Glacier: From Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

4/9/2015
GlacierWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Glacier
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Aglacier(US/ler/orUK/lsi/)isapersistentbodyofdense
icethatisconstantlymovingunderitsownweightitformswhere
theaccumulationofsnowexceedsitsablation(meltingand
sublimation)overmanyyears,oftencenturies.Glaciersslowly
deformandflowduetostressesinducedbytheirweight,creating
crevasses,seracs,andotherdistinguishingfeatures.Theyalso
abraderockanddebrisfromtheirsubstratetocreatelandformssuch
ascirquesandmoraines.Glaciersformonlyonlandandaredistinct
fromthemuchthinnerseaiceandlakeicethatformonthesurface
ofbodiesofwater.
OnEarth,99%ofglacialiceiscontainedwithinvasticesheetsin
thepolarregions,butglaciersmaybefoundinmountainrangeson
everycontinentexceptAustralia,andonafewhighlatitudeoceanic
islands.Between35Nand35S,glaciersoccuronlyinthe
Himalayas,Andes,RockyMountains,afewhighmountainsinEast
Africa,Mexico,NewGuineaandonZardKuhinIran.[1]
GlacialiceisthelargestreservoiroffreshwateronEarth.[2]Many
glaciersfromtemperate,alpineandseasonalpolarclimatesstore
waterasiceduringthecolderseasonsandreleaseitlaterintheform
ofmeltwateraswarmersummertemperaturescausetheglacierto
melt,creatingawatersourcethatisespeciallyimportantforplants,
animalsandhumanuseswhenothersourcesmaybescant.Within
highaltitudeandAntarcticenvironments,theseasonaltemperature
differenceisoftennotsufficienttoreleasemeltwater.
Becauseglacialmassisaffectedbylongtermclimatechanges,e.g.,
precipitation,meantemperature,andcloudcover,glacialmass
changesareconsideredamongthemostsensitiveindicatorsof
climatechangeandareamajorsourceofvariationsinsealevel.
TheBaltoroGlacierinthe
Karakoram,Baltistan,Northern
Pakistan.At62kilometres(39mi)in
length,itisoneofthelongestalpine
glaciersonearth.
Icecalvingfromtheterminusofthe
PeritoMorenoGlacierinwestern
Patagonia,Argentina
Alargepieceofcompressedice,oraglacier,wouldappearblueas
largequantitiesofwaterappearblue.Thelatterisbecausethewater
moleculeabsorbsothercolorsmoreefficientlythanblue.Theother
reasonforthebluecolorofglaciersisthelackofairbubbles.The
airbubbles,whichgiveawhitecolortotheregularice,aresqueezed
outbypressureincreasingthedensityofthecreatedice.
TheAletschGlacier,thelargest
glacieroftheAlps,inSwitzerland
Contents
1Etymologyandrelatedterms
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier
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2Types
3Formation
4Structure
5Motion
5.1Fracturezoneandcracks
5.2Speed
5.3Ogives
6Geography
7Glacialgeology
7.1Moraines
7.2Drumlins
TheQuelccayaIceCapisthelargest
glaciatedareainthetropics,inPeru
7.3Glacialvalleys,cirques,artes,andpyramidal
peaks
7.4Rochemoutonne
7.5Alluvialstratification
7.6Glacialdeposits
7.7Loessdeposits
8Isostaticrebound
9OnMars
10Seealso
11Notes
12References
13Externallinks
Etymologyandrelatedterms
ThewordglaciercomesfromFrench.ItisderivedfromtheVulgarLatinglaciaandultimatelyfromLatin
glaciesmeaningice.[3]Theprocessesandfeaturescausedbyglaciersandrelatedtothemarereferredtoas
glacial.Theprocessofglacierestablishment,growthandflowiscalledglaciation.Thecorrespondingarea
ofstudyiscalledglaciology.Glaciersareimportantcomponentsoftheglobalcryosphere.
Types
Glaciersarecategorizedbytheirmorphology,thermalcharacteristics,andbehavior.Alpineglaciers,also
knownasmountainglaciersorcirqueglaciers,formonthecrestsandslopesofmountains.Analpine
glacierthatfillsavalleyissometimescalledavalleyglacier.Alargebodyofglacialiceastrideamountain,
mountainrange,orvolcanoistermedanicecaporicefield.[4]Icecapshaveanarealessthan50,000km
(20,000mile)bydefinition.
