Babbitt, Milton (Byron)

(b Philadelphia, PA, 10 May 1916). American composer and theorist.

He has contributed extensively to the understanding and extension
of 12-note compositional theory and practice and has been one of
the most influential composers and teachers in the USA since World
War II.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ELAINE BARKIN/MARTIN BRODY
Babbitt, Milton
1. Life.
Brought up in Jackson, Mississippi, he started playing the violin at
the age of four and several years later also studied clarinet and
saxophone. He graduated from high school in 1931, having already
demonstrated considerable skills in jazz ensemble performance and
the composition of popular songs. His fathers professional
involvement with mathematics (as an actuary) was influential in
shaping Babbitts intellectual environment. In 1931 Babbitt entered
the University of Pennsylvania with the intention of becoming a
mathematician, but he soon transferred to New York University,
concentrating on music under Marion Bauer and Philip James. He
received the BA in music in 1935. As a student and during the
ensuing years, Babbitt immersed himself in the intellectual milieu of
New York, encountering influential philosophers such as Sidney
Hook and James Wheelright, developing a life-long engagement with
analytical philosophy, and reading widely in rapidly emerging and
sometimes short-lived journals such as Symposium and Politics. His
early attraction to the music of Varse and Stravinsky soon gave way
to an absorption in that of Schoenberg, Berg and Webern
particularly significant at a time when 12-note music was unknown to
many and viewed with scepticism by others.

After graduation Babbitt studied privately with Sessions, wrote

criticism for the Musical Leader, and then enrolled for graduate work
at Princeton University, where he continued his association with
Sessions. In 1938 he joined the Princeton music faculty and in 1942
received one of Princeton's first MFAs in music. His Composition for
String Orchestra, a straightforward 12-note work, was completed in
1940.
During World War II Babbitt divided his time between Washington,
DC, where he was engaged in mathematical research, and
Princeton, as a member of the mathematics faculty (19435).
Musically, these were years of thought and discovery, rather than of
actual composition; they resulted in 1946 in a paper entitled The
Function of Set Structure in the Twelve-Tone System, which was the
first formal and systematic investigation of Schoenbergs
compositional method. (The paper, which remained unpublished,
finally gained Babbitt the PhD in 1992.) Between 1946 and 1948,
shuttling between Jackson and New York, he once again directed his
energies to composition, writing some film scores and an
unsuccessful Broadway musical.
In 1948 Babbitt rejoined the music faculty at Princeton, eventually
becoming Conant Professor of Music (1960); in 1973 he became a
member of the composition faculty of the Juilliard School. He has
also taught at the Salzburg Seminar in American Studies, the
Berkshire Music Center, the New England Conservatory of Music
and the Darmstadt summer courses. He has received several
honorary doctorates and other honours, including a National Institute
of Arts and Letters Award (1959), a Guggenheim Fellowship (1960
61) and membership in the National Institute (1965). He became a
fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1974,
received a Pulitzer Prize Special Citation in 1982, and in 1986 was
elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters (he
also received its Gold Medal in Music in 1988). Throughout his
career, he has been actively involved in contemporary music
organizations, including the ISCM (he was president of the American
section, 19512), the American Music Center, Perspectives of New
Music (as a member of its editorial board) and the Columbia-

