SECOND EDITION Larry Ww. Mays\VP and Publisher Don Fowley ‘Acquistion Editor Senay Welter Editorial Asistant Alexandra Spindle Production Manager Janis So Assistnt Prodution Editor laine. Chew Senior Marketing Manager Christopher Rus! Marketing Assistant Diana Sith Media Esitor Laon Sapira Designer [RDC Publishing Group Sdn. Bhd Cover tmage © Lary W. Mays ‘This book was set in 95/12 Times Roman by Thomson Digital and printed and bound by 1 was printed hy Harton Printing Company. clon Pining Company. Th cover ‘This book sprinted on eid fre paper. Copyright © 2011, 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ine. All ights reserved, No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retieval syst of ransnted in any form or by sry means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, texceptas permitted under Sections 107 o¢ 10S ofthe [976 United StatesCopyrieht Ac, without ether the prior writen permission of the Publisher, or authoiztion through payment of the appropriate per-copy fe to the Copyright Clearance Center. Inc. 222 Rosewood. Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, weile wurcopyrightcam. Requests to the Publisher foe permission should be aressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, nc, 111 River Steet, Hoboken, NI 7030-5774, (201)748-601 1, fax (201748 6008, website hip. wiley confgafpermissons, Evaluation copies ae provided qualified academies an professionals for eview purposes only or use in thee courses dvi the next seademieyetr. These copiesare licensed and may othe sold ortransferedtoathird pany. Upon completion ofthe review period, please ‘etum the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return insructons and. free of charge retum sipping label are available at www. wiley.convgor retumlatel, Outside of the United States, please comtact you local representative Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mays, Lanry W. Water resources engineering Lary W. Mays. pom. Includes index, ISBN 978-0-470-46064-1 (cloth alk paper) 1. Hydraulic engineering. 2. Hydrology. 1. Tite. TCHSM383 2010 627-422 2010005952 Printed inthe United States of America 1987654321Brief Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 LL Boekground 1 1.2 The World's Fresh Water Resources 4 13° Water Use in the United States 6 14 Systems of Units 8 LS The Future of Water Resources 0 Chapter 2 __ Water Resources Sustainability B 2A What is Water Resources Sustainability? B 22 Challenges to Water Resources Sustainability 1s 2.3 Surface Water System ~ The Colorado River Basin 3 24° Groundwater Systems ~ The Edwards Aguifer, Texas 3 25° Water Budgets 4a 26 Examples of Water Resources Unsustainability 41 Chapier 3° Hydraulic Processes: Flow and Hydrostatic Forces 37 3. Principles 3 3.2 Control Volume Approach for Hydrosystems 6a 33 Continuity 66 34 Energy 68 35° Momentum n 345 Pressure and Pressure Forees in Static Fluids B 47 Velocity Distribution 8 Chapter 4 Hydraulic Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow 83 41 Classification of Flow 8 4.2 Pressurized (Pipe) Flow 86 43° Headlosses 0 44 Forces in Pipe Flow 100 4.5 Pipe Flow in Simple Newworks 103 Chapter S$ Hydraulic Processes: us S41 Steady Uniform Flow 113 $2 Specific Energy, Momentum, and Specitie Force a 52 Steady. Gradually Varied Plow Be 54 Gradually Varied Flow for Natural Chanzels “I 53 Rapidly Varied Flow 12 5.6 Discharge Measurement 158 Chapter 6 Hydraulic Processes: Groundwater 173 61 Groundwar Concopts 1 62. Saturated Flow Islxvi Contents 6.3 Steadv-Siate One-Dimensional Flow 186 Gai Steady-State Well Hydraulies 189) 6.5 Transient Well Hydraulics Confined Conditions 195 6.6 Transient Well Hydraulics —Unconfined Conditions 205 6.7 ‘Transient Woll Hycraulies—Leaky Aquifer Conditions 206 6.8 Boundary Effects: Image Well Theory 207 6.9 Simulation of Groundwater Systoms 215 Chapter 7 Hydrologic Processes 227 7.1 Introduction to Hydrology 22 1.2 Precipitation (Rainfall) 2 73 Evaporation 200 74 Inflation 266 Chapter 8 Surface Runoff 283 8.1 Drainage Basins and Storm Hydrographs 283 82 Hydrologic Lasso, Rainfall Exes, and Hydrogeaph Components 27 83 Rainfall: Ranoff Analysis Using Unit Hydograph Approach 201 84 Symhetic Unit Hydeogeaphs 204 85° SHlydrogeaphs 299 86 NRCS (SCS) Rainfall-Runoft Relation 301 8.7 Curve Number Estimation and Abstractions 303 8.8 NRCS (SCS) Unit Hydroeraph Procedure 310 8.9 Kincmatic-Wave Overland Flow Runoff Model Bis 8.10 Computer Models for Raifall-Runoff Analysis 320 Chapter 9 Reservoir and Stream Flow Routing, 331 941 Routing 331 9.2 Hydrologic Reservoir Routing 332 9.3 Hydrologic River Routing 336 944 Mydrautie (Distributed) Routing 340 9.5 Kinematic Wave Model for Channels 346 9.6 Muskingum-Cunge Mode! 381 9.7 Implicit Dynamic Wave Model 382 Chapter 10, Probability, Risk, and Uncertainty Analysis for Hydrologic and Hydraulic Design 361 10.1 Probability Concepts 301 10.2 Commonly Used Probability Distibutions 368 103 Hydrologic Design for Water Excess Management 307 10.4 Hydrologic Frequency Analysis 373 13 ULS, Water Resources Couneil Guidelines for Flood Flow Frequency Analysis x9) 106 Analysis of Uncertainties 38 10.7 Risk Analysis: Composite Hydrologic and Hydraulic Risk 387 108 Computer Models for Flood Flow Frequency Analysis 393 Chapter 11 Water Withdrawals and Uses 39 TL Water-tUse Data ~ Classification of Uses 309 11.2 Water for Energy Production aoe 113. Water for Agriculture an 114 Water Supply/Wihdrawals a7Contents xvit 11.5 Water Demand and Price Ekasicity 436 116 Drought Management 40 11.7 Analysis of Surface Water Supply ay Chapter 12, Water Distribution 463 11 Introduction 463 12.2 System Components a5 12.3. System Configuration and Operation 2 124 Hydraulics of Simple Networks 495 12.5 Pump Systems Analysis 399 126 Network Simulation sit 12.7 Modeling Water Distribution Systems 525 128 Hydraulic Transients 327 Chapter 13. Water for Hydroelectric Generation 547 13.1 Role of Hydropower si 13.2 Components of Hydroelectric Plans 552 153 Determining Energy Potential S61 Chapter 14 Flood Control TAL Introduction 14.2 Floodplain Management 14.3 Flood Control Alternatives 14.4 Flood Damage and Net Benet Estimation 145 US. Army Corps of Engineers Risk-Based Analysis for Flood-Damage Reduction Studies 14.6 Operation of Reservoir Systems for Flood Contr Chapter 15 Stormwater Control: Storm Sewers and Detention ou 15.1 Stormwater Management ou 15.2. Storm Systems 612 15.3 Stormwater Drainage Channels 639 134 Stormwater Detention 7 Chapter 16 Stormwater Control: Street and Highway Drainage and Culverts on 16.1 Drainage of Sireet and Highway Pavements on 16.2 Hydraulic Design of Culverts 693 Chapter 17 Design of Spillways and Energy Dissipation for Flood Control Storage and Conveyance Systems 713 17.1 Hydrologie Considerations 715 1722 Dams ma 173 Spillvays ns 174 Hydraulie-lump-Type Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators 148 Chapter 18 Sedimentation and Erosion Hydraulics ™ 180 Introduction 7H 18.1 Properties of Sediment m3 18.2 Bed Forms and Flow Resistance 781 18.3 Sediment Transport 186 184 Bed Load Formulas mwxviii Contents 18.5 Suspended Load wm 18.6 Total Sediment Load (Bed Material Load Formulss) 800 18.7 Watershed Sediment Yield 808 18.8 Reservoir Sedimentation 8i2 18.9. Stream Stability at Highway Structures sis 18.10 Bridge Scour 821 Chapter 19 Water Resources Management for Sustainability 827 19.1 Integrated Water Resources Management for Sustainability 7 19.2 Water Law: Surface and Groundwater Management Aspects 830 19.3 Sustainable Water Supply Methodologies for Arid and Semi-Arid Regions 336 19.4 Water Resources Economics 49 19.5 Water Resource Systems Analysis 856 19.6 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 862 Appendix A Newton-Raphson Method 869 Index. 