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Glacialbodieslargerthan50,000kmarecalledicesheetsorcontinentalglaciers.[5]Severalkilometers
deep,theyobscuretheunderlyingtopography.Onlynunataksprotrudefromtheirsurfaces.Theonlyextant
icesheetsarethetwothatcovermostofAntarcticaandGreenland.Theycontainvastquantitiesoffresh
water,enoughthatifbothmelted,globalsealevelswouldrisebyover70meters.[6]Portionsofanicesheet
orcapthatextendintowaterarecallediceshelvestheytendtobe
thinwithlimitedslopesandreducedvelocities.[7]Narrow,fast
movingsectionsofanicesheetarecalledicestreams.[8][9]In
Antarctica,manyicestreamsdrainintolargeiceshelves.Some
draindirectlyintothesea,oftenwithanicetongue,likeMertz
Glacier.
Sightseeingboatinfrontofa
tidewaterglacier,KenaiFjords
NationalPark,Alaska
Tidewaterglaciersare
glaciersthatterminateinthe
sea,includingmostglaciers
flowingfromGreenland,
MouthoftheSchlatenkeesGlacier
Antarctica,Baffinand
nearInnergschl,Austria
EllesmereIslandsinCanada,
SoutheastAlaska,andthe
NorthernandSouthernPatagonianIceFields.Astheicereachesthe
sea,piecesbreakoff,orcalve,formingicebergs.Mosttidewater
glacierscalveabovesealevel,whichoftenresultsinatremendous
impactastheicebergstrikesthewater.Tidewaterglaciersundergo
centurieslongcyclesofadvanceandretreatthataremuchless
affectedbytheclimatechangethanthoseofotherglaciers.
Thermally,atemperateglacierisatmeltingpointthroughouttheyear,fromitssurfacetoitsbase.Theice
ofapolarglacierisalwaysbelowfreezingpointfromthesurfacetoitsbase,althoughthesurfacesnowpack
mayexperienceseasonalmelting.Asubpolarglacierincludesbothtemperateandpolarice,dependingon
depthbeneaththesurfaceandpositionalongthelengthoftheglacier.Inasimilarway,thethermalregime
ofaglacierisoftendescribedbythetemperatureatitsbasealone.Acoldbasedglacierisbelowfreezingat
theicegroundinterface,andisthusfrozentotheunderlyingsubstrate.Awarmbasedglacierisaboveorat
freezingattheinterface,andisabletoslideatthiscontact.[10]Thiscontrastisthoughttoalargeextentto
governtheabilityofaglaciertoeffectivelyerodeitsbed,asslidingicepromotespluckingatrockfromthe
surfacebelow.[11]Glacierswhicharepartlycoldbasedandpartlywarmbasedareknownas
polythermal.[10]
Formation
Glaciersformwheretheaccumulationofsnowandiceexceedsablation.Theareainwhichaglacierforms
iscalledacirque(corrieorcwm)atypicallyarmchairshapedgeologicalfeature(suchasadepression
betweenmountainsenclosedbyartes)whichcollectsandcompressesthroughgravitythesnowwhich
fallsintoit.Thissnowcollectsandiscompactedbytheweightofthesnowfallingaboveitformingnv.
Furthercrushingoftheindividualsnowflakesandsqueezingtheairfromthesnowturnsitinto'glacialice'.
Thisglacialicewillfillthecirqueuntilit'overflows'throughageologicalweaknessorvacancy,suchasthe
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gapbetweentwomountains.Whenthemassofsnowandiceissufficientlythick,itbeginstomoveduetoa
combinationofsurfaceslope,gravityandpressure.Onsteeperslopes,thiscanoccurwithaslittleas15m
(50ft)ofsnowice.
Intemperateglaciers,snowrepeatedlyfreezesandthaws,changingintogranularicecalledfirn.Underthe
pressureofthelayersoficeandsnowaboveit,thisgranularicefusesintodenseranddenserfirn.Overa
periodofyears,layersoffirnundergofurthercompactionandbecomeglacialice.Glaciericeisslightlyless
densethaniceformedfromfrozenwaterbecauseitcontainstinytrappedairbubbles.