Princeton Electronic Music Center (as director from 1959). A prolific

writer of articles and reviews, he has also travelled widely as a
lecturer perceptive and adept at logical extemporization: his 1983
Madison lectures are published under the title Words about Music.
He is also an inveterate follower of popular sports, a raconteur and
punster, and an omnivorous reader.
Babbitt, Milton
2. Works.
(i) Serial theory and practice to 1970.
(ii) Electronic works.
(iii) Later serial developments.
Babbitt, Milton, 2: Works
(i) Serial theory and practice to 1970.
Babbitts early fascination with 12-note practice, particularly in its
formal aspects, developed into a total reconsideration of musical
relations. Throughout his compositional career he has been occupied
with the extension of techniques related to Schoenbergs (and
Weberns) combinatorial sets; with the investigation of sets that
have great flexibility and potential for long-range association; and
with an exploration of the structuring of nonpitch components
determined by the operations of the [12-note] system and uniquely
analogous to the specific structuring of the pitch components of the
individual work, and thus, utterly nonseparable (Babbitt, 1955, p.61).
He has been a pioneer in his ways of talking and thinking about
music, invoking terms from other disciplines, such as philosophy,
linguistics, mathematics and the physical sciences.
Babbitt revealed and formalized many of the most salient aspects of
12-note compositional technique in several important essays. In
Some Aspects of Twelve-Tone Composition (1955), Twelve-Tone
Invariants as Compositional Determinants (1960) and Set Structure
as a Compositional Determinant (1961), he systematically
investigated the compositional potential of the 12 pitch class set,
introducing such terms (derived from mathematics) as source set,
combinatoriality, aggregate, secondary set, and derived set.
These terms facilitate the classification of the various types of pitch
class set and contribute to the description of diverse procedures for

the compositional projection of such sets. A secondary set, for

example, results when a new set of 12 pitch classes emerges from
the linear linking of segments of two forms of a 12-note series, as
shown in Table 1. Similarly, an aggregate can be thought of as a
simultaneous statement of parts [of a 12-note set] it is not a
set, inasmuch as it is not totally ordered, because only the elements
within the component parts are ordered, but not the relationship
between or among the parts themselves (Babbitt, 1955, p.57). 12note sets that yield such aggregate and secondary set formations
are called combinatorial. (Further distinctions between various types
of combinatorial sets are discussed in the same essay.) The
nomenclature that Babbitt has introduced in his prose writings has
become widely adopted and is the basis for much theoretical work
and composition. Moreover, in his compositions he has
demonstrated the efficacy of his theories. Thus Babbitt has extended
the notion of compositional creativity to encompass the development
of musical systems themselves, as well as specific compositional
achievements within such systems. He has also persistently
explored the relationships between set transformation and derivation
procedures, and virtually all other aspects of musical structure, such
as grouping and form, large- and small-scale rhythm, texture and
register, instrumentation and timbre.
In Twelve-Tone Rhythmic Structure and the Electronic Medium
(1962) Babbitt demonstrates a number of methods for interpreting
the structures of pitch class sets in the temporal domain. By positing
an analogy between the octave (in pitch structure) and the bar (in
rhythmic and metrical structure), and by dividing the bar into 12
equal units (each of which can be musically articulated by individual
points of attack), Babbitt provides a basis for mapping pitch class
sets onto time-point sets. Thus an uninterpreted set of integers (for
example, 0, 11, 6, 7, 5, 1, 10, 2, 9, 3, 4, 8) may be interpreted as a
specific instance of a pitch class set (ex.1) or as a specific instance
of a time-point set (ex.2). (The time-point of a particular point of
attack is a measure of its position within the bar.) In ex.2 the metrical
unit is a demisemiquaver, a 12th of the whole bar; time-point 0
therefore occurs on the first demisemiquaver of the bar, time-point 1

on the next, and so on. In this example the 12 available points of

attack within a bar are ordered according to the numerical set given
above.) Exx.1 and 2 each represent only one of the possible
interpretations of the numerical set given above; pitch classes may
be presented in various registers, just as time-points may be
displaced to subsequent bars, as long as the same order of
presentation (of pitches or points of articulation) is preserved.
Furthermore, a time-point set and a pitch class set determined by the
same set of integers may unfold at different speeds: in the first four
bars of the second violin part of Babbitts String Quartet no.3 (1969
70) the first six notes may be understood as a realization in terms of
pitch of the first five integers in the set indicated above (ex.3). Also,
the three forte markings in this passage articulate the time-points
that correspond to the first and third entities of the same numerical
set (time-point 0 is reiterated in bar 2 before the third time-point, 6, is
articulated in bar 4). The second time-point of this set is presented in
a different instrumental line, the last note of violin 1 in bar 3 (ex.4).
Each of the eight dynamic gradations from ppp to fff inclusive is
employed in the String Quartet no.3 to articulate a particular layer of
the time-point structure, and each of these layers is analogous to
one of eight layers of pitch class sets simultaneously presented in
the work; the eight layers of pitch class sets are differentiated by
distinctions of instrumentation, register and mode of sound
production (for example, the use of pizzicato and arco) throughout
the work. This brief discussion of a musical fragment may serve as
an indication of the extraordinary richness of structural relationships
that are projected in Babbitts music.
An earlier example of Babbitts approach may be seen in his Three
Compositions for Piano (1947), one of his first consistent attempts to
extend Schoenbergian 12-note procedures. The surface of the music
is, in some respects, reminiscent of Schoenberg: registrally
dispersed lines alternate with thickly clustered chordal attacks (in the
framework of a quasi-ternary structure), yet the absence of
expressive indications and the reliance on metronome markings
would seem to reveal a Stravinskian concern for a clear, undistracted
projection of the temporal domain. Some of the innovative aspects of