873Contents About the Author v Acknowledgments vii Preface is Chapter 1 —_Lntroduction 1 LL Background 1 1.2 The World's Fresh Water Resources 4 3 Water Use in the United Sites 6 14 Systems of Units 8 15 The Future of Water Resources w Chapter 2 Water Resources Sustainability B 2A What is Water Resources Sustainability? B 2.1 _ Definition of Water Resources Sustainability a 2.12 The Dublin Principles 1 Millenninm Development Goals (MDGs) 4 2.1.4 Urbanization ~ & Reality of Our Changing World 1 22 Challenges to Water Resourees Sustainability 48 2.2.1_Licanization 16 2.22 Droughts and Floods 21 2.23 Climate Chan 24 2.24 Consumption of Water ~ Viral Water and Water Footpriats 2 2.3. Surce Water Systet—The Colorado River Basin 32 231 The Basin 32 24 Groundwater Systems ~ The Edwards Aquifer, Texas 37 25. Water Budgets 41 2.3.1 What are Water Budgets? 4 2152 Water Balance for Tueson, Arizona 44 2.6 Examples of Water Resources Unaustinabilcy 4 Ls Aral Seu a1 2.62 Mexico City 48 Chapter 3 Hydraulic Processes: Flow and Hydrostatic Forces 37 3.1 Principles 3 3.11. Properties Involving Mass or Weieht of Water 31 3.1.2 _ Viscosity 31 B13 Blasticty 8 3.14 Pressure and Pressure Variation oo BAS Surface Tension 61 3.16 Plow Visualization o 3.7 Laminar and Turbulent Flow o 38 Discharge 6Contents xxi Chapter 6 Hydraulic Processes: Groundwater Flow 173 1 — Groundwater Concepts 3 62 Saturated Flow Isl 6.2.1 Governing Equations Is 6.2.2 Flow Nets 1st 63 Steady-State One-Dimensional Flow, 186, 6A Steady-State Well Hydraulics 189) 64.1 Flow to Wells 189) 64.2 Confined Aquifers 191 643 _Uneonfined Aquifers 194 6S Transient Well Hydraulics Confined Conditions 195 65.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 195 65.2 Graphical Solution 198 55.3 Coopes-tacob Method of Solution 200 65 Transient Well Hydraulics —Unconfined Conditions 2as 67 Transient Well Hydralice—Leaky Aquifer Conditions 206 68 Boundary Effects: Image Well Theory 207 68.1 Barrier Boundary 208 682 Recharge Boundary 22 68.3 Multiple Boundary Systems 2a 68. Simulation of Grovnduater Systems 2s 68.1 Governing Equations 2s 6.2 Finite Difference Equations 216 69.3 MODFLOW 20 Chapter 7 Hydrologie Processes 27 71 Introduction to Hydrology 27 TALL What Is Hydrology? 27 11.2 The Hydrologic Cycle 27 1.1.3. Hydrologie Systems 229 114 Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 24 TAS Hydrologic Budget 236 1.2 Precipitation (Rainfall) 21 7.2.1 Precipitation Formation and Types 21 7.22 Rainfall Varia 28 7.23 Disposal of Rainfall on a Watershed 240 1.24 Design Storms 241 7.25 Estimated Limiting Storms 257 73. Evaporation 260 73.1 Energy Balance Method 261 132 Aerodynamic Method 268 7.33 Combined Method 265 74 Infilteation 266 7.4.1 Unsaturated Flow 267 742. Groen-Ampt Method 270 743 Other Infiltration Methods 216 Chapter 8 Surface Runoff 283 8.1 Drainage Basins and Storm Hydeoeraphs 283 81.1 Drainage Basins and Runoff 283Contems xxi 10.442 Application of Log-Pearson I Distribution 374 10.43. Extreme Value Disuibution 39 1S US, Water Resourves Council Guidelines for Flood Flow Frequency Analysis 39 10.5.1 Procedure 380 10.8.2 Tosting for Outliers 381 10.6 Analysis of Uncertainties 384 10.7 Risk Analysis: Composite Hydrologic and Hydraulic Risk 387 10.2.1. Reliability Computation by Direct Integration 388 10.7.2. Reliability Computation Using Safety Magin/Safery Factor x01 10.8 Computer Models for Flood Flow Frequency Analysis 393 Chapter 11 Water Withdrawals and Uses 399 HLL Water-Use Data—Clasiication of Uses 399 11.2 Water for Enerey Production 408 113 Water tor Agriculture su 1.1 Irrigation Trends and Needs au 11.32 tnigation Infrastructare au 11.33 Irrigation System Selection and Performance 20 11.344 Water Requirements for ligation 24 Impacts of Irigation a7 ua Supply/Withdeawals a7 LAL Withdrawals a7 114.2. Examples of Regional Water Supply Systems 42 11.5 Water Demand and Price Elasticity 436 11S.1. Price Elasticity of Water Demand 36 11.52 Demand Models 138 11.6 Drought Management 40 1146.1, Drought Management Options 40 11.62. Droughi Severity “2 11.63. Economie Aspects of Water Shortage aa 11.7 Analysis of Surface Water Supply us L121. Surface Water Reservoir Systems 48 11.72 Storage—Firm Yield Analysis for Water Supply 448 11.73. Reservoir Simulation 457 Chapter 12. Water Distribution 463, 12.1 Iatretion 18 12.L1 Description, Purpose, and Components of Water Distibution Systems 463 12.1.2. Pipe Flow Equations 10 122 System Componenis a5 12.2.1 Pumps: as 12.22 Pipes and Fittings $86 12.23 Valves 488 12.3. System Configuration and Operation 42 124 Hydraulics of Simple Networks a5 124.1. Series and Parallel Pipe Flow 495 124.2. Branching Pipe Flow 498 12.5 Pump Systems Analysis 499 12.8.1 System Head Curves 499aly Contents 12.52. Pump Operating Point 500 12.53. System Design for Water Pumping 503 126 Nework Simulation 314 12.6.1 Conservation Laws sid 12:62. Nowork Equations sis 12.63. No1ork Simulation: Hardy Cross Method 516 12.64 Nowork Simulation: Linear Theory Method 533 12.65. Exiended- Period Simulation su 12.7 Modeting Water Distribution Systems 305 12-711 Computer Models 325 12.72 Calibration 32s 12.73 Application of Models 526 12.74 Water Quality Modeling 325 128 Hydraulic Transients so 128.1 Hydraulic Transits in Distribution Systems S07 128.2. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Transients 38 1283 Control of Hydraulic Transients 337 Chapter 13, Water for Hydroelectric Generati 347 13.1 Role of Hydropower 347 15.2 Components of Hydroelectie Plans 382 13.2.1 Elements to Generate Electricity 552 13.22 Hydraulics of Turbines 337 13.23 Power System Term and Definitions 539 133 Determining Energy Potential 361 133. Hydrologie Dasa S61 13.32 Water Power Equations 561 13.33 Turbine Characteristics and Selection 563 13.34. Flow Duration Method 366 13.35. Sequential Streamflow Routing Method sn 13.36 Power Rule Curve 373 13.3.7 Multipurpose Storage Operation sma Chapter 14 Flood Control S17 TL Introduction sm 142 Floodplain Management s7o 14.2.1 Floodplain Defnition s7o 14.22 Hydrologic and Hydraulic Analysis of Floods S79 14.23 Floodways and Floodway Fringes se 11.24. Floodplain Management and Floodplain Regulations 583 14.25 National Flood Insurance Progeam sea 14.26 Stormwater Management and Floodplain Management sss 143 Flood.