Glacialicehasadistinctivebluetintbecauseitabsorbssomered
lightduetoanovertoneoftheinfraredOHstretchingmodeofthe
watermolecule.Liquidwaterisblueforthesamereason.Theblue
ofglaciericeissometimesmisattributedtoRayleighscatteringdue
tobubblesintheice.[12]
Structure
Aglacieroriginatesatalocationcalleditsglacierheadand
terminatesatitsglacierfoot,snout,orterminus.
GornerGlacierinSwitzerland
Glaciersarebrokenintozonesbasedonsurfacesnowpackandmelt
conditions.[13]Theablationzoneistheregionwherethereisanet
lossinglaciermass.Theequilibriumlineseparatestheablationzone
andtheaccumulationzoneitisthealtitudewheretheamountof
newsnowgainedbyaccumulationisequaltotheamountoficelost
throughablation.Theupperpartofaglacier,whereaccumulation
exceedsablation,iscalledtheaccumulationzone.Ingeneral,the
accumulationzoneaccountsfor6070%oftheglacier'ssurface
area,moreiftheglaciercalvesicebergs.Iceintheaccumulation
AglaciercavelocatedonthePerito
zoneisdeepenoughtoexertadownwardforcethaterodes
MorenoGlacierinArgentina.
underlyingrock.Afteraglaciermelts,itoftenleavesbehindabowl
oramphitheatershapeddepressionthatrangesinsizefromlarge
basinsliketheGreatLakestosmallermountaindepressionsknownascirques.
Theaccumulationzonecanbesubdividedbasedonitsmeltconditions.
1. Thedrysnowzoneisaregionwherenomeltoccurs,eveninthesummer,andthesnowpackremains
dry.
2. Thepercolationzoneisanareawithsomesurfacemelt,causingmeltwatertopercolateintothe
snowpack.Thiszoneisoftenmarkedbyrefrozenicelenses,glands,andlayers.Thesnowpackalso
neverreachesmeltingpoint.
3. Neartheequilibriumlineonsomeglaciers,asuperimposedicezonedevelops.Thiszoneiswhere
meltwaterrefreezesasacoldlayerintheglacier,formingacontinuousmassofice.
4. Thewetsnowzoneistheregionwhereallofthesnowdepositedsincetheendoftheprevious
summerhasbeenraisedto0C.
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Thehealthofaglacierisusuallyassessedbydeterminingtheglaciermassbalanceorobservingterminus
behavior.Healthyglaciershavelargeaccumulationzones,morethan60%oftheirareasnowcoveredatthe
endofthemeltseason,andaterminuswithvigorousflow.
FollowingtheLittleIceAge'sendaround1850,glaciersaroundtheEarthhaveretreatedsubstantially.A
slightcoolingledtotheadvanceofmanyalpineglaciersbetween19501985,butsince1985glacierretreat
andmasslosshasbecomelargerandincreasinglyubiquitous.[14][15][16]
Motion
Glaciersmove,orflow,downhillduetogravityandtheinternal
deformationofice.[17]Icebehaveslikeabrittlesoliduntilits
thicknessexceedsabout50m(160ft).Thepressureonicedeeper
than50mcausesplasticflow.Atthemolecularlevel,iceconsistsof
stackedlayersofmoleculeswithrelativelyweakbondsbetween
layers.Whenthestressonthelayeraboveexceedstheinterlayer
bindingstrength,itmovesfasterthanthelayerbelow.[18]
Glaciersalsomovethroughbasalsliding.Inthisprocess,aglacier
slidesovertheterrainonwhichitsits,lubricatedbythepresenceof
liquidwater.Thewateriscreatedfromicethatmeltsunderhigh
pressurefromfrictionalheating.Basalslidingisdominantin
temperate,orwarmbasedglaciers.
Fracturezoneandcracks
Thetop50metres(160ft)ofaglacierarerigidbecausetheyare
underlowpressure.Thisuppersectionisknownasthefracture
zoneitmostlymovesasasingleunitovertheplasticallyflowing
lowersection.Whenaglaciermovesthroughirregularterrain,
crackscalledcrevassesdevelopinthefracturezone.Crevassesform
duetodifferencesinglaciervelocity.Iftworigidsectionsofa
glaciermoveatdifferentspeedsanddirections,shearforcescause
themtobreakapart,openingacrevasse.Crevassesareseldommore
than150feet(46m)deepbutinsomecasescanbe1,000feet
(300m)orevendeeper.Beneaththispoint,theplasticityoftheice
istoogreatforcrackstoform.Intersectingcrevassescancreate
isolatedpeaksintheice,calledseracs.