the work reside in the conjunction of the structuring of pitch and

other domains, resulting in an early example of totally serialized
music. Points of articulation made by the superimposition of lines
and the number of consecutive attacks within a contrapuntal line are
determined by a set (whose prime form is 5, 1, 4, 2). In the first four
bars of the work, this set is presented twice in its prime form (P),
once in retrograde (R) and once in retrograde inversion (RI; ex.5).
There is also a correspondence between dynamics and pitch set
forms.
Babbitts Composition for Four Instruments and Composition for
Twelve Instruments (both of which were written in 1948) go a step
further towards a structuring of rhythm isomorphic with 12-note pitch
structuring. In the 12-instrument work a set of 12 durations emerges
and operates throughout. It is transformed by classical serial
operations: transposition (addition of a constant to each duration
number of the set), inversion (the complementation of the duration
numbers), retrogression (the complementation of the order numbers
of the set) and retrograde inversion. The ending of each of the three
major sections of the work is articulated by the completion of a
rhythmic set. The presentation of the rhythmic sets is often complex
various instruments characteristically participate in the
presentation of a single rhythmic set, and more than one rhythmic
set may be presented simultaneously. Nonetheless, the surface
characteristics of the work delineate a simple process. Beginning
with sparsely textured single events (which can be considered an
extension of Weberns sound world) and slowly becoming more
compact (with regard to aggregate completions), the work concludes
with thicker textures and sustained sonorities, unfolding newly
shaped but familiar harmonic environments.
Babbitt has been profoundly involved in the clarification and
extension of the systematic aspects of 12-note composition, but his
music is in no sense rigidly determined by precompositional
schemes. Within the constraints of serial techniques, he uses a great
range of expressive possibilities and contextually varied structures. A
work such as Partitions (1957) demonstrates numerous
precompositional constraints (such as the projection of an all-interval

set, a polyphonic texture in which distinct transformations of 12-note

pitch sets are unfolded in each line and aggregates formed by
various vertical partitionings of segments of these lines). In the first
four bars a hexachord is presented in each of four different registers
(ex.6). The hexachords in the lower two registers (E A F F C E; C
G A B D B) are complementary and are, respectively, the
retrogrades of the hexachords presented in the higher two registers.
There are 49 different ways in which the pitches presented in these
hexachords might be partitioned to form aggregates. (For example,
each hexachord might be divided 3 + 3; or the hexachords might be
divided alternately 2 + 4 and 4 + 2 etc.) The actual partitioning of
pitches (1 + 5 in the highest register, 3 + 3 in the next highest
register, 5 + 1 in the next register, and 3 + 3 in the lowest register)
contributes to a rich pattern of interval and pitch associations and
echoes. Such partitioning establishes a specific rate of movement
through the pitch class sets in each register and also suggests
possibilities for hierarchical distinctions among the pitch classes that
constitute the sets involved. Each registral line has its own rhythm of
movement through its pitch class sets, and these characteristic
rhythms are varied contextually throughout the work.
The commitment to systematic precompositional planning is
maintained in works with dramatic, poetic or other associative
aspects. In Du (1951), a song cycle for soprano and piano (which
represented the USA at the 1953 ISCM Festival), there is continual
interplay between the text and the vocal and piano lines. Phoneme,
syllable, word and line are carefully contoured, subtly and
imaginatively set to music: the pitch, durational, dynamic and
registral schemata, themselves transformed from poem to poem, are
allied with the verbal elements and indeed help to project the many
delicate nuances of the text. These lyrical, imagist tendencies were
most fully realized in Philomel (1964) but are also evident in All
Set (1957), for small jazz ensemble, with its conjunction of 12-note
structure (based on an all-combinatorial set) and what Babbitt calls
jazz-like properties the use of percussion, the Chicago jazz-like
juxtapositions of solos and ensembles recalling certain
characteristics of group improvisation.

