus point of pavement
designs. Initially, empirical methods, such as AASHTO design guide, 1993, based on
serviceability (an index of the pavement service quality) loss were developed.
Later on, classical theories of mechanics were used to evaluate the pavement
structural responses in terms of stresses, strains, and deflections at critical locations within
the pavement structure under the effects of traffic loading from structural (mathematical)
modeling of pavement structures, generally presuming the pavement structure and
subgrade as a multi-layer linear elastic system: each layer characterized by its thickness,
modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio. This step is termed as Mechanistic part. In
Empirical part, these (critical) pavement responses were correlated with pavement
performance indicators in the form of pre-defined pavement distress modes for a given
design life by empirically derived equations known as distress models or transfer functions
derived from the performance prediction models based on past experiences, field
observations and laboratory results that compute the number of repetitive loading cycles to
specified pavement failure. Initially, two classical failure modes namely bottom-up fatigue
cracking at the bottom of bituminous concrete and permanent deformation in subgrade
layer were considered in the performance models. Based on this Mechanistic-Empirical
two-step (hybrid) approach, Asphalt Institute method (Asphalt Institute, 1982, 1991) and
the Shell method (1977, 1982) besides other methods were developed. With slight
modifications in these two methods based on in-house research results and feedback on the
performance of the pavement designs in India during twentieth century, current flexible
pavement design as depicted in IRC:372001 came into existence.
Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) pavement design approach provides the capability to
determine the required layer thicknesses so that the pavement would last for specified
design life without exceeding predetermined distress levels. This approach represents a
major improvement over empirical methods due to its accuracy and reliability. The biggest
empirical part (also termed as weakest links) of M-E pavement designs are the transfer
functions, material characterization and their variations in relation to environmental
influences over time, and the characterization of traffic. The accuracy of structural response
model and performance prediction model are a function of quality of the input variables
and the calibration of empirical distress models to observed field performance. It remains
difficult to quantify pavement distresses and performance predictions using the concepts of
mechanics and to relate them with pavement responses. This is the reason, why in
performance prediction models used so far, empirical formulas are used to predict
pavement distresses from the pavement responses. It is also a reality that a fully
mechanistic method for practical pavement design is still a goal to be achieved.
2.

INTRODUCTORY PHASE OF PAVEMENT DESIGN IRC:371970[3]:

2.1.

Before 1970, on the basis of limited and localized experiences and judgments of
local highway agencies, quite diverse practices for pavement design were prevalent
in India. In 1970, an empirical method, CBR method based on CBR design curves
evolved by the Road Research laboratory, United Kingdom was introduced via
IRC:37-1970 by IRC as a unified approach for flexible pavement design in entire
country. The thickness of different layers of sub-base, base and surfacing were
determined by repeated use of these design curves subject to specified minimum

thicknesses for constituent layers. These design curves were applicable for single
axle loads of 8200 kg and tandem axle load of 14500 kg. Beyond these values of
axle loads, pavement thickness was increased appropriately.
2.2.

For subgrade soil, CBR value was calculated from the sample prepared at optimum
moisture content corresponding to Protector Compaction and soaked in water for a
period of four days prior to testing. Traffic was considered in units of heavy
commercial vehicles per day (CVD) with a laden weight of 3 tonnes or more in
both directions (irrespective of whether the design is for a two lane or a dual
carriageway), divided into seven categories as indicated in the table 1.

Table 1
Design Traffic
volume, CVD
CBR design curve,
applicable
2.3.

Traffic classification as per IRC:371970

15 45 - 150 - 450 - 1500 45
150
450 1500
4500
A
B
C
D
E
F

0-15

>4500 and all

expressways
G

Pavement was designed for the traffic volume expected at the end of design life
(taken as 10 years), which was determined as:
AD = P (1+r)n+10
where,

AD = number of commercial vehicles per day (CVD) for design,

P = number of commercial vehicles per day at last count,
r
= annual rate of increase in the number of commercial vehicles,
(taken as 7.50% in case authentic data is not available), and
n
= number of years between the last count and the year of completion
of construction.

Example 1: (a)
(b)
Solution:
(a)

(b)

(1)

Given that, subgrade CBR = 5%, and design traffic (AD) volume
expected at the end of design life = 1501 CVD. Design pavement.
Design the flexible pavement with data of part (a) with design traffic
(AD) volume expected at the end of design life = 4501 CVD.

For given input data, total pavement thickness from IRC:371970 comes out
to be 475 mm.
Let, sub-base, GSB = 150 mm and
base course will comprise, WBM = 250 mm, provided in three layers of 100
mm of WBM Grade I + 75 mm each of WBM Grade II and WBM Grade III.
50 mm thick bound base course (like bituminous macadam, BM) with
surfacing of 20 mm thick open-graded premix carpet (PC) or surface
dressing will be provided. This pavement design was applicable for the
design traffic volume ranging from 1501 to 4500 CVD.
Provided thickness = 150+250+50*1.5=475 mm.
O.K.
For given input data, total pavement thickness from IRC:371970 comes out
to be 530 mm.
Let, sub-base, GSB = 200 mm and
base course will comprise, WBM = 250 mm, provided in three layers of 100
mm of WBM Grade I + 75 mm each of WBM Grade II and WBM Grade III.
50 mm thick bound base course (like bituminous macadam, BM) with
surfacing of 25 mm thick semi-dense carpet (SDC) will be provided. This
pavement design was applicable for the design traffic volume more than
4500 CVD and all expressways.
Provided thickness = 200+250+50*1.5+25*1.5=562.5 mm > 530 mm. O.K.