Shearorherringbonecrevasseson
EmmonsGlacier(MountRainier)
suchcrevassesoftenformnearthe
edgeofaglacierwhereinteractions
withunderlyingormarginalrock
impedeflow.Inthiscase,the
impedimentappearstobesome
distancefromthenearmarginofthe
glacier.
IcecracksintheTitlisGlacier
Crevassescanforminseveraldifferentways.Transversecrevasses
aretransversetoflowandformwheresteeperslopescauseaglacier
toaccelerate.Longitudinalcrevassesformsemiparalleltoflowwhereaglacierexpandslaterally.Marginal
crevassesformfromtheedgeoftheglacier,duetothereductioninspeedcausedbyfrictionofthevalley
walls.Marginalcrevassesareusuallylargelytransversetoflow.Movingglaciericecansometimesseparate
fromstagnanticeabove,formingabergschrund.Bergschrundsresemblecrevassesbutaresingularfeatures
ataglacier'smargins.
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Crevassesmaketraveloverglaciershazardous,especiallywhentheyarehiddenbyfragilesnowbridges.
Belowtheequilibriumline,glacialmeltwaterisconcentratedinstream
channels.Meltwatercanpoolinproglaciallakesontopofaglacieror
descendintothedepthsofaglacierviamoulins.Streamswithinorbeneath
aglacierflowinenglacialorsubglacialtunnels.Thesetunnelssometimes
reemergeattheglacier'ssurface.[19]
Speed
Thespeedofglacialdisplacementispartlydeterminedbyfriction.Friction
makestheiceatthebottomoftheglaciermovemoreslowlythaniceatthe
top.Inalpineglaciers,frictionisalsogeneratedatthevalley'ssidewalls,
whichslowstheedgesrelativetothecenter.
Crossingacrevasseonthe
Meanspeedsvarygreatly,butistypicallyaround1meterperday.[20]There
EastonGlacier,Mount
maybenomotioninstagnantareasforexample,inpartsofAlaska,trees
Baker,intheNorth
canestablishthemselvesonsurfacesedimentdeposits.Inothercases,
Cascades,UnitedStates
glacierscanmoveasfastas2030mperday,suchasinGreenland's
JakobshavnIsbr(Greenlandic:SermeqKujalleq).Velocityincreaseswith
increasingslope,increasingthickness,increasingsnowfall,increasinglongitudinalconfinement,increasing
basaltemperature,increasingmeltwaterproductionandreducedbedhardness.
Afewglaciershaveperiodsofveryrapidadvancementcalledsurges.Theseglaciersexhibitnormal
movementuntilsuddenlytheyaccelerate,thenreturntotheirpreviousstate.Duringthesesurges,theglacier
mayreachvelocitiesfargreaterthannormalspeed.[21]Thesesurgesmaybecausedbyfailureofthe
underlyingbedrock,thepoolingofmeltwateratthebaseoftheglacier[22]perhapsdeliveredfroma
supraglaciallakeorthesimpleaccumulationofmassbeyondacritical"tippingpoint".[23]
Inglaciatedareaswheretheglaciermovesfasterthanonekmperyear,glacialearthquakesoccur.Theseare
largescaletemblorsthathaveseismicmagnitudesashighas6.1.[24][25]Thenumberofglacialearthquakes
inGreenlandpeakseveryyearinJuly,AugustandSeptemberandisincreasingovertime.Inastudyusing
datafromJanuary1993throughOctober2005,moreeventsweredetectedeveryyearsince2002,andtwice
asmanyeventswererecordedin2005astherewereinanyotheryear.Thisincreaseinthenumbersof
glacialearthquakesinGreenlandmaybearesponsetoglobalwarming.[24][25]
Ogives
Ogivesarealternatingwavecrestsandvalleysthatappearasdarkandlightbandsoficeonglaciersurfaces.