Babbitt took a novel serial approach to handling the sonic resources

of a large orchestra in Relata I (1965). Here timbral families are
correlated with set structure, with woodwind instruments as four trios,
brass as three quartets, and string instruments as two sextets (one
bowed, the other plucked). The work is insistently polyphonic (with
as many as 48 instrumental lines), framed at both ends by massive
sonorities and filled with constantly changing and recombined
textures and colours. While parts of the work are analogous to other
parts, there is no simple repetition: all aspects undergo
reinterpretation, rearrangement and resurfacing. In the more
timbrally homogeneous works of the late 1960s (Sextets, PostPartitions, parts of Correspondences, the String Quartets nos.3 and
4), the handling of timbre and tone-colour seems even more refined.
Sonorously embodied successions of relations are projected in ever
varying contexts, producing changes of atmosphere from the most
rarefied to the most dense, with every conceivable gradation.
Babbitt, Milton, 2: Works
(ii) Electronic works.
Another continuing concern of Babbitts has been electronic sound
synthesis. At the time of the first instrumental film soundtrack, in the
late 1930s, he had already recognized the enormous compositional
potential of such synthesis. Two decades later, in the mid-1950s,
when he was invited by RCA to be a composer-consultant, he
became the first composer to work with its newly improved and
developed synthesizer, the Mark II (see illustration). Composition for
Synthesizer (1961) was Babbitts first totally synthesized work. It was
followed soon after by Vision and Prayer for soprano and synthesizer
(1961) and Ensembles for Synthesizer (19624). His basic
compositional attitudes and approaches underwent little change with
the new resource; rather, with the availability and flexibility of the
synthesizers programming control they were now realizable to a
degree of precision previously unattainable in live performances of
his music. Babbitts interest in synthesis was not concerned with the
invention of new sounds per se but with the control of all aspects of
events, particularly the timing and rate of change of timbre, texture
and intensity. (His Woodwind Quartet (1953) and String Quartet no.2
(1954) had already given some indication of the rapidity of dynamic

change he wished to achieve, on both single and consecutive

pitches.) The electronic medium allowed him to project time-point
sets however he liked, without regard to the demands made on live
performers.
Though the lucidity of his conceptual world finally became manifest
under the ideal performance conditions provided by sound synthesis,
Babbitt nevertheless retained his interest in live performance, and
carried over to it several structural procedures from the electronic
medium. Perhaps the most appealing work combining live
performance with tape is Philomel, written in conjunction with the
poet John Hollander for the soprano Bethany Beardslee. It is based
on Ovids interpretation of the Greek legend of Philomela, the
ravished, speechless maiden who is transformed into a nightingale.
New ways of combining musical and verbal expressiveness were
devised by composer and poet: music is as articulate as language;
language (Philomelas thoughts) is transformed into music (the
nightingales song). The work is an almost inexhaustible repertory of
speech-song similitudes and differentiations, and resonant wordmusic puns (unrealizable without the resources of the synthesizer).
Babbitt, Milton, 2: Works
(iii) Later serial developments.
Since the 1970s Babbitt has been extraordinarily prolific. The
fecundity of his compositional thought has been revealed in such
diverse combinations as female chorus, double brass sextet,
orchestra and tape, and guitar duo. He has continued to explore the
potential, and refine the procedures of, 12-note composition, always
discovering new ways of extending and interpreting principles of
combinatoriality and correlating the various dimensions of his
musical universe.
In works such as Arie da capo (19734), Babbitt incorporates
weighted aggregates transformations (by inversion) of pitch class
arrays (abstract, precompositional designs made up of
combinatorially related rows) in which at least one pitch class
appears more than once (see Babbitt, 19734). Arie da capo also
employs an all-partition array that systematically uses all the
possible partitionings of the structural elements that comprise an