-Control Akeratives S85 43.1 Structural Altomatives 586 14.32. Nonstructural Measures 595 144 Flood Damage and Net Benefit Estimation 595 Maul Damage Relationships 595 IMA2_ Expected Damages 595 LMA. Risk-Based Analysis 599 145 US. Anmy Comps of Engineers Risk-Based Analysis for Fload-Damage Redection Studies 600Contents xxv 145.1 Terminology 600 14552 Benefit Evaluation ool 1453. Uncertainy of Stage-Damage Function 602 14.6 Operation of Reservoir Systems for Flood Control 608 14.6.1 Flood-Contro! Operation Rules 608 14,62. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Reservoir System Operation 608 Chapter 15 Stormwater Control: Storm Sewers and Detention on 15.1 Stormwater Management ou 15.2 Storm Systems 612 152.1 nformation Needs and Design Criteria 612 15.22 Rational Method Design 613 15.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis of Designs on 15.2 Storm Sewer Appurtenasices 635 15.25. Risk-Based Design of Storm Sewers 035 15.3 Stormwater Drainage Channels 639 153.1. Rigid-Lined Channels 40 Flexible-Lined Channels ou 15.3.3. Manning's Rougliness Factor for Vegetative Linings 646 154 Stormwater Detention 67 154.1. Why Detention? Effects of Urbanization 647 154.2 Types of Surfice Detention od ISA. Sizing Detention 550 154.4 Detention Basin Routing 659 ISAS Subsurface Dispossl of Stormwater 660 Chapter 16 Stormwater Control: Street and Highway Drainage and Culverts on 16.1 Drainage of Street and Highway Pavements on 16.1.1 Design Considerations cn 16.12 Flow in Gutters 13 16.1.3 Pavement Drainage inlets or 16,14 Interception Capacity and Eficieney of Inets on Grade 677 I6.L5 Interception Capucty and Eicieney of Inlets in Sag Locations 685 16.1.6 Inlet Locations ose 16.7 Median, Embankment, and Bridge Inets 692 16.2 Hydraulic Design of Culverts 093 162.1 Culvert Hydraulics 69a 16.2.2 Culvert Design 708 Chapter 17 Design of Spillways and Energy Dissipation for Flood Control Storage and Conveyunee Systems 713 TTL Hydrologic Considerations 713 172 Dams ma 17.241 Type of Dams ma 17.22. Havatd Classification of Dams 1723 Spilluay Capacity Criteria ™ 17.24 Examples of Dams and Spillways 19 173 Spilluays ns 173.1. Functions of Spllways ns 1732 Overflow and Free-Overfall(Stsight Drop) Spillways 726avi Contents 1733. Ogee (Overflow) Spillways ns 17334 Side Channel Spillays 2S 17.35. Drop Inlet (Shaft or Momning Glory) Spillways ns 17.36 Balled Chie Spillways 46 17327 Culver Spillways 8 174 Hydraulic Jump-Type Stlling Basins and Energy Dissipators 148 174.1 Types of Hydraulic Jump Basins 48 1742. Basin I 182 1743. Basin IE 152 1744 Basin I 752 1745 Basin IV 155 1746 Basin V 185 17.4.7 Tuwater Considerations for Stilling Basin Design 156 Chapter 18 Sedimentation and Frosion Hydraulies ™m 18.9 Tniroduction 7 18.1 Propenies of Sediment ™ IB. Size and Shape ™ 18.12 Measurement of Size Distribution Ts 8.13 Setling Analysis for Finer Paricles ms 181A. Fall Velocity m IKLS. Density 781 18.16 Other Important Relations 781 18.2 Bed Fooms and Flow Resistance 781 182.1 Bed Forms 781 18.22 Sediment Transport Definitions 782 18.23 Flow Resistance 734 18.3 Sediment Transport, 786 183.1 Incipient Motion 186 18.32 Sediment ‘Transport Functions 789 1833. Armoring 0 18.4 Bed Load Formulas mm 184.1 Duboys Formula 93 18.4.2 Meyer-Peter and Muller Formula me 184.3. Schoblitsch Foemula 15 18.5 Suspended Load wm 18.6 Toal Sediment Load (Bed Material Load Formulas) 800 18.6.1 Colby's Formula 300 18:62. Acker White Formula 803 18.63 Yang's Unit Siteam Power Formula 805 18.7 Watershed Sediment Yield 808 18.8 Reservoir Sedimentation 812 18.9 Stream Stability at Highway Structures sis 189.1 Factors that Affect Stream Stability sis 189.2. Basic Engincering Analysis sis 189.3 Countermeasures (Flow Control Stractur) for Steam Instability 817 189.4 Spurs 8i7 189.5. Guide Banks (Spar Dikes) 818 189.6 Cheek Dams (Channel! Drop Structures) 920 18.10 Bridge Scour 21Chapter 1 Ll BACKGROUND Introduction Water resources engineering (and management) 3s defined for the purposes ofthis book includes engineering for both water supply management and water excess management (see Figure 1.11). ‘This book does not cover the mater quality management (or environmental restoration) aspect of water resources engineering. ‘The two major processes that are engineered are the hydrologic processes and the hydraulic processes. The common threas that relate to the explanation of the hydrologic and hydraulic processes ae the fundamentals of fu mechanics. The hydraulic processes Include three types of tlw: pipe (pressurized) flow, open-channel flow, and groundwater flow. ‘The broad wpicof weer resources includes areas of study in the biological sciences. engineering, physical sciences, and sovial sciences asillustrated in Figure 1.11. Areas in he biological sciences range from ecology to zoology those in the piysical sciences range from chemistry wo meteorology ‘o physics, and those in the soeial sciences range from economies to sociology. Water resources as used in his book focuses on the engineering aspects of hydrology and hyraulies for ‘Water supply management and water excess management. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT OT ‘Water upoly Water oxcese Environmental management management rastermion, ee ee es | Ecology Agrcutre chomisny economies Eromsteay Sheen Sti Eaucaion Food technology Environmental Gecogy fay Foresry Inout fray Uw Foweuture Mechanical atremates Prsnring Unpelogy Systeme Meecrelogy Police! ecience Marne sence ‘Sceanonrapry Publ tsmnstaton Mereeioy Physi Resoutce velopment Pub health States " Zodleay Figure 111 Ingredients of water resources management (from Mays (1996)4 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.2. THE WORLD'S FRESHWATER RESOURCES. Among today's most acute and complex problen ae water problems related tthe rational use and protection of water resources (see Gleick, 1993). Associated with water problems isthe need to supply humankind with adequate, clean freshwater. Data collected on global water resources by Sovietsciemistsarelistedin Table 1.21. These obviously are only approximations and should not be considered as accurate (Shiklomanos, 1993). Table 1.2.2 presents the dynamics of actual water availability in different regions of dhe world, Table 1.23 presents the dynamics oF water use i the world by human tivity, Table 124 presents the snnval runoff and water consumption by continents and by piysiograpic and economic regions of the world. Tuble 12.1 Water Reserves on the Earth Distribution area Volume Layer (10? km?) 10" km’) ty ‘World ocean 361.300 1.338000 3700 Groundwater 134300 mT Freshwiter 10,530) 78 Soil moisture 168 02 Glaciers and permancat 16277 240611463 Antarctic 13980 21,600 1546 Greenland Tso 2401298 Arete islands 225 35 360 Mountsinows regions 24 106 181 Ground icepermarst 21,000 300 irs ‘Water reserves in lakes 30587 1764857 Fresh 2364 9 no Saline 08 ssa 1038 ‘Swamp water 2682.6 nay 48 River ows 14,800 212 ool Biologia water $10.00 12.002 Atmospheric water S000 ns Total water reserves Sio00 Lassa Toul feshwater reserves 148,800 35.029 Siac: Shinai (1993), Percentage of slobal reserves Of total OF Frese 965 1 076 304 cont 0s a k7 136017 017 668 0.006028 00s O42 m2 0.86 oor oon 0.26 8.006 008003 .0m02 0.006 0001 0.008 oo 08 100 253100 ‘Table 12.2 Dynamics of Acwal Water Availailiy ia Differem Regions of the World Actual wator availability (10° m* per year per capita) Continent and region Are (10° kn) 1930 1960 1970 1980 2000 Europe 1028 39 34 49) 46 4 Noth 12 302 365 no 27 09 Centr 1.86 30) 28 26 24 23 ‘South 176 38 35 3a 28 25 European USSR (Non) rae BA 292 253 24 09 European USSR (South) 32 44 40. 