Theyarelinkedtoseasonalmotionofglaciersthewidthofonedarkandonelightbandgenerallyequals
theannualmovementoftheglacier.Ogivesareformedwhenicefromanicefallisseverelybrokenup,
increasingablationsurfaceareaduringsummer.Thiscreatesaswaleandspaceforsnowaccumulationin
thewinter,whichinturncreatesaridge.[26]Sometimesogivesconsistonlyofundulationsorcolorbands
andaredescribedaswaveogivesorbandogives.[27]
Geography
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Glaciersarepresentoneverycontinentandapproximatelyfifty
countries,excludingthose(Australia,SouthAfrica)thathave
glaciersonlyondistantsubantarcticislandterritories.Extensive
glaciersarefoundinAntarctica,Chile,Canada,Alaska,Greenland
andIceland.Mountainglaciersarewidespread,especiallyinthe
Andes,theHimalayas,theRockyMountains,theCaucasus,andthe
Alps.MainlandAustraliacurrentlycontainsnoglaciers,althougha
smallglacieronMountKosciuszkowaspresentinthelastglacial
period.[28]InNewGuinea,small,rapidlydiminishing,glaciersare
locatedonitshighestsummitmassifofPuncakJaya.[29]Africahas
BlackiceglaciernearAconcagua,
glaciersonMountKilimanjaroinTanzania,onMountKenyaandin
Argentina
theRwenzoriMountains.Oceanicislandswithglaciersoccuron
Iceland,Svalbard,NewZealand,JanMayenandthesubantarctic
islandsofMarion,Heard,GrandeTerre(Kerguelen)andBouvet.DuringglacialperiodsoftheQuaternary,
Taiwan,HawaiionMaunaKea[30]andTenerifealsohadlargealpineglaciers,whiletheFaroeandCrozet
Islands[31]werecompletelyglaciated.
Thepermanentsnowcovernecessaryforglacierformationisaffectedbyfactorssuchasthedegreeofslope
ontheland,amountofsnowfallandthewinds.Glacierscanbefoundinalllatitudesexceptfrom20to27
northandsouthoftheequatorwherethepresenceofthedescendinglimboftheHadleycirculationlowers
precipitationsomuchthatwithhighinsolationsnowlinesreachabove6,500metres(21,330ft).Between
19Nand19S,however,precipitationishigherandthemountainsabove5,000metres(16,400ft)usually
havepermanentsnow.
Evenathighlatitudes,glacierformationisnotinevitable.AreasoftheArctic,suchasBanksIsland,andthe
McMurdoDryValleysinAntarcticaareconsideredpolardesertswhereglacierscannotformbecausethey
receivelittlesnowfalldespitethebittercold.Coldair,unlikewarmair,isunabletotransportmuchwater
vapor.EvenduringglacialperiodsoftheQuaternary,Manchuria,lowlandSiberia,[32]andcentraland
northernAlaska,[33]thoughextraordinarilycold,hadsuchlightsnowfallthatglacierscouldnotform.[34][35]
Inadditiontothedry,unglaciatedpolarregions,somemountainsandvolcanoesinBolivia,Chileand
Argentinaarehigh(4,500metres(14,800ft)6,900m(22,600ft))andcold,buttherelativelackof
precipitationpreventssnowfromaccumulatingintoglaciers.Thisisbecausethesepeaksarelocatednearor
inthehyperaridAtacamaDesert.
Glacialgeology
Glacierserodeterrainthroughtwoprincipalprocesses:abrasionandplucking.
Asglaciersflowoverbedrock,theysoftenandliftblocksofrockintotheice.Thisprocess,calledplucking,
iscausedbysubglacialwaterthatpenetratesfracturesinthebedrockandsubsequentlyfreezesandexpands.
Thisexpansioncausestheicetoactasaleverthatloosenstherockbyliftingit.Thus,sedimentsofallsizes
becomepartoftheglacier'sload.Ifaretreatingglaciergainsenoughdebris,itmaybecomearockglacier,
liketheTimpanogosGlacierinUtah.
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Abrasionoccurswhentheiceanditsloadofrockfragmentsslide
overbedrockandfunctionassandpaper,smoothingandpolishing
thebedrockbelow.Thepulverizedrockthisprocessproducesis
calledrockflourandismadeupofrockgrainsbetween0.002and
0.00625mminsize.Abrasionleadstosteepervalleywallsand
mountainslopesinalpinesettings,whichcancauseavalanchesand
rockslides.Theseaddevenmorematerialtotheglacier.