3.

FINAL PHASE OF EMPIRICAL METHOD IN INDIA IRC:371984[4]:

3.1.

The empirical design method for flexible pavement, as proposed in 1970, was
continued for design traffic volume up to 1500 CVD. However, the modified CBR
curves for 10.2 tonn single axle legal limits were used instead of 8.16 tonn and
consequently, the pavement thickness was increased by 10 to 20%.

3.2.

Recognizing the fact that the structural damage caused by a vehicle depends on the
axle load it imposed on the road, the equivalent axle load concept was introduced in
India also similar to abroad to handle the large spectrum of axle loads actually
applied to a pavement. Design traffic (Nx) carried by pavement during its design life
was considered in terms of cumulative number of standard axles in the lane
carrying maximum traffic and evaluated as under:

where,

Nx
A
r
x
F

3.3.

[(

(2)
= cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for design,
(expressed in terms of million (106) standard axles or msa)
= initial traffic, in the year of completion of construction in CVD, as
modified for lane distribution,
= annual growth rate of commercial traffic, taken as 7.5%,
= design life in years, taken as 10 to 15 years.
= vehicle damage factor.

Design curves relating pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard

axles (8160 kg) for different subgrade strengths (assessed in terms of CBR value)
were evolved. Pavement composition (thickness of component layers) was therefore
might be decided by the designer subject to the minimum thickness as determined
from the thickness combination block given in the IRC:371984.

Example 2:

Solution:
(a)

(b)

Given that, subgrade CBR = 5%, and traffic after construction, A = 730
CVD. Design flexible pavement for 10 years for two lane NH in plain
terrain as per (a) IRC:371970 and (b) IRC:371984.
Let, total pavement thickness = T, mm
Pavement design as per IRC:371970, and using equation (1), we get
AD
= 730 (1+.075)10 = 1505,
and
therefore,
T
= 475 mm
from IRC:371970.
This thickness is applicable for AD varies from 1501 CVD to 4500 CVD.
Pavement design as per IRC:371984, and using equation (2), we get
Nx = [365 x (730*0.75) * {(1+.075)10 1}* 2.75/0.075] = 7.78 msa
therefore,
T
= 540 mm
from IRC:371984.
As per IRC:371984, surfacing should be 25 mm SDC or BC with binder
course 75 mm DBM while base course should have a minimum thickness of
250 mm with material of 100% CBR. Therefore,
thickness of sub-base = 540 (25+75+250) = 190 mm > 150 mm, O.K.
Provide sub-base of 200 mm with material of 30 % CBR.
In base course, either (1 x 100 + 2 x 75 = 250 mm) of WBM in three layers
or two layers each of 75 mm thick of WBM + one layer of 75 mm thick BM
(2x75+75*1.5=262.5 mm) can be provided. Later option is preferable.

Comments: As per IRC:371984, for A = 2183 CVD, Nx = 23.25 msa and T =

635 mm. As per IRC:371970, pavement thickness is constant for traffic volume
after construction varies from 730 CVD to 2183 CVD while as per IRC:371984, it
varies from 540 mm to 635 mm making the pavement design more responsive to
applied traffic volume (loading).

4.

STATE-OF-THE-ART FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN IN INDIA

IRC:372001[5]: To overcome limitations and empiricism in pavement design as
discussed in para 1.1, attempts were made under the patronage of Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways (MORT&H), Government of India via research schemes
R-6, R-19 and R-56 which gave birth to IRC:372001 and thus, laid down the
foundation for Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) Pavement Design Method for flexible
pavement designs in India and open a new chapter in the history of pavement
designs with ample scopes for further improvements and refinements in future.
Salient features of the IRC:372001 are briefly described below:

4.1.

Only conventional standard flexible pavement structure as shown in figure 1 has

been considered for pavement design, which has been modeled as a three layer
structure consisting of binder layer (BM or DBM) plus surface layer (PC, MSS,
SDBC, or BC) as layer 1, granular sub-base layer (GSB) plus base layer (WBM or
WMM) as layer 2, and compacted subgrade as layer 3. After taking
(i) a typical fixed value of elastic modulus (E1) at average annual pavement
temperature of 35 0C and Poissons ratio (1) of 0.50 for bituminous layers having
DBM/BC constructed with 60/70 grade bitumen,
(ii) 2 = 0.40 for granular layers and a restricted composite elastic modulus of sub-base
and base course (E2) determined by the empirical equation 3(a) and, and
(iii) 3 = 0.40 for subgrade layer and elastic modulus of subgrade (E3 ) determined
empirically from the index property, CBR value through equation 3(b) and 3(c),
the pavement structures were analyzed.
where,

E2 (MPa)
h
E3 (MPa)

= E3 * 0.20 * h0.45,
= thickness of granular layers, mm
= 10 * CBR
for CBR 5, and
= 17.6 * (CBR)0.64
for CBR > 5

(3a)
(3b)
(3c)

4.2.