36 32 21.2 The World's Freshwater Resources North America 24.16 m2 302 252 as us ‘Canad and Alaska 1367 sn 24 246 219 189 United States 783 106 as 76 ox 56 Central America 2067 21 12 Bs oa a Aiea 0.10 206 165 127 oa 51 North 878 23 16 ui 069 o2t South sir 122 103 76 s7 30 East 57 150 no 92. 69 31 West, 596 205 152 a 92 49, Cente 408, 97 BS 394 460 24 Asia 4456 96 19 6d Si 33 ‘North China and Mongotia on 38 30 23 io 12 South 49 4 BA 23 2 Ma West om 63 42 a3 23 3 South-east 17 132 ma 86 7 49 ‘Central Asia and 23 13 33) 33 20 a7 Kazakhstan Siberia and Fur East 24 we 962. 953. ‘Trane-Caucasus 88 5a 45 30 South America 1s 617 aBs 283 ‘North 179 oa no ar Bri us ots. sos 322 West, 979 586 458, 253 Cente 0 239) 205 os Australia aed Oceania m2 46. o40 00 Australia 387 230 198 iso Oceania 61 10s 4 735 Source: Sikiomnon (193) ‘Table 1.2.3 Dynamics of Water Use inthe World by Human Aetiviy 9019401950 15409 esi 90 en (por Ga por km’ por hm! por dk per hm perk per Ce per a por ater wer? year) Year) Yea) year) yea) yea yea) yea UR) yea) Wahdawsl 2893S N28 2H GD HH DH ww CComumpion 40) wD H18Y 4D TSTD 7ST. 2S) 869 DSO Ht Industry ‘Wate yak SGD 10328 DMD AT Cousumpicn 3597S ROD wD S BRIT Moni snp Witla We 3 OD wm WD aks Consumpion 409) HD BASALT Reserve Wid er Comumpion 0337 SRO HOD “ot rads of) ‘Wabash S110) 8018828100 SID 1D Comumpion 417 TOK YISH76 185100 8H) 100 2901 ‘Salma, Sours: Shiba (1993), ceamupine wk ieewable water loa ews in the ecm ie6 Chapter 1 Introduction ‘Table 12.4 Anqual Runoff and Water Consumption by Continents and by Physiographic and Beonontic Regions ofthe Word ‘Mean ann ‘Water consumption ck? per year) tao __priity 180 1990 2000 amines, PI Continent and region (oom) peryean) GRILP) Total Iretrcvable Total Inerievable Total _Inetrevable Fwope uo MO SSS TR wT ‘Non en 6 oR 2 13 23 Cena 3007S 07a 216 2 Ms 3 South ne rr) 3 om n Ewopean USSR (Nonh) 330 TTB 2 3438 32 Enopean USSR South) 150381 si sam oe Norah Amerea so 5200) os 23M aD ‘Canidae Alasa i sins tt 5 "i is United Stats a mn 198 Cental America 4501001285 ot 2 % Area Pe 15 a1 ‘Non 7 ist 8100 p 7 12 South sas 16 20 4 Est mw 22 ® 18 Fy »% West io 3025 4 2 Py Asia 3081019138 1600 amo ‘Non Chins and Mongotis 160-4702 308-20 34 30 South 40 2m oe 65, West m4 2707 165 199 South-east tom iso 07 asl 39 435 Cenyal Asia amt Kazakhstan 7170 31S 37 109) 1 Siena and Far East 20 009 " 0 a Tran-Canesus 4000 7a 4 i a1 Sout America 6 176 a m fe 116 ‘Nonhem aca bx» 36 06s " » 16 » Bra 7m Gus oT 0 3 u 2 West mo me 13 w 8 2 4 Cental m 822008 20 8 4 a Asralia and cca 2% 2390 » Is 38 0 » ‘sala » om 40” 4 u 6 » oceania 150 2007082 Is 33 Ls 23 Land area rounded off) ee ee ee Source: Shisemanoy (1993), 1.3 WATER USE IN THE UNITED STATES Deiegiclewski ot al (196) define water use fom a hydrologic perspective as all water lows that ae a result of human intervention in the hydrologic eyele. The National Water Use Information Program (NWUL Program), conducted by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), used this perspective on Water use in establishing a national system of water-use accountng. This accounting system distin suishesthe Following water-use flows (1) wate withdrawals for off stream purposes (2) water deliveries a point of use or quantities released ater us, (3) consumpkive use, (4) conveyance Los, (5) reclaimed swastewate, (6) return low, and (7) inseam lo (Selley et al 1993). The relationships among these fauman-made flows at various points of measurement ae illustrated in Figure 13.1. Figure 132 illustrates te estimated water we by uacking the sources, uses, and disposition of freshater using the laydologic accounting system given in Figure 1.1. Table 1.3.1 defines the majo purposes of water use.14 Systems of Units 9 Table 1.4.11 Dimensions and SIU its for Basie Mechanical Properties Dimension of unit Derived Basie St nit siya Kilogram he second s : Velocity Acceleration Force elon N Weight newton N Pressure pascal Pa Work joule , Energy joule , Mas density ‘Weight density Sues pascal Pa lisisthe basic mechanical properties of mater with their dimensions and units inthe SL system. Inthe United States much ofthe technology elated to water resources engineering is stil based upon the foot-pound-second (FPS) system of units, or what are referred to in this book as U.S. customary Units. Table 1.4.2 provides ast of correction factors for converting U-S.customary unitsto SL units Table 14.2 Conversion Factors FPS (Foot-Pound Second) System of Unis to $1 Units Multiply By To obtain ft 3.048 x 10"? m fe 3.088 10 t 3oas x 10-4 auile 1.609 10° mile Arca te an? are ‘$007 x 10" ace 4047 x 10-3 votume we 2532 102 » US. ga 3.785 10°? a UK eal 4546 10° ” fe 2832 x 10 e US. ass ¢ UK gal 4546 ‘ Veloiy tus 3.088 « 10-4 is fus 3.038 % 10 emis ih 4.470% 107 ms ih ste ken Acceleaion tus 048 10" nie (Conte)10 Chapter 1 Inoduetion Table 14.2 (Continued) Muliply By “To obaln Mass 536% 107 slug 189 10 too 016 x 108 Fore and sigh by 448 onda 1348310" Presse and tess Bi 6895 % 10° Ps or Ni 4788 510 Pe Lass Ps 1.013 x 10° Ps 3386 % 10° Ps oon 108 Pm Work an enerey 1386 1 fepoundal 4214x107 1 Bu 1.058% 10° 1 caloie ast 1 Mavs de Tn 602 « 10 gin slug” SAst x 10? kgm" Weight densi iby 1571 10 Nm Discharge nhs asa. 107 i's mn 2832 x 10 is US. gatain 6309 10S hs UK amin 7.576% 10-5 ms US, galiin 6308 10 is 7376% 10 ts Hydrate condos 3048 10°? ms (sce alo Table 2.) 470% 10 ms Transmisviy 9.290% 10-2 ms US. galt 1438 10 ns 15 THE FUTURE OF WATER RESOURCES ‘The management of water resources can he subdivided into dee broad categories: (1) water- supply management, (2) waterexcess management, and (3) environmental restoration. All modem ‘multipurpose wator resources projects ate designed and built foe water supply management and or water-exeess management. Tn fee, throughout human history all water rosources projects have been designed and built for one or both ofthese categories. A water resources systemrisa system for redistribution, in space and time, of the water available to a region to meet societal needs (Plate, 1993), Water can be utilized from surface Water systems, from groundwater systems, oF from conjunctive/ground surface water systems. ‘When discussing water resources, we must consider both the quantity and the quality expects. The hydrologic eycle must be defined in terms of both water quantity and water quality. Beesuse ofthe ‘very complex water issues and problems that we face today, many fields