aggregate (in this case, all the possible partitionings of 12-note sets
into as many as six parts). All-partition arrays are found in much of
Babbitts music after 1960. Each of the sections of Arie da capomay
be construed as an aria for one of the five instruments; but the
conception of the aria is reimagined so that the central instrument
dominates less quantitatively than relationally, in that its music is the
immediate source of, and is complemented and counterpointed by,
the music of the accompanying instruments. Da capo repetitions
of set forms recur throughout the arias, both on the musical surface
and as non-consecutive pitches associated by register, articulation or
instrumentation.
A Solo Requiem for soprano and two pianos (19767) is Babbitts
most extended composition for voice. This magisterial work (a
memorial to the composer Godfrey Winham) incorporates a wide
range of vocal techniques and reveals the extraordinary range and
sensitivity of Babbitts response to a variety of dramatic and lyrical
poetic texts. In My Complements to Roger for solo piano (1978),
Babbitt succinctly demonstrates a number of methods for associating
pitch and rhythmic structures. The partitioning of metrical units and
pitch class sets is correlated in each bar. Often in the piece the
grouping of a string of pitches extracted from the abstract pitch class
array is articulated on the musical surface by presenting the pitch
string within a single beat, subdivided into the same number of parts
as there are pitches in the string (see Mead, 1983).
Babbitt has continued to expand the 12-note universe. Since the
1980s he has explored the premise of the superarray, the
combination of individual arrays to form larger and more intricate 12note structures. These very large arrays of pitch class structure have
inspired ever more inventive musical textures. For example,
in Transfigured Notes for string orchestra (1986), Babbitt divides
each of four instrumental groups (1st and 2nd violins, violas and
cellos) into two sub-groups and then distinguishes between three
separate registers in each group in order to articulate 24 distinct
areas. These instrumental groupings are then recombined to project
the structural counterpoint which comprises one interpretation of the
abstract superarray.

The world that Babbitts music evokes is not simple. He has said I
want a piece of music to be literally as much as possible. While
some critics have felt that such an attitude has resulted in a body of
inaccessible music, others have praised his pioneering approach,
involving as it has a systematic and comprehensive exploration of
the 12-note compositional universe. His emphasis on the relationship
between practice and theory, his insistence on the composers
assumption of responsibility for every musical event in a work, and
his reinterpretation of the constituent elements of the Western
musical tradition have had a vital influence on the thinking and music
of numerous younger composers.
Babbitt, Milton
WORKS
all published unless otherwise stated