Glacialabrasioniscommonlycharacterizedbyglacialstriations.
Glaciersproducethesewhentheycontainlargebouldersthatcarve
longscratchesinthebedrock.Bymappingthedirectionofthe
striations,researcherscandeterminethedirectionoftheglacier's
movement.Similartostriationsarechattermarks,linesofcrescent
shapedepressionsintherockunderlyingaglacier.Theyareformed
byabrasionwhenbouldersintheglacierarerepeatedlycaughtand
releasedastheyaredraggedalongthebedrock.
Diagramofglacialpluckingand
abrasion
Therateofglaciererosionisvariable.Sixfactorscontrolerosion
rate:
Velocityofglacialmovement
Thicknessoftheice
Shape,abundanceandhardnessofrockfragmentscontained
Glaciallypluckedgraniticbedrock
nearMariehamn,landIslands
intheiceatthebottomoftheglacier
Relativeeaseoferosionofthesurfaceundertheglacier
Thermalconditionsattheglacierbase
Permeabilityandwaterpressureattheglacierbase
Materialthatbecomesincorporatedinaglacieristypicallycarriedasfarasthezoneofablationbefore
beingdeposited.Glacialdepositsareoftwodistincttypes:
Glacialtill:materialdirectlydepositedfromglacialice.Tillincludesamixtureofundifferentiated
materialrangingfromclaysizetoboulders,theusualcompositionofamoraine.
Fluvialandoutwashsediments:sedimentsdepositedbywater.Thesedepositsarestratifiedbysize.
Largerpiecesofrockthatareencrustedintillordepositedonthesurfacearecalled"glacialerratics".They
rangeinsizefrompebblestoboulders,butastheyareoftenmovedgreatdistances,theymaybedrastically
differentfromthematerialuponwhichtheyarefound.Patternsofglacialerraticshintatpastglacial
motions.
Moraines
Glacialmorainesareformedbythedepositionofmaterialfromaglacierandareexposedaftertheglacier
hasretreated.Theyusuallyappearaslinearmoundsoftill,anonsortedmixtureofrock,graveland
boulderswithinamatrixofafinepowderymaterial.Terminalorendmorainesareformedatthefootor
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terminalendofaglacier.Lateralmorainesareformedonthesidesoftheglacier.Medialmorainesare
formedwhentwodifferentglaciersmergeandthelateralmorainesofeachcoalescetoformamorainein
themiddleofthecombinedglacier.Lessapparentaregroundmoraines,alsocalledglacialdrift,which
oftenblanketsthesurfaceunderneaththeglacierdownslopefrom
theequilibriumline.
ThetermmoraineisofFrenchorigin.Itwascoinedbypeasantsto
describealluvialembankmentsandrimsfoundnearthemarginsof
glaciersintheFrenchAlps.Inmoderngeology,thetermisused
morebroadly,andisappliedtoaseriesofformations,allofwhich
arecomposedoftill.Morainescanalsocreatemorainedammed
lakes.
Drumlins
GlacialmorainesaboveLakeLouise,
Alberta,Canada
Drumlinsareasymmetrical,canoeshapedhillsmademainlyof
till.Theirheightsvaryfrom15to50metersandtheycanreach
akilometerinlength.Thesteepestsideofthehillfacesthe
directionfromwhichtheiceadvanced(stoss),whilealonger
slopeisleftintheice'sdirectionofmovement(lee).
Drumlinsarefoundingroupscalleddrumlinfieldsordrumlin
camps.OneofthesefieldsisfoundeastofRochester,New
Yorkitisestimatedtocontainabout10,000drumlins.
Adrumlinfieldformsafteraglacierhas
modifiedthelandscape.Theteardrop
shapedformationsdenotethedirectionof
theiceflow.
Althoughtheprocessthatformsdrumlinsisnotfully
understood,theirshapeimpliesthattheyareproductsofthe
plasticdeformationzoneofancientglaciers.Itisbelievedthat
manydrumlinswereformedwhenglaciersadvancedoverandalteredthedepositsofearlierglaciers.