of study ace involved in their solution. These include the biological sciences, enginering, physical sciences, and social sciences (see Figure 1.1-D) illustrating the wide diversity of disciplines involved in water resoues, In the twenty-first century we are questioning the viability of our patterns of development, industialization, and resources usage. We are now beginning to discuss the goals of altaining an ‘uituble and sustainable society inthe international community. Looking int the future mew set of problems face us, including the rapidly growing population in developing countries; uncertain impacts of global climate change: possible conlicts over shared Freshwater resources thinning ofReferences 1 the ozone layer: destruction of rain forest: threats to wetland, farmland, and other renewable esouroes: and many others. ‘These problems are very different from those dat humans have faced before. The fet that there ‘reso many things undiscovered by the human race leads me tothe statement by Si Isae Newton, shorily hefone his death in 1727: {do noi know what I may appear fo the world, but to myself I seen fo have been only ike boy playing om ae sea shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a pretier shell shan ordinary, while the great ocean of trash lay all undiscovered before me. REFERENCES Adan RM, Heat of Cites Serve of Ani Sesame at Land Use in the Contra Flan of the Eupivates, Univesity of (Chicago Pres, Cieage, 1965. Bute, KW. arly Mya Cindanon iw Bayp Unversty of Ceneagn Press. Cheng, 97h, utiles, 1 FM. Opi, ad D.R Msdent, Water Dems Analy” Chapcr 33 in Water Rernrces Handbook elit by LW. ‘Maye, MoGruw Hl.New York. 1936 ‘Gleick PH, Warn Crs, Oxford Univers Press Oxford 993, Mays "Wale Resores: An nteaton,”n Water Resourcer ena edie by LW. Mays McGrail, New York, 1996. ‘Maya LW, ltt, n rule Desi Handbook eed by 1. W. My, MeGiaw il New York, 1989. Mays. LW, "Iiodtion” in Water Dhiba Sscioms Handbook sat hy LW. Mays MG Hi, New York. 2000 ‘Mays. LW, D. Rousopmns and AN. Angelis “A Bit Hisiry ‘€ Uh Water Supply in Antiquity.” Warer wa Seince Techno: Water Supp vo. 7. pp 1-12 EWA Publisig, 2007. Mays LW, Water Sttsinabiliy Anion! Ciiizstions in Meso amie andthe Areca. Southwest” Water end Sree Tecoas ater Supp 7a. 1 29-236, EWA Pisin, 207. Mays 1. WA ny ff Hor of cae Tacbaigy dng -iqts” Breet Fd Mcnesw . 0 5,90471-84, 20% Maye LW. Eoin), Arion Water Technolgy, Springs, Now York, 2010 Plac. E. J. “Swtlnable Developmeat of Water Resouces: (Challenge to Science and Enginering.” Water nraaional vol. 13 no. 2 4-94, ntrstinal Woe Ressines Asciston, 93% ‘Stilomaney, Ly Worl Fresh Wer Resco" in Water Crist fi by PH. Glokk, Oxon! Univery Press New York. 1993 Sully, W.B.R. Pero, eH. A Pema, EstintedUseof Wate nthe Unto States in 1990." US, Goslgial Servey Chl 1081 Washington,DC. 1995, “Turney, 0.8. Map of Pcie Inigation Canals, Map No. 002004, Archaoloieal ie Records Of, Aina State Museum, Universi of rao, Tso, 1923,Chapter 2 Water Resources Sustainability 2.1 WHAT IS WATER RESOURCES SUSTAINABILITY? ‘Traditionally, sustainability explores the relationships among econow social equity, using the tree ‘economic and socal isues, the sage stool analogy that eludes not only the tec ronment, and al but also the The term “sustainable development” was defined in 1987 by the Wor Commission on Environment and Development as “development that can meet the needs ofthe present generation ‘without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some Of the {questions related to sustainable systems and sustainable design te “+ What are the characteristis of sustainable systems? ‘+ How does the design process encourage sustainability? ++ What is sustainable water resourees development? ‘+ What are the components of sustainable development? 2.1.1 Definition of Water Resources Sustainability ‘We live in a world where approximately [.1 billion people lack sae drinking water, approximately 2.6billion people lack adequate sanitation, and between 2 and 5 million people die annually from \atertelated diseases (Gleick, 2008). The United Nations Chen's Fund's (UNICEF) report “The State of the World's Childfen 2005: Childhood under Threat.” concluded that more han half the children in the developing world are severely deprived of various necessities essential 10 childhood. Forexample, $00 million children have no access to stnitation and 400 milion children have no accessto safe water One might ask how sustainable is this? The key to sustainability isthe attention tothe survival future generations. Also important isthe global context within which We ‘must think and solve problems. The future of water resources thinking must he within the context of Water resources sustainability “The overall goal of water resources management for the future must be water resources sustainability. Mays (2007) defined water resources sustainability follows: ‘Warerresourees sstanabilty isthe abilty to use water in sufcton quansities and quality ‘Sram the local 10 the global scale 10 meer the needs of humans and ecosystems for the present and rhe fare 1 sustain life. alo prover humans from the damages brought about doy narural and huuman- caused disasters that afeet sustaining hfe.” 1314 Chapter 2 Water Resources Sustainability ‘The Brundtland Commissions'seport “Our Common Future” (World Commission on Environment and Development, WCED), defined sustainability as focusing on the needs ofboth eurrentand future generations. A development is sustainable if “it meets the needs ofthe present without compromis ing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Because water impacts so many aspects of our existence, there are many facets that must be considered in water resources sustainability including ‘Water resources sustainability includes the availability of freshwater supplies throughout Periods of climatic change, extended droughts, population growth, and to leave the needed supplies forthe future generations. ‘+ Water resourves sustainability includes having the iaftastructure, wo provide water supply for ‘human consumption and food security, and to provide protection from water excess such as ‘ood and ether natural disasters. ‘Water resources sustainability includes having the infrastructure for elean water and for routing waler aftr ic has been used by humans before being returned to water bodes ‘+ Water sustainability mast have adequate insizuions to provide the management for hoth the ‘water supply management and water excess management. ‘+ Water sustainability must be considered ona Joe regional, nasinal. anal international basis ‘© To achieve water resources sustainability, the principles of integrated warer resources ‘management (TWRM) must be implemented. Sustainable water se bas been defined by Gleick et al. (1995) 25 “the use of water that supports the ability of human society to endure and flourish nto the indefinite future without undermining the Integrity ofthe hydrological cycle or the ecological systems tht depend oni" Seven sustainability rexuirements are presented in Section 11. 