The pavement responses, in terms of the critical strains [(a) vertical compressing
strain (c) at the top of the subgrade to avoid excessive strain and hence,
permanent deformation (or rutting) in subgrade layer during design life), and (b)
horizontal tensile strain (t) at the bottom of the bituminous layer to avoid the
bottom-up fatigue cracking at the bottom of bituminous layers] at pre-defined
locations, have been computed using the linear elastic model FPAVE developed
under MORT&Hs Research Scheme R-56 Analytical Design of Flexible
Pavements. Rutting within the bituminous layer(s) was avoided or controlled by
meeting the mix design requirements as per the MORT&Hs Specifications.

4.3.

These strains were then, used to predict the performance level as defined in terms of
two classical modes of structural distresses namely bottom-up fatigue (alligator)
cracking and rutting in subgrade layer resulting from repeated (cyclic) application
of traffic loads as per the following two failure criterions which ensure a specified
level of pavement performance at the end of design life.
4.3.1 Fatigue Criteria: The distress prediction model was calibrated to develop
the following fatigue cracking failure criterion which relates allowable number of
load repetitions (the fatigue life of the pavement) to horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the bituminous layer (t) for a pre-defined performance level (as
considered in the form of fatigue cracking in 20% of the design lane area).
N

2 .2 1 x 1 0

3 .8 9

1
E

0 .8 5 4

(4)

in which, Nf is the allowable number of load repetitions to control fatigue cracking

and E is the effective elastic modulus of all bituminous layers.

4.3.2 Rutting Criteria: Similarly, for limiting the permanent deformation in

subgrade layer up to 20 mm, the rutting failure criterion relates allowable number of
cumulative standard axles (Nr) to vertical compressive strain (c) at the top of the
subgrade layer as:
4 .5 3 3 7
1
(5)
N
4 .1 6 5 6 x 1 0 8

4.4.

Consequently, the pavement design tables or catalogues for the conventional

standard flexible pavement structure in terms of total pavement thickness and
constituent layer thickness were developed to cater for:
a. design traffic (evaluated as before by equation 2 except with slight modification
in vehicle damage factor) ranging from 1 msa to 150 msa,
b. sub-grade material characterized as before in terms of index property, CBR
value ranging from 2% to 10% and
c. an average annual pavement temperature of 35 0C.

4.5.

Pavement design catalogue as outlined in IRC:372001 provide an easiest method

to design the flexible pavement on the basis of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement
Design philosophy. Table 2 provides the details for thickness determination of
pavement structure and constituent layers.

Table 2 Total pavement and layer thickness based on subgrade CBR value, mm
Traffic (Nx), msa
Subgrade strength as measured in terms of CBR value
2%
3% 4% 5% 6% 7%
8%
9%
10%
850
760 700 660 615 580
550
540
540
10
880
790 730 690 640 610
575
570
565
20
900
810 750 710 655 630
590
585
580
30
925
830 780 730 675 650
610
605
600
50
955
860 800 750 700 675
640
635
630
100
975
890
820
770
720
695
660
655
650
150
A constant thickness of 250 mm is considered.
Base course
380 330 300 260 230 200@ 200@ 200@
Sub-base course 460
60 50 50 DBM thickness* 100 - 90 - 80 - 70 - 65 - 60 215
210 190 170 160 165
160
155
150
40 mm for traffic 50 msa and 50 mm for traffic > 50 msa.
BC thickness
@ Minimum thickness of GSB is 200 mm for design traffic more than 10 msa.
* Binder course for all design traffic levels more than 10 msa is DBM. Thickness
of DBM varies from 50 mm to 215 mm to ensure structural adequacy of the
pavement structure for varying subgrade strengths in terms of CBR value from 10%
to 2% and cumulative design traffic varying from 10 msa to 150 msa.
Example 3: Given that, subgrade CBR = 5%, traffic growth rate, r = 7.5% and traffic after
construction, A = 225 CVD, 730 CVD and 2183 CVD. Design flexible pavement for 10
and 15 years for two lane NH in plain terrain as per IRC:37-1984 and IRC:37-2001.
Solution:

Let,

Total pavement thickness = T, mm

Design traffic (in msa), N x =

365* A * (1 + r ) 1 * D * F
x

r
where, lane distribution factor, D = 0.75,

for a two lane NH/SH.

Design details are given in table 3, from which it is clearly evident that pavement
thickness for a pavement structure designed as per IRC:372001 increased by 13% to
23.7% over the pavement design as per IRC:371984 primarily to account for the increased
share of heavy axle loads and ensuring some certainty in pavement performance against

two classical modes of pavement failure i.e. bottom-up fatigue cracking and subgrade
rutting. However, in view of current developments it is questionable whether such
enhancement in pavement thickness is justifiable. Will it lead to overdesign?
Design
Life
10 years

15 years

5.

Table 3
Pavement design for Example 3
Pavement Design as per
Pavement Design as per
IRC:371984 (F-2.75)
IRC:372001 (F-4.50)
A = 225 CVD, then
A = 225 CVD, then
Nx = 2.40 msa and T = 460 mm.
Nx = 3.92 msa and T = 553 mm.
A = 730 CVD, then
A = 730 CVD, then
Nx = 7.78 msa and T = 540 mm.
Nx = 12.72 msa and T = 668 mm.
A = 2183 CVD, then
A = 2183 CVD, then
Nx = 23.25 msa and T = 635 mm.
Nx = 38.04 msa and T = 718 mm.
A = 225 CVD, then
A = 225 CVD, then
Nx = 4.42 msa and T = 500 mm.
Nx = 7.24 msa and T = 616 mm.
A = 730 CVD, then
A = 730 CVD, then
Nx = 14.35 msa and T = 585 mm.
Nx = 23.49 msa and T = 697 mm.
A = 2183 CVD, then
A = 2183 CVD, then
Nx = 42.92 msa and T > 665 mm.
Nx = 70.24 msa and T = 738 mm.