instrumental
Orch: Generatrix, 1935, inc., withdrawn; Composition for Str Orch, 1940, withdrawn;
Sym., 1941, inc., withdrawn; Into the Good Ground, film score, 1949, inc.,
withdrawn; Relata I, 1965; Relata II, 1968; Ars combinatoria, small orch, 1981;
Conc. for Pf and Orch, 1985; Transfigured Notes, str orch, 1986; Conc. no.2, pf,
orch, 1998
Chbr: Str Trio, 1941, withdrawn; Composition for 4 Insts, fl, cl, vn, vc, 1948;
Composition for 12 Insts, wind qnt, tpt, hp, cel, str trio, db, 1948, rev. 1954; Str Qt
no.1, 1948, withdrawn; Composition for Va and Pf, 1950; Ww Qt, 1953; Str Qt no.2,
1954; All Set, a sax, t sax, tpt, trbn, db, pf, vib, perc, 1957; Sextets, vn, pf, 1966; Str
Qt no.3, 196970; Str Qt no.4, 1970; Arie da capo, fl, cl + b cl, pf, vn, vc, 19734;
Paraphrases, fl, ob + eng hn, cl, b cl, bn, hn, tpt, trbn, tuba, pf, 1979
Dual, vc, pf, 1980; Str Qt no.5, 1982; Groupwise, pic + fl + a fl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1983;
Four Play, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1984; The Joy of More Sextets, vn, pf, 1986; Fanfare, 4 hn,
4 tpt, 3 trbn, tuba, 1987; Souper, spkr, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1987; Whirled Series, a sax,
pf, 1987; The Crowded Air, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, mar, gui, vn, va, vc, db, 1988; Consortini,
fl, pf, vib, mar, vc, 1989; Soli e Duettini, 2 gui, 1989; Soli e Duettini, fl, gui, 1989; Soli
e Duettini, vn, va, 1990
Counterparts, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, tuba, 1992; Septet, but Equal, 2 cl, cl + b cl, vn, va, vc,
pf, 1992; Fanfare for All, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, tuba, 1993; Str Qt no.6, 1993; Accompanied
Recitative, s sax, pf, 1994; Arrivals and Departures, 2 vn, 1994; Triad, cl, va, pf,
1994; Bicenquinquagenary Fanfare, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, tuba, 1995; Pf Qt, 1995; Qnt, cl,
2 vn, va, vc, 1996; When Shall We Three Meet Again?, fl, cl, vib, 1996
Pf: 3 Compositions for Pf, 1947; Duet, 1956; Semi-Simple Variations, 1956;
Partitions, 1957; Post-Partitions, 1966; Tableaux, 1972; Minute Waltz (3/4 1/8),
1977; Playing for Time, 1977; My Complements to Roger, 1978; About Time, 1982;
Don, pf 4 hands, 1981; Canonical Form, 1983; Playing for Time, 1983; It Takes
Twelve to Tango, 1984; Lagniappe, 1985; Overtime, 1987; In his Own Words, spkr,
pf, 1988; Emblems (Ars Emblematica), 1989; Envoi, pf 4 hands, 1990; Preludes,
Interludes and Postlude, 1991; Tutte le corde, 1994

Other solo inst: My Ends are my Beginnings, cl, 1978; Melismata, vn, 1982; Sheer
Pluck (Composition for Gui), 1984; Homily, snare drum, 1987; Beaten Paths, mar,
1988; Play it Again Sam, va, 1989; None but the Lonely Flute, fl, 1991; Around the
Horn, hn, 1993; Manifold Music, org, 1995

vocal
Dramatic: Fabulous Voyage (musical, R. Childs, R. Koch, Babbitt), 1946
Choral: Music for the Mass I, SATB, 1940, withdrawn; Music for the Mass II, SATB,
1941, withdrawn; 4 Canons, female chorus, 1968 [after Schoenberg]; More
Phonemena, 12vv, 1978; An Elizabethan Sextette, female chorus 6vv, 1979;
Glosses, boys' choir, 1988
Solo vocal: Three Theatrical Songs, 1v, pf, 1946 [from musical Fabulous Voyage];
The Widow's Lament in Springtime (W.C. Williams), S, pf, 1950; Du (Stramm), song
cycle, S, pf, 1951; Vision and Prayer, S, pf, 1954, unpubd, unperf.; 2 Sonnets (G.M.
Hopkins), Bar, cl, va, vc, 1955; Composition for Tenor and 6 Insts, T, fl, ob, vn, va,
vc, hpd, 1960; Sounds and Words, S, pf, 1960
Phonemena, S, pf, 196970; A Solo Requiem (W. Shakespeare, Hopkins, G.
Meredith, Stramm, J. Dryden), S, 2 pf, 19767; The Head of the Bed (J. Hollander),
S, fl, cl, vn, vc, 1982; The Virginal Book, C, pf, 1988; 4 Cavalier Settings (R. Herrick,
T. Carew), T, gui, 1991; Mehr Du (Stramm), Mez, va, pf, 1991; Quatrains, S, 2 cl,
1993; No Longer Very Clear, S, fl, cl, vn, vc, 1994

works with tape

Composition for Synthesizer, 4-track tape, 1961; Vision and Prayer (D. Thomas), S,
4-track tape, 1961; Ensembles for Synthesizer, 4-track tape, 19624; Philomel
(Hollander), S, 4-track tape, 1964; Correspondences, str orch, tape, 1967;
Occasional Variations, 4-track tape, 1971; Concerti, vn, small orch, tape, 19746;
Phonemena, S, tape, 1975; Reflections, pf, tape, 1975; Images, sax, tape, 1979
recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publishers: Associated, Boelke-Bomart, Peters