2.1.2 The Dublin Principles ‘The following four siople, but yet powerful messages, were provided in 1992in Dublin and were the basis forthe Rio Agenda 21 and for the millennium Vision-o-Action 1, Fresiwater is. finite and vulnerable resource, esential o sustain life, development an the “enironment, ie. one resource, 1 be holistically managed, 2 Water development andmumagemont shouldbe hased on a participatory approach involving users, planners, and poiey-makers ata levels, ie. manage water with people—and close 9 people 3. Women play a central role in the provision, management and safeguarding of water tx involve women all the way! 4, Water has an economic value in all is competing uses and should be recognized as an ‘economic good, i.e, having ensured basie human needs, allocate water its highest value, ‘and move towards fl cost pricing, rational use, and recover costs oor water management hus the poor most!"The Dublin principles aim at wise management with focus on povery. 2.1.3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) The Mitfenium Development Goals (MDG), adopted in September 2000 daring the Millennium nmit ofthe United Nations General Assembly; is comprised of eight goals (see Table 21.1). All fof the goals ean be translated directly or indiveetly into water-related terms (Gleick, 2004) For example, Goal No, |—"Bradieate extreme poverty and hunger"—and No, 7—"Ensure16 Chapter 2 Water Resources Sustainability 22 CHAL 2.2.1 Urbanization amount of evaporation, amount of influation, increased runoff, ete. Changes brought about by urbanization can be summarized briefly a follows (Marsalek etal, 2006) Transor jon of undeveloped land into urban land (including transportation corridors) «+ Increased energy release (ie, greenhouse gases, waste heat, heated surface runoff); and ‘+ Increased demand on water supply (enunicipal and industrial), NGES TO WATER RESOURCES SUSTAINABILITY LUsban populations are growing rapidly around the world with the addition of many mega-ities (populations of 10 million ce more inhabitants. In 1975 there were only four megacities in the world and by 2015 there may be over 22 mega-cities in the world (Marshall, 2005). Other cities ‘hat will nt become mega-cities are also growing ver rpidly around the worl. By 2010, more than 50% of the world’s population is expected to live in urban areas (World Water Assessment Program, 2006) Mega cities mean mega problems of which urban water supply management and water excess ‘management are among the largest, Mega-cities and other large cities will bea drain on the Earth's winding resources, while at the same time signiicantly contributing 10 the environmental dsgrudation. Many of the large cities around the world are prone 19 water supply shortages, ethers are prone to loading, and many are prone to both. A large number ofthe cites ofthe world do ot hhayeadequate wastewater facilites and most ofthe waste isimproperly disposed or used as irigation of agricultural lands. As the Barth's popwlation continues 19 grow, so will the growth of ci continue across the globe, sretching resources and the abi tnd droughs. These fuetors, coupled with the consequences of global warming, crea challenges for future generations. ‘There are many factors that affect water iy 10 cope with disasters such as floods ourees sustainability including: urbanization, Aroughts, climate change, foning, and human-induced factors. Developed areas of the world suchasthe United States arent exempt from the nee for water resources sustainability Figure2.2.1 shows areas in the western United States with potential water supply crisis by 2025. The Urban Water Cyete ‘The overall urban water yee is illustrated in Figure 2.2.2 showing the main components and pathways. How does the urbanization process change the water budget from predevelopment to developed conditions ofthe urban water eyele in arid and semi-arid regions? This change isa very complex process and very dificult to explain, Urban Water Systems \Uchan water system implies that there is a single urhan water systom and the reality of this fs that it san integrated whole, The concept of a single “urban water system” is not fully accepted because ofthe lack of integration ofthe various components that make up the total urban water system, For example, in monicipalites i is common to plan, manage, and operate urban water into separate entities such as by service, ie. water supply, wastewater, flood control, and stormwater, Typically there are separate water organizations snd management practices within 1 municipality, or local or regional government because that is the way they have been historically. Grigg (1986) points out that integration could be achieved by functional integration2.2 Challenges to Water Resources Sustainability 17 Potential Water Supply Crises by 2025] {ese eng mi eee wll nani tpespe ars dceonrer igure 22:1 Areas in the western United States with poteatial water supply cxsis by 2025 Sources UES. Deparment ofthe erie (2018) Import of raw {icine |_| pecomten ft esr Urban Land Aco t t + 4 = == ] colection =| | Lene = == Li | ‘Suriace waters Figure 2.2.2 Uiban water eycle: Main components and pathways (from Marslek et (2006),2.2 Challenges to Water Resources Sustainability 19 ‘and marine waters, or groundwater. The costs and impacts of water pollution from urban cunotT are significant and can include fish kills, health eoacerns of human and/or terrestrial animals, degraded drinking water, diminished water-based recreation and tourism opportunities, eco: nomic losses 10 commercial fishing and aquaculture industries, lowered real estate values, damage 10 habitat of fsh and other aquatic organisms, inevitable costs of clean-up and pollution reduction, reduced aesthetic values of lakes, steams, and coastal areas, and other impacts (ocd eta, 1993) Tnereasedstormater flows from urbanization have the following major impacts (FLOW, 2003); «+ acceleration of seam velocities and degradation of stream channels, ‘+ ceclining water quality due to washing away of accumulated pollutants ftom impervious surfaces to local waterways. and an increase in siltation and erosion of soil rom pervious areas subject to increased runot, «+ inerease in volume of runof with higher pollutant concentrations that reduces receiving Water ition effects «+ ciminished groundwater recharge, resulting in decreased dry-weather flow’: poorer water duality of streams during low flows; increased stream temporatures; and greater annual pollutant load delivery. «+ increased flooding, + combined and sanitary sewer overflows due to stormwater infiltration and inflow + damage to stream and aquatic life resulting from suspended solids accumulation, an increased ‘alt risks to humans from trash and debris which can also endanger, and ‘+ destroying food sources or habitats of aquatic lite (FLOW, 2008), Groundwater Changes Urbanization often causes changes in groundwater levels as result of decreased recharge and increased withdrawal, In rural areas. water supplies are usually obtained from shallow wells, ‘while most of the domestic wastewater is returned to the ground through cesspool or septic tanks. ‘Thus the quantitative balance in the hydrologic system remains. As urbanization occurs many individual wells are abandoned for deeper public wells. With the inioduction of sewer systems, Stormwater, and (treated or untreated) wastewater are discharged to nearby surfuce water hodies. ‘Throe eanditions disrupt the subsurface hydrologic balance and produce declines in groundwater levels. 