WHERE WE ARE? SHORTCOMINGS OF IRC:37-2001:

Although the IRC:372001 design method was a major step forward it still has
many drawbacks due to partial application of the versatile Mechanistic-Empirical pavement
design approach due to so much simplifications and assumptions which otherwise has huge
potential to provide an optimize pavement design. Succeeding paragraphs presents a
detailed discussion on the shortcomings of the current flexible pavement design based on
IRC:372001 in India.
5.1.

5.2.
5.3.

The biggest drawback of these design guidelines is that pavement design is based
on a catalogue applicable only for a fixed set of conditions namely a standard
flexible pavement structure as shown in figure 1, material properties of bituminous
mixture, design (failure) criterion, and annual average pavement temperature (35
0
C). Neither FPAVE nor the analysis and design approach is available in public
domain either for free or some cost. Therefore, it is not known to the designer what
will happen or in what way will he analysis and design the pavement structure, if
any of these variables will vary? Absence of any pavement design software is the
biggest hurdle as a designer is unable to perform the analysis and design the
pavement structure with user-defined (or project-specific) input variables and thus,
to optimize the design. Further, for a given set of traffic volume and subgrade
strength, it gives one feasible solution only leaving no scope for the designer to
optimize the pavement structure economically or in terms of material consumption
and/or quality as available at site.
Second biggest drawback is that the pavement design was based solely on the
traffic loading. The effect of environmental influences was not considered.
Another main drawback is that IRC:372001 is unable to evaluate the effect of
variations in materials on pavement performance and therefore, better utilization of
available materials cannot be ensured and the potential benefits of new types of
materials cannot be evaluated. Furthermore, if base or sub-base layer will be bound
with bitumen, cement, lime, puzzolana, fly-ash, soil-cement etc., then these design
guidelines cannot be used. In case of bituminous layers constructed with recycled
materials, these guidelines are unable to design pavement satisfactorily.

5.4.

5.5.

5.6.

5.7.

5.8.
(a)

These guidelines can be used only to design new standard flexible pavement
structure. Therefore, pavement strengthening or structural overlay design remains
based on empirical approach which has very limited applicability for the thick
bituminous layered pavement structures constructed now-a-days and carry traffic
volume and loading beyond tested domain.
Characterization of Traffic: At present in India, the concept of equivalency
factors are used to characterize traffic in which different axle types are converted
into equivalent single axle loads (ESALs) through load equivalency factors (LEF)
or vehicle damage factor (VDF) calculated on the basis of fourth-power law.
Although, use of ESALs concept simplifies the design process, however, the
concept of relative damage is not quantifiable as it is based on empirical results of
the AASHO Road Test, wherein it was concluded that the pavement damage
increases with axle weight raise to fourth power. Besides, LEF (or VDF) depends
on the specific set of conditions that include the axle loading, axle configuration,
pavement type and thickness, tire type, tire inflation pressure, environment, distress
mode, and terminal serviceability. Because of this, it is difficult to calculate ESALs
for (a) new types of vehicles, (b) axle multiplicity, change in axle loading and
configurations, (c) change in tire type and tire pressure, and (d) change in pavement
failure modes. This difficulty and inbuilt empiricism are the major reasons for
moving towards other ways for traffic characterization such as axle load spectra
described in para 6.2.1. The lateral traffic wander has not considered in current
design practice, which needs to be included in design process as it influences the
number of load applications over a point and hence, affects prediction of fatigue
cracking and permanent deformation.
Characterization of pavement materials: For a successful and effective pavement
design, characterization should be based on material properties that accurately
capture the material response which influenced by construction quality, applied
traffic loading and environmental conditions varies over design life. At present, no
such consideration in material characterization is taken care of.
Location of critical pavement responses: Currently, the critical stresses and/or
strains are computed at only two locations namely directly beneath the center of the
tire and at the centre of dual tire for a single axle with dual tires. This approach is
not correct for multi-axle loads as the critical location is a function of the wheel
load/axle configuration and the pavement structure. To evaluate the maximum
principal (design) strains under single or multi-axle loadings, pavement response
should be evaluated at several locations and corresponding pavement damages
(distresses) will be calculated for each location. Location of maximum damage will
be the critical location and should be made part of design evaluation process.
Distress Prediction and Failure Criterion:
After the year 2000, flexible pavements on all major National Highways (specially
under NHDP programme) and some State Highways developed either under PPP
models or as externally aided projects have been constructed in India with dense
mix graded bituminous layers having thickness from 125 mm to 225 mm. For such
thick bituminous layered pavements, other structural distress modes like top-down
fatigue (longitudinal) cracking and thermal fatigue (transverse) cracking may also
play vital role in predicting their performance. Besides, rutting in bituminous layers
as well as in unbound base/sub-base layers is equally important. In cold regions like
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, lowtemperature cracking also becomes important performance indicator. Therefore,
critical strains for all these structural distress modes need to be evaluated and
should be made part of design process. Functional distresses like surface roughness