Glacialvalleys,cirques,artes,andpyramidalpeaks
Beforeglaciation,mountainvalleyshaveacharacteristic"V"shape,
producedbyerodingwater.Duringglaciation,thesevalleysare
widened,deepened,andsmoothed,forminga"U"shapedglacial
valley.Theerosionthatcreatesglacialvalleyseliminatesthespurs
ofearththatextendacrossmountainvalleys,creatingtriangular
cliffscalledtruncatedspurs.Withinglacialvalleys,depressions
createdbypluckingandabrasioncanbefilledbylakes,called
paternosterlakes.Ifaglacialvalleyrunsintoalargebodyofwater,
itformsafjord.
Featuresofaglaciallandscape
Manyglaciersdeepentheirvalleysmorethantheirsmallertributaries.Therefore,whenglaciersrecede,the
valleysofthetributaryglaciersremainabovethemainglacier'sdepressionandarecalledhangingvalleys.
Atthestartofaclassicvalleyglacierisabowlshapedcirque,whichhasescarpedwallsonthreesidesbut
isopenonthesidethatdescendsintothevalley.Cirquesarewhereicebeginstoaccumulateinaglacier.
Twoglacialcirquesmayformbacktobackanderodetheirbackwallsuntilonlyanarrowridge,calledan
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arteisleft.Thisstructuremayresultinamountainpass.Ifmultiplecirquesencircleasinglemountain,
theycreatepointedpyramidalpeaksparticularlysteepexamplesarecalledhorns.
Rochemoutonne
Somerockformationsinthepathofaglacieraresculptedintosmallhillscalledrochemoutonne,or
"sheepback"rock.Rochemoutonneareelongated,rounded,andasymmetricalbedrockknobscanbe
producedbyglaciererosion.Theyrangeinlengthfromlessthanametertoseveralhundredmeterslong.[36]
Rochemoutonnehaveagentleslopeontheirupglaciersidesandasteeptoverticalfaceontheirdown
glaciersides.Theglacierabradesthesmoothslopeontheupstreamsideasitflowsalong,buttearsloose
andcarriesawayrockfromthedownstreamsideviaplucking.
Alluvialstratification
Asthewaterthatrisesfromtheablationzonemovesawayfromtheglacier,itcarriesfineerodedsediments
withit.Asthespeedofthewaterdecreases,sodoesitscapacitytocarryobjectsinsuspension.Thewater
thusgraduallydepositsthesedimentasitruns,creatinganalluvialplain.Whenthisphenomenonoccursin
avalley,itiscalledavalleytrain.Whenthedepositionisinanestuary,thesedimentsareknownasbay
mud.
Outwashplainsandvalleytrainsareusuallyaccompaniedbybasinsknownas"kettles".Thesearesmall
lakesformedwhenlargeiceblocksthataretrappedinalluviummeltandproducewaterfilleddepressions.
Kettlediametersrangefrom5mto13km,withdepthsofupto45meters.Mostarecircularinshape
becausetheblocksoficethatformedthemwereroundedastheymelted.[37]
Glacialdeposits
Whenaglacier'ssizeshrinksbelowacriticalpoint,itsflowstops
anditbecomesstationary.Meanwhile,meltwaterwithinand
beneaththeiceleavesstratifiedalluvialdeposits.Thesedeposits,in
theformsofcolumns,terracesandclusters,remainaftertheglacier
meltsandareknownas"glacialdeposits".
Glacialdepositsthattaketheshapeofhillsormoundsarecalled
kames.Somekamesformwhenmeltwaterdepositssediments
throughopeningsintheinterioroftheice.Othersareproducedby
fansordeltascreatedbymeltwater.Whentheglacialiceoccupiesa
valley,itcanformterracesorkamesalongthesidesofthevalley.
Landscapeproducedbyareceding
glacier
Long,sinuousglacialdepositsarecalledeskers.Eskersarecomposedofsandandgravelthatwasdeposited
bymeltwaterstreamsthatflowedthroughicetunnelswithinorbeneathaglacier.Theyremainaftertheice
melts,withheightsexceeding100metersandlengthsofaslongas100km.
Loessdeposits
10/16
4/9/2015
Veryfineglacialsedimentsorrockflourisoftenpickedupbywindblowingoverthebaresurfaceandmay
bedepositedgreatdistancesfromtheoriginalfluvialdepositionsite.Theseeolianloessdepositsmaybe
verydeep,evenhundredsofmeters,asinareasofChinaandtheMidwesternUnitedStatesofAmerica.