1, Reduced groundwater recharge due to paved surface areas and sto 2 Increased groundwater discharge by pumping wells 3: Decreased groundwater recharge due to export of wastewater collected by sanitary sewers Groundwater quality is certainly another challenge to water resources sustainability resuling Jn many cases from urbanization. Groundwater quality can be affected by residential and ccommersial development as illustrated in Figure 2.23. The US. Geological Survey's National ‘Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program (hup:fwaterusgsgov/nawga) seeks 10 deter- ‘mine how shallows groundwater quality is afected by development (Squillace and Price, 1996). Residential developments have taken up very large taets of land, an as a consequence, have akes, and weilands. Liquids discharged onto the ground surface in an uncontrolled manner eaa migrate downward to degrade groundwater. Septie tanks and cesspools are another source of ground: ‘water pollution, Polluted surface water hodies that contribute 10 groundwater recharge are sources of groundwater pollution. ‘widespread influence on the quality of water that recharges aquifers, steams, 1Figure 22:3 Groanduvater pollution affected by differences in chemical competion, biological, and chemical reactions, and distance from discharge areas (from Heath, 1998),22, Chapter 2 Water Resourwes Sustainability U.S. Drought Monitor August 22, 2006 4 * > (FSmayoy PELE ec fiw. Co ee ssc 7 mowpanmmonarncnice | So OG (romantetorans ojeacod Murday, August 2, 2006 hitpdroughtcunteduldm Astor ran Fuca Nocona rsh tpaton Cater Figure 2.2.5 U.S, Drought Monit. Sours: National Dre Mignon Cente pig no) ) lover storage levels, become increasingly severe. i essence, drought is defined by its Jmpacts on both natural and manmade environments because without inpacs there i no ‘drought, no matter how doy it might be. Drought infers a relationship bercen supply rates ‘ad demand rates; drought is not simply a supply-side phenomenon, bu also depends on water demands. Without demands, there ts no drought, whether a given supply of water is big, small, or even Zero, Floods Urhan flood management (also referra to as water excess management herein) will he effected by the rapid urbanization and climate change among other feetors and must be considered within the framework of water resources sustainability, which will roquire the principles of intograted urban ‘water management. The impact of fonds o cites con devastate national economies and industrial markers, even at the Intemational level. Ursan flood management must capture the following concept that (a) floods are part ofthe natural resources that should be considered within the Seope of integrated urban water resources management (IUWRM); (b) water resources sustainability captures IUWRM; (¢) and the realization that floods never ean be fully controlled. Urban flood management in developing countries is affected by development with little or no planning: high population concentration in small areas lack of stormwater and sewage facilities; polluted air and water; dificulty of maintaining water supply with growing population: and poor public transportation among other things. The urban poor are often freed to settle in ood prone areas and they lack the adaptive capacity to eope with flood events. The unplanned urbanization and poverty are dramatically increasing the vulnerability to loods. Increase in vulnerability of cities to flood disasters arises predominantly from the systematic degradation of natural ecosystems, increased urban migration, ard unplanned occupation, and unsustainable planning and building.2.2 Challenges to Water Resources Sustainability 23, Uchan flood disasters are not only prevalent in developing counties bt have also impacted urban ‘areas significantly in developing counises. In Europe, during the 10-year ime period of 1973-1982, there were 31 flood disasters. and during the ten-year time period of 1993 to 2002, there were 179 ‘ood disasters (Hoyois and Guha. Sapir, 2003). ‘The Mississippi River looding (see phowos in Figure 14.1.1) and pancularly the St, Louis area (Gee Figure 2.26) are used as examples of flooding problems. The Mississippi River food of 1993 caused major flood damage in nine Midwestern states in which 75 towns and mi Figure 22.6 Mississipi River Flood of 1993 athe unetions ofthe inois and Missouri River withthe “Mississippi River and Moodiag in St Louis, Missoui. (Comey of NASA)24 Chapter 2 Water Resources Sustainability farmlands disappeared under the loodvaters. Approximately 30 people died. and tas of thousands of people were temporarily ot permanently evacuated, Thousands of homes were completely destroyed and hundreds of flood levees failed. Flood damage estimates ranged from $10 10 $20 billion Houston, Texas is an example of poor urban flood management in large city ina developed country. A combination of poor urban planning, poor floodplain management, poor stormwater ‘management, and lack of integrated floodplain and stormwater management has caused billions of dollars of flood damage over the lst couple of decades, Subsidence has been a factor, but minimal compared 10 the effects of poor floodplain and poor stormwater management in Houston, Tropical Storm Allison is one ofthe several examples with damage estimates of up to $5 billion Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf of Mexico coastal region of the U.S. brought unprecedented death and destruction over 2 90,000 m*. Notonly were the costs estimates vary between $100 and ‘200 billion) and deaths (over 1200 lives) unprecedented, buta Very large number ofthe esidents who evactted hefore the storm have not yet retuned. Even to this cate many ofthe essential city services have not yet heen testored to pee-Katrina levels. Many lessons were leamed (Kahan et al, 2006), + Government officials need ro cansider policies and plans that ao more robust against a wider range of disaster scenarios cg. on tho Gulf of Mexico coast, stom surges had becn anticipated, but not at the level of Katrina even though they had anticipated catastrophe flooding and levee flues). + Failure to anticipate the widespread regional beaks in infrastructure and services and the sisabling of frstresponse and public safety programs wn the biggest blind spot throughout the region (e-. the planning for regional infrastructure and services must cover total catastrophic breakdown and must include secondary, cantingency responses that can be