10

and friction may also be included as failure criterion and transfer function may
accordingly be developed to ensure functional serviceability of the pavement.
(b)
Transfer functions (empirical equations) for the two classical distress modes were
developed through two research schemes R-6 and R-19 mainly for the thin
bituminous flexible pavements. Further, the transfer function for fatigue failure
criteria was calibrated for one specific condition (at 35 0C for BC surfacing having
80/100 bitumen) only. There is no published study or reports which tell us how
these transfer functions are sensitive to varied conditions of traffic, climate,
material quality, mix designs, pavement constructions, and maintenance practices
etc. as per actual field conditions? It is, however, of paramount importance that
these transfer functions accurately reflect the actual performance of pavements
under the expected conditions, because extrapolating them beyond their tested
bounds can result in over-designed or under-designed pavement sections.
(c)
In current IRC:37-2001 design practice, a fixed distress criteria in terms of fatigue
cracking in an area of more than 20% and/or a rutting depth of 20 mm or more is
considered to define the failure mode of the pavement. Variability in type and
extent for all failure modes to specify a performance (distress) level is required to
be left for the designer to decide it as per importance and need of the project, and
desired level of pavement performance and adopted maintenance strategies.
5.9.
Absence of Reliability concept: The design of flexible pavements is associated
with many factors that introduce a substantial measure of variability and
uncertainties. These factors include traffic prediction, material characterization and
behavior modeling, environmental conditions, construction quality, and
maintenance practices etc. Therefore, reliability concept is required to be introduced
in the new IRC design practice as a means of incorporating desired degree of
certainty into the design process and to ensure that the various design alternatives
will survive for the analysis period without reaching to unacceptable condition of
pavement performance.
5.10. Cumulative traffic for 20 years design period and two lane highways with vehicle
damage factor of 4.5 and traffic growth rate of 7.5% becomes 150.3 msa for initial
traffic volume after project construction of 2825 CVD only. It is not understood
how one can design the pavement structure for the forthcoming expressways which
will carry traffic volume certainly more than 3000 CVD as IRC:372001 is
applicable only for cumulative design traffic up to 150 msa and the approach
suggested in IRC:372001 for dealing traffic more than 150 msa is not feasible as
IRC:811997 was based on empirical method which has very limited applicability
due to changes in the conditions (such as pavement structure, traffic volume and
loading, construction methods, material quality, and climatic conditions etc.) in
which it was developed. Similarly, for all projects constructed under BOT model or
PPP model or any similar financing model with usual range of concessioner period
of 25 to 30 years, the current guidelines are unable to provide an optimal pavement
design for commensurate service life. Design life for flexible pavements need to be
enhanced to 30 to 40 years in line with practice in abroad.
5.11. It is also questionable to use planned stage construction approach as suggested
either in IRC:37-2001 or IRC:SP:84-2009 due to reasons as stated in sub-paras 5.4
and 5.10 or if the pavement design will be based on cumulative damage approach
either against fatigue and/or rutting etc. which involves highly nonlinear
relationship of the design inputs with pavement responses.
5.12. There is still no guideline or direction in India to design the thick bituminous
pavements such as full-depth bituminous pavements (constructed by placing one or
more layers of dense graded bituminous layers directly on the sub-grade) and deepstrength bituminous pavements (in which dense graded bituminous layers are placed

11

on relatively thin granular base course). In view of the author, these bituminous
pavements[6] are relatively more useful alternatives to handle heavy traffic volume
and loads observed generally on Indian Highways besides (a) less construction time
and extended construction period, (b) less affected by moisture variation or frost
and (c) using only one material (dense graded mix like DBM and BC) and thus,
minimizing the haulage, administration and equipment costs. Additional benefits
include less consumption of materials and relatively less maintenance. Hence, their
design needs to be included in IRC guidelines.
6.

WHAT WILL WE DO? FUTURE OF PAVEMENT DESIGN:

The dilemma is that pavement materials do not exhibit the simple behavior assumed
in isotropic linear-elastic theory. Loading rate, time and temperature dependency,
nonlinearities, and anisotropy are some examples of complicated features often observed in
pavement materials. However, continued improvement in material characterization, and
constitutive models make it possible to incorporate nonlinearities, loading rate effects, and
other realistic features of material behavior. Determination and/or prediction with sufficient
accuracy of some prime input parameters such as climate, traffic and the quality of the
materials as laid and the variation therein remains an issue to be addressed. Large databases
now exist for traffic characterization, site climate conditions, pavement material properties,
and historical performance of in-service pavement sections coupled with improved
modeling of pavement structure provide the technical infrastructure that made possible the
refinement in structural analysis of pavement responses.
Pavement performance models should be extended and refined further with
inclusion of more distress modes of pavement failure, calibrated with comprehensive
testing and characterization of materials in bituminous, bound/unbound base layers, and
subgrade soils and validated with actual field observations/testing under varied conditions
of material quality, mix designs, pavement constructions and maintenance practices. It is
also possible to model pavements structures as accurate as possible using non linear elastovisco-plastic models and using advanced finite element techniques formulated on the
concepts of either classical mechanics or damage mechanics or fracture mechanics that
allow damage initiation and progression to be taken into account as well as the effects of
stress re-distribution as a result of that. Also such methods allow the effects of joints,
cracks and other geometry related issues to be taken into account. Furthermore, these
methods also allow to analyze the effects of moving loads which implies that inertia and
damping effects can be taken into account.
Finally, Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design approach, so evolved, will provide
more rational and realistic methodology to account for uncertainty, variations and
approximations in structural modeling, traffic loading, environmental effects, material
characterization, and performance models. Further, it will provide a much better insight in
why pavements behave like they do and provide a good estimate of pavement performance.
Later on, pavement design process may be integrated with in-service maintenance
needs/decisions and desired performance levels to evolve optimal pavement management.
However, they involve advanced testing and analyses techniques, some are already
developed and others are under evolution stages.
All these refinements are experiencing from last 20 years in abroad specifically in
USA under 20 years Long-Term Pavement Performance Program (1989-2009) as a part of
the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) and to realize them in India also, similar
quantum of dedicated research and field efforts are required. Research should be large scale
spread over the geographical breadth of the country; long term and integrated; all-inclusive