Babbitt, Milton
WRITINGS
for fuller list see Mead (1994)
The Function of Set Structure in the Twelve-Tone
System (unpubd paper, 1946; diss., Princeton U., 1992)
The String Quartets of Bartk,MQ, xxxv (1949), 37785
Some Aspects of Twelve-Tone Composition, The Score, no.12

(1955), 5361
Who Cares if You Listen?, High Fidelity, viii/2 (1958), 3840;

repr. in The American Composer Speaks, ed. G. Chase (Baton

Rouge, LA, 1966), 23444; repr. in Contemporary Composers on
Contemporary Music, ed. E. Schwartz and B. Childs (New York,
1967), 24350
Electronic Music: the Revolution in Sound, Columbia University

Magazine (1960), spr., 48; rev. as The Revolution in Sound:

Electronic Music, Music Journal, xviii/7 (1965), 347
Twelve-Tone Invariants as Compositional Determinants, MQ,

xlvi (1960), 24659; repr. in Problems of Modern Music, ed. P.H.

Lang (New York, 1960), 10821
Past and Present Concepts of the Nature and Limits of

Music, IMSCR VIII: New York 1961, 398403; repr.

in Perspectives on Contemporary Music Theory, ed. B. Boretz
and E.T. Cone (New York, 1972), 39
Set Structure as a Compositional Determinant, JMT, v (1961),

7294; repr. in Perspectives on Contemporary Music Theory, ed.

B. Boretz and E.T. Cone (New York, 1972), 12947
Twelve-Tone Rhythmic Structure and the Electronic

Medium, PNM, i/1 (1962), 4979; repr. in Perspectives on

Contemporary Music Theory, ed. B. Boretz and E.T. Cone (New
York, 1972), 14879
Remarks on the Recent Stravinsky, PNM, ii/2 (19634), 3555;

repr. in Perspectives on Schoenberg and Stravinsky, ed. B.

Boretz and E.T. Cone (Princeton, NJ, 1968, 2/1972/R), 16585
An Introduction to the RCA Synthesizer, JMT, viii (1964), 251

65
The Synthesis, Perception and Specification of Musical

Time, JIFMC, xvi (1964), 925

The Use of Computers in Musicological Research, PNM, iii/2

(19645), 7483
The Structure and Functions of Music Theory I, College Music

Symposium, v (1965), 4960; repr. in Perspectives on

Contemporary Music Theory, ed. B. Boretz and E.T. Cone (New
York, 1972), 1021
Edgard Varse: a Few Observations of his Music, PNM, iv/2

(19656), 1422; repr. in Perspectives on American Composers,

ed. B. Boretz and E.T. Cone (New York, 1971), 4048
Three Essays on Schoenberg, Perspectives on Schoenberg

and Stravinsky, ed. B. Boretz and E.T. Cone (Princeton,

NJ,1968, 2/1972/R), 4760
Relata I, The Orchestral Composer's Point of View, ed. R.S.

Hines (Norman, OK, 1970), 1138; repr. as On Relata I, PNM,

ix/1 (197071), 122
Contemporary Music Composition and Music Theory as

Contemporary Intellectual History, Perspectives in Musicology,

ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S.J. Van Solkema (New
York,1972), 15184
Since Schoenberg, PNM, xii/12 (19734), 328
Responses: a First Approximation,PNM, xiv/2 (19756), 323
The Next Thirty Years, High Fidelity/Musical America, xxxi/4

(1981), 5166
Words about Music, ed. S. Dembski and J.N. Straus (Madison,
WI, 1987)
Stravinsky's Verticals and (Schoenberg's) Diagonals: a Twist of

Fate, Stravinsky Retrospectives, ed. E. Haimo and P. Johnson

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On Having Been and Still Being an American Composer, PNM,

xxvii/1 (1989), 10612

with others: Brave New Worlds: Leading Composers Offer their
Anniversary Predications and Speculations, MT, cxxxv (1994),
33037

Babbitt, Milton
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