Katabaticwindscanbeimportantinthisprocess.
Isostaticrebound
Largemasses,suchasice
sheetsorglaciers,can
depressthecrustofthe
Earthintothemantle.The
depressionusuallytotalsa
thirdoftheicesheetor
glacier'sthickness.After
theicesheetorglacier
melts,themantlebeginsto
flowbacktoitsoriginal
position,pushingthecrust
IsostaticpressurebyaglacierontheEarth'scrust
backup.Thispostglacial
rebound,whichproceeds
veryslowlyafterthemeltingoftheicesheetorglacier,iscurrentlyoccurringinmeasurableamountsin
ScandinaviaandtheGreatLakesregionofNorthAmerica.
Ageomorphologicalfeaturecreatedbythesameprocessonasmallerscaleisknownasdilationfaulting.It
occurswherepreviouslycompressedrockisallowedtoreturntoitsoriginalshapemorerapidlythancanbe
maintainedwithoutfaulting.Thisleadstoaneffectsimilartowhatwouldbeseeniftherockwerehitbya
largehammer.DilationfaultingcanbeobservedinrecentlydeglaciatedpartsofIcelandandCumbria.
OnMars
ThepolaricecapsofMarsshowgeologicevidenceofglacial
deposits.Thesouthpolarcapisespeciallycomparabletoglacierson
Earth.[38]Topographicalfeaturesandcomputermodelsindicatethe
existenceofmoreglaciersinMars'past.[39]
NorthernpolaricecaponMars
Atmidlatitudes,between35and65northorsouth,Martian
glaciersareaffectedbythethinMartianatmosphere.Becauseofthe
lowatmosphericpressure,ablationnearthesurfaceissolelydueto
sublimation,notmelting.AsonEarth,manyglaciersarecovered
withalayerofrockswhichinsulatestheice.Aradarinstrumenton
boardtheMarsReconnaissanceOrbiterfoundiceunderathinlayer
ofrocksinformationscalledlobatedebrisaprons
(LDAs).[40][41][42][43][44]
ThepicturesbelowillustratehowlandscapefeaturesonMarscloselyresemblethoseontheEarth.
11/16
4/9/2015
ElephantFootGlacier
intheEarth'sArctic,as
seenbyLandsat8.
Thispictureshows
severalglaciersthat
havethesameshapeas
manyfeaturesonMars
thatarebelievedto
alsobeglaciers.The
nextthreeimagesfrom
Marsshowshapes
similartotheElephant
FootGlacier.
MesainIsmenius
Lacusquadrangle,as
seenbyCTX.Mesa
hasseveralglaciers
erodingit.Oneofthe
glaciersisseenin
greaterdetailinthe
nexttwoimagesfrom
HiRISE.Imagefrom
IsmeniusLacus
quadrangle.
Glacierasseenby
HiRISEunderthe
HiWishprogram.Area
inrectangleisenlarged
inthenextphoto.Zone
ofaccumulationof
snowatthetop.
Glacierismoving
downvalley,then
spreadingoutonplain.
Evidenceforflow
comesfromthemany
linesonsurface.
Locationisin
ProtonilusMensaein
IsmeniusLacus
quadrangle.
Enlargementofareain
rectangleofthe
previousimage.On
Earththeridgewould
becalledtheterminal
moraineofanalpine
glacier.Picturetaken
withHiRISEunderthe
HiWishprogram.
ImagefromIsmenius
Lacusquadrangle.
Seealso
Cryoseism
Glaciergrowing
Icedam
Sag(geology)
Notes
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(http://earth.esa.int/pub/ESA_DOC/gothenburg/154stroz.pdf)(pdf,1.3Mb)
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23. Meier&Post(1969)
24. http://people.deas.harvard.edu/~vtsai/files/EkstromNettlesTsai_Science2006.pdfEkstrm,G.,M.Nettles,andV.
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C.Tsai(2006)"SeasonalityandIncreasingFrequencyofGreenlandGlacialEarthquakes",Science,311,5768,
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GlaciersofthePyrenees(http://www.glaciares.org)
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(http://www.asiasociety.org/onthinnerice)
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Categories: Glaciology Glaciers Bodiesofice Glaciallandforms Montaneecology
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon6April2015,at17:36.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
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