12

and result-oriented which blends the lab tests and field tests. It should include all
components of pavement design process like traffic characterization, material selection and
characterization, pavement modeling and design techniques, mix design and construction
methodology, maintenance approach, performance assessment and distress predictions etc.
To measure the resilient modulus, moisture susceptibility, permanent deformation, and
fatigue cracking properties of the bound and unbound materials within the pavement
structure and to quantify the quality and effectiveness of the pavement construction and
treatment practices, improved Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT), and Non-destructive
testing (NDT) technologies should be developed. In the research, all major stake holders
should be included with their respective roles and contributions. Besides others, at least the
following objectives may be part of this research in India:
i.

Identify the reasons for development of the distresses in early phases of pavement
service life based on lab/field testing.
ii. Determine the effects of loading, environment, material properties and variability,
construction quality, and maintenance levels on pavement distress and performance.
iii. Determine the effects of specific design features on pavement performance.
iv. Evaluate the existing design methods and pavement performance.
v.
Develop unified and improved design methods/equations for all types of new or
reconstructed pavements as well as rehabilitated pavements.
vi. Develop improved design methodologies and strategies for the preservation, repair
and rehabilitation of existing pavements.
vii. Establish a national long-term pavement performance and maintenance database.
Findings must be documented and well circulated among the field experts of the
country for comments and further refinements. Finally, research reports should be
published and made available in public domain to learn the lessons and/or gain experience
to further improve the pavement design, construction and maintenance process. It is most
essential to generate the field performance data bank based on actual lab and field tests
rather than visual observations and enter the era of more rational and realistic quality
control practices besides nurturing the research industry in India as well as upgrading the
level of our research institutes. Otherwise, we always remain dependent upon the findings
of foreign institutions and will be waiting for their technology transfer besides wasting our
huge indigenous talent in nonproductive works. It is the high time we will wake up and
understand the importance of result-oriented research activities as said many times by the
Honble Prime Minister in the Indian Science Congress and other platforms. It is, however,
emphasized that there is no dearth of funds in the country. The only need is that we must
develop and provide a conducive environment for the research activities which will benefit
us and our forthcoming generations.
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG, 2008)[7, 8 and 9] was
developed in USA to address the shortcomings in the current pavement design methods. It
is applicable for new as well as rehabilitation of flexible, composite or rigid pavements.
Basically, it incorporates axle load spectra approach, variation of material properties with
climate and traffic loading, consideration of all major modes of structural distresses plus
one functional distress (smoothness), incremental distress computation approach to
simulate how pavement damage occurs in nature (field) and transfer functions developed
after comprehensive simulative lab testing coupled with field observations during LTPP
under varied climate and traffic conditions. Figure 2[7] is showing an overview of the
Flexible Pavement Design Process used in MEPDG, 2008.

13

Figure 2

Overall design process for flexible pavements (NCHRP[7])

With this background and based on MEPDG (2008)[7], pavement design method in
India should also involve the following major steps besides other refinements to eliminate
or obviate the aforesaid shortcomings in the state-of-practice pavement design process:
6.1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Objective statement: A pavement structure should be designed so that:

it must be structurally and functionally adequate during entire design life,
it must survive the pre-defined performance level at the end of its design life as per
designers chosen certainty (reliability) level,
it should integrate design process with maintenance strategies,
it should be constructible and use available local material to extent possible, and
it should result an optimal and sustainable pavement structure optimize the
pavement thickness and material consumption, minimize the initial cost as well as
life-cycle cost, and improve the pavement sustainability.

6.2.
Design inputs: Based on the criticality of the project and the available resources, it
is recommended to employ the hierarchical approach (similar to MEPDG, 2008) in the
selection of design inputs with regard to traffic, materials, and environmental parameters.
All design input variables should be clearly defined as explained below:
6.2.1. Characterization of Traffic: Traffic is the most important design input variable, as
a pavement structure is designed to carry traffic. To eliminate the empiricism in the
concepts of ESAL and VDF, a more direct and rational approach like axle load spectra
method should be used to quantify the characteristics of traffic loads carried by a pavement
structure as it allows mixed traffic to be analyzed directly and thus, enhances pavement
design process. The approach estimates the effects of actual traffic on pavement response
and distress. Additional advantages of the load spectra approach include: the possibility of
special vehicle analyses, analysis of the impact of overloaded trucks on pavement
performance, and analysis of weight limits during critical climate conditions. Load spectra
are simply the collective axle weight distributions grouped by axle type for a given traffic
stream which can be easily determined from the axle weight data obtained from weigh-inmotion (WIM) station or else. These spectra represent the percentage of the total axle
applications within each load interval for single, tandem, tridem, and quad axles. Vehicle
class distributions, daily traffic volume, and axle load distributions define the number of
repetitions of each axle load group at each load level. For a given load group, the damage
caused by each load, on each axle type, and under each climate condition during the year is
simulated through the life of the pavement.

14

6.2.2. Characterization of Pavement Materials: Effective characterization of pavement

materials is a key requirement for a successful and effective pavement design. The state
and characterization of the different materials forming the pavement layers changes with
variation in temperature and moisture condition which in turn affected the structural
response of the pavement structure subjected to traffic loading. An effective analytical
model should account for all of these factors in analysis leading to a performance-based
design. Instead of index properties, fundamental engineering properties of material like
dynamic modulus of bituminous materials and the resilient modulus of unbound materials
(granular materials or native soils) as a function of time and environmental influences over
the entire design period and duly account for the variation in applied stress state, pavement
depth etc. are considered to compute the pavement responses.
6.2.3. Environmental condition: Moisture level and temperature changes are the two
main environmental variables which can significantly affect the pavement materials
properties and, hence, impact the strength, durability, load carrying capacity, service life
and serviceability of the flexible pavements. The resilient modulus of bituminous materials
can increase during winter months by as much as 20 times its value during hot summer
months. Excessive moisture can drastically lead to stripping of bituminous mixture.
Similarly, resilient modulus of unbound materials at freezing temperatures exhibits high
values compared to thawing months. The moisture content affects the state of stress of
unbound materials and it breaks up the cementation between soil particles. Increased
moisture contents lower the modulus of unbound materials. Appropriate climatic model to
simulate changes in the behaviour and characteristics of pavement and subgrade materials
will be developed that concur with climatic conditions over the design period. The model
computes and predicts the modulus adjustment factors, pore water pressure, water content,
frost and thaw depths, frost heave and drainage performance in case of granular or
subgrade layers. For the bitumen bound layers, the model evaluates the changes in
temperature as a function of time to allow for the calculation of the dynamic modulus and
thermal cracking. The model provides varying moduli values in the computation of critical
pavement response parameters and damage at various points within the pavement system.
6.2.4. Distress Prediction Model and Design Criterion: Pavement distress prediction
model are typically derived through statistically based correlations of pavement response
with observed performance of laboratory test specimens, full-scale road test experiments,
or by both methods. A distress model can include a variety of structural (load-associated)
distress as well as functional distresses as depicted in table 4 to assess and predict the
structural and functional performance of the pavement structure at the end of the design
period. Design criteria for each distress should be pre-defined as indicated in table 4 and
will be compared with respective accumulated distress at the end of analysis or design
period by the designer to check the adequacy and validity of the design.
Table 4
Distresses for flexible pavement with their design criterion
Structural/functional distresses to be predicted
Design Criterion
10 to 20% area of design lane
(i) Bottom-up fatigue (or alligator) cracking,
100 m to 150 m/km
(ii) Surface-down fatigue (or longitudinal) cracking,
20 mm
(iii) Permanent deformation (or rutting) in any or all
of the pavement layers and subgrade,
100 m to 150 m/km
(iv) Thermal fatigue (transverse) cracking,
2.5 to 3.2 m/km
(v) Surface roughness as measured in terms of
International Roughness Index (IRI).
6.2.5. Reliability concept must be made part of the design process as stated in subpara 5.9.
6.3.
Pavement Structure and its Mathematical Modeling: A pavement structure,
flexible, composite or rigid, is composed of one or more layers constructed with different

15

materials placed on the prepared soil or subgrade. Each layer in a mathematical model will
be structurally defined by its modulus or stiffness, Poissons ratio and layer thickness.
Under the action of traffic loading and environmental influences, pavement material
response may be linear or nonlinear, viscous or non-viscous, and elastic or plastic or
viscoelastic and accordingly, structural analysis model will be chosen. Due to simplicity
and computational speed, layered elastic model is the most commonly used structural
model for a pavement structure. To consider the effect of temperature and traffic load rate
variation on bituminous layers and moisture changes on unbound granular layers, these
layers should be divided into sub-layers. To account for traffic wander and various types of
axles in the traffic mix, appropriate number of analysis points (critical locations) in each
sub-layer should be considered primarily to determine the following critical pavement
responses for distress calculation.
a.
Tensile horizontal strain at the bottom or top of the bituminous layer and at the
bottom of stabilized base/sub-base layer to account for fatigue cracking), and
b. Compressive vertical stresses and strains within the bituminous layer, within the base
and subbase layers and at the top of the subgrade layer(s) for rutting.
6.4.
Pavement Performance and its Prediction: The concept of pavement
performance includes consideration of functional performance, structural performance, and
safety. Pavement performance is affected by several factors, which are traffic, soil and
pavement materials, environment, drainage condition, and construction and maintenance
practices. The structural performance of a pavement relates to its physical condition, or
other conditions that would adversely affect the load-carrying capability of the pavement
structure or would require maintenance. Structural distress indicators includes fatigue
(load-induced and thermal) cracking and rutting (in all layers) for flexible pavements, and
joint faulting, and slab cracking for jointed plain concrete pavements. The functional
performance of a pavement concerns how well the pavement serves the highway user.
Riding comfort or ride quality and skid resistance (or surface friction) are the two dominant
characteristic of functional performance. Riding comfort is quantified in terms of
smoothness as express by International Roughness Index (IRI) which combines the effects
of initial pavement/subgrade condition with the distresses developed over time.
6.5.
Incremental Damage Accumulation Procedure: The design and analysis of a
given pavement structure is based upon the accumulation of damage as a function of time,
traffic and climate. The design procedure should have the capability to accumulate
damages over the entire design period. Attempts will be made to simulate how pavement
damage occurs in nature, incrementally, load by load, over continuous time periods. To
achieve this goal, design life is divided into shorter design analysis periods or increments
beginning with the traffic opening month. Within each increment (or analysis period), all
factors (traffic and material characterization) that affect pavement responses and damage
are held constant for simplification and computational speed. Critical pavement responses
(stress and/or strain values) for each distress type are determined for each analysis
increment and thereafter, are converted into incremental distresses either in absolute terms
(e.g., incremental rut depth) or in terms of a damage index (e.g., fatigue cracking) by the
distress prediction model. Incremental distresses and/or damage are summed over all
increments and output at the end of each analysis period is used by the designer to compute
the accumulated distress and later on, to compare them with respective design criteria for
each distress.
6.6.
Adaptability to New Developments: The analysis and design philosophy should
be capable to adapt the latest developments in pavement engineering. Therefore, design of
promising perpetual pavement structure[6] may also be included in Indian Guidelines as
they provides a durable, safe, smooth, long-lasting roadway without expensive, timeconsuming, traffic-disrupting reconstruction or major repair at short intervals and aimed to

16

minimize material consumption, lane closures, user delay cost and life-cycle cost besides
handling ever increasing traffic volume and loading including sporadic overloading in
Indian scenario especially on NHDP projects and proposed expressways.
6.7.
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA): LCCA is a tool to determine the most costeffective and feasible pavement design alternatives to build and maintain them by
analyzing initial costs and discounted future cost, such as pavement construction,
maintenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction cost as well as administrative cost to
perform all these activities over the useful service life of pavement structure, and salvage
value (all are grouped under Agency Costs); and User Costs (includes vehicle operating
costs (VOC), crash costs, and user delay costs). In view of huge investment made in India
in highway infrastructures during forthcoming period and to ensure the best value of
invested public money, LCCA is becoming the most inevitable component of pavement
design process and should therefore, be made part of design process in India also. LCCA
can also be used to evaluate the overall long-term economic efficiency between competing
alternative investment options. Either of the economic decision tool such as Benefit/Cost
Ratios, Internal Rate of Return, Net Present Value, and Equivalent Uniform Annual Costs
can be used in LCCA.
7.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

Although in India with the advent of twenty first century, Mechanistic-Empirical

Method via IRC:372001 was started to design the flexible pavements which provides the
capability to a designer to determine the required layer thicknesses so that the pavement
would last for selected design life without exceeding predetermined distress levels.
However, due to enormous limitations of IRC:372001 as spelt out, it needs to be
improved in view of continued improvement in traffic characterization, material quality
and characterization, mix designs, pavement construction methodologies and maintenance
approaches, performance prediction models, laboratory/field testing procedures etc.
Refinement in all these parameters need all-inclusive, extensive, integrated and long term
research financed with annual dedicated budget which should be undertaken without any
further delay. It is, however, safely stated that further refinement in current pavement
design method will definitely result into reduction of pavement thickness and better
pavement management practices which simply translates an annual saving of more than `
1000 crores per year in view of current pace of highway development programs.
Development of unified and improved pavement design method for all types of new
or reconstructed pavements as well as rehabilitated pavements is the need of the hour.
Dream for an optimum and sustainable pavement structure cannot be visualized without
including the analysis and design of perpetual pavements. Development of design software
is the essence of pavement design without which it is almost impossible to consider the
variability of input parameters and thus, to optimize the pavement design. Consequently,
one may be able to design an optimal and sustainable pavement structure based on
indigenously developed design method which must not only be structurally and
functionally adequate during entire design life but also survive the pre-defined performance
level at the end of its design life as per designers chosen reliability level with minimum
life-cycle cost. Improved design methodologies and treatment strategies for the
preservation, repair and rehabilitation of existing pavements may be evolved. A national
long-term pavement performance and maintenance database should be established which
will act as a knowledge base for future refinements of pavement design process.
The opinion expressed in this paper is solely of the author and has no link with the
views, if any, of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, of which the author is an
employee.

17

8.

REFERENCES:

1.

Yoder, E.J. and Witczak, M.W. , Principles of Pavement Design, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA, New York, 1975.
Huang, Yang H., Pavement Analysis and Design, Second Edition, Pearson
Education, Inc., USA, New Jersey, 2004.
IRC:371970, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, First published,
The Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, September, 1970.
IRC: 371984, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, First Revision,
The Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, December, 1984.
IRC: 372001, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, Second
Revision, The Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, July, 2001.
Garg, Sanjay, Perpetual Flexible Pavements: Highways of Future, a paper
submitted to Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, yet to be published.
NCHRP, Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement
Structures, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, NCHRP Project 137A, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2004.
AASHTO, Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A
Manual of Practice, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, D.C., 2008.
Nicholas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel, Traffic and Highway Engineering, Fourth
Edition, Cengage Learning, Toronto (Canada), 2009.

2.
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4.
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7.

8.

9.

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