invoked when primary responses are overwhelmed} + Detection ofthe storm was adequate, but the detection of structural weakness, sol anomalies, and impending failure was not, as no monitoring, Was in place which was (remedied through extensive deployment of sensors on all structural features of the flood protection $y ‘+ Reconstruction efforts are strongly influenced by the answer othe question, what wil he level of protection bein the future? Complicating ths isthe fact that many Hood vietims have chosen ‘not to relurm and economic recovery remains uncertain, «+ Integrated urban water management from the perspective of flood control includes conceding land to the water from time to time (somewhat psychologically and politically difficu 2.2.3 Climate Change Definitions ‘The United Nations Inergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as “a-change inthe sate ofthe climate that ean be identified (e.g, using statistical tests) by changes in the mean andlor the varibilty of is properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Ireferstonaturl variability Gras result of human activity." The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) defines climate change as "a change in climate thats attributed directly o¢ indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the slobal atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparative time periods.” A schematic framework representing anthropogenic drivers, impacts of and responses to climate change, and their linkages, is shown in Figure 2.2.726 Chapter 2 Water Resourwes Sustainability ‘The impacts associated with global average temperature change will vary by the rate of ‘emperatute change, te extent of adaptation of humans, and the social-economic pathway. Water will be affected in general as fllows: ‘+ Increased water availability in moist tropics and high latitudes. ‘+ Decreasing wate availabilty and increasing droughts in mid-late and semi-arid low latitudes. ‘+ Hundreds of millions of people exposed to increased water Suess. Hydrologic Response Future precipitation and temperature are the primary divers for determining future hydrologic response. Because ofthe uncerainties of the predictions ofthe future precipitation and tempera- tures, the hydrologic responses of various river basins ar uncertain, resulting in uncertainties of our foture urhan water resources, particularly in ard and semi-arid region, In general, the hydrologic effects ae likely to influence water storage patterns throushout the hydrologic eyele and impact the exchange among aquifers, streams, rivers and lakes. In arid and semi-arid regions, relatively modest changes in precipitation can have proportionately larger impacts on runoff, and higher temperatures result im higher evaporation rates, reduced stream flows, and increased frequency of droughts (Mays. 2007). The effects of climate change on groundwater sustainability include (Alley et al, 1999) (a) changes in groundwater recharge resulting from changes in average precipitation and temperature or in seasonal distribution of precipitation; (b) more severe and longer droughts (c) changes in evapotranspiration resulting from changes in vegetation; and (d) possible increased demands of groundwater as a backup source of water supply ‘Asan example, we ean consider in general the hydrologic elects of climate change on the Pacific Northwest United States (eg. the Columbia River) as summarized in igure 2.28. Stating inthe ‘winter, changes in temperature and precipitation during the winter aifects the spowpack during the winter The winter spowpack in turn affects the stream flow during the spring and summer The streamflow affeets the quantity, quality, and timing of the water supply, which in turn affects Precipaton fut) Temperature winter) ‘Seearow sorng/eummer Hystoponerprocucton aust ‘Snowpack ‘itor wna ano wate So) (Groura water recharga) Soll moisture “Terres tects [Pot ovapetrancpitaion! * faves, agrcufure \soring/summe) Figure 2.2.8 Dorninant impoct through which changes in [Northwest (from Miles eta, 2000), ona elimate are mniested in the Pie2.3 Suiface Water System—The Colorado River Basin 33 Figure 23.1 Colorado River Basin showing the upper and lower Colorado River Basins. (Coutesy ofthe US. Geologie! Suney, Figure 2.22 Storage in Lake Powell through Decemer 1, 2006. Lake Powell's cepacity is 27 milion scr including deud storage, Vulues shown do not include the volume of water in dead storage. (Somer: hnpunewusgovaclerpGertelefo)40 Chapter 2 Water Resources Sustainability Fable 24.1 (Comins) ‘Area between Medina River ‘Area beewsen Basin and [Nucces-West Fiio‘Dry Sabinal Sabinal and’ Medina Cibolo-Dry and Dry Blanco Calendar Nuoces River Frio River River Medina Rivor River Comal Crock Comal Cov Rive year Basin Basin’ Basin! Basins! Basin’ Basin! Basins Basia! Total” 1988 392 um 0 29 8D 6 285 3555 989 526 2600 fd Bs 469 46 23 rae 1990) 4793 2550060 359) 78 413 11332 wo 3282 10 wad 31S? es 97969 Asx 1992 24 5869 2011 S061 OLA 2008 286622892485 1993 326 mS 26 @S TRS 389) m9 78H 1984 12468 Isis 295 451 ot Ba 556 Mh SKK 1995 wor ts 347 @4 617 362 Si 306 S313 1996 1300 20 a 843 we 187 19 3243 1997 1769 370 os was M4223 TM 1998 Mais ms 21480. 862 20091087 1999 wor 308 sa. 7. 212 2792 2000 23806 Bu 2 shh 286, 486004 2001 215 2 9s W737 89.7 toot ‘Average 1212 22 172 6to 09) so 43h 687 "tues vcharae ton ameaged aes. 2chage to Edwards Ate from the Meine River Bain comis niyo lowes foes Mena Lake (Pat, 1978). Teal ph not egal he su of baa values de vo rounding Sinre:Slatery ond Thomas (202), Table 242 Estimated Anmuol Discharge from the Edwards Aguier by County, 1986-2001 thousands of ae-1) Calendar Kinney-Uvalde Medina Bexar Comal Hays Well Spring year Counties County County County County Tota discharge discharge 1980 110399 «3003-1079 BIDDLE ADRS. 981 lez 2612807 MLS L4G TAs 80S 1982 92 33430512132 08S TR64 ASRS 1983 lor? 287-276-1868 T2O IBS BOL 19a Ista 469 3087108973 SVB 1985 1569, 5392-20552 44D REGS SRDS BHO 1986 OL 1920402093 tad SIT 93 ARLE 1987 95, 159 2862 1984 sot 5580" ass ser 822 2365 1169 90977 S400 3608" 1989 1569703 1419856 76065424 2H 1990 118.1 607 113941 T3908 M8 91 166 236 219 15.0 1906 4363383 1992 6s 93 3705 41242613 13023273 MOR 1993 lors 7837034951510 996.7 4073 1994 955 411207172698 L106 Id DL 1995 08. 332 2721S ATH THO 389.8 1996 1176663, 2868, 1302 BLT TS 493.5 1999 298 Jo! 258.3" 2433 4926873007" 1998 us. S13 3128 21416929189 4817 (ConticuedChapter 3 3a PRINCIPLES Hydraulic Processes: Flow and Hydrostatic Forces ‘The purpose ofthis chapter isto present some of the fundamental principles of fluid mechanies Including fluid properties. Much greater Jetail can be found in uid mectanies texts sue as the excellent books by Crowe etal. (2000), Finnemore and Fraizini (2002), Fox etal. (2000), and Munson e al. (2002). 3.1 Properties Involving Mass or Weight of Water -Massdensiy, often called density, isthe mass per unit volume, with units oF kilograms (ke) percubic neter (ns) oF N-s2/m' i SH units, The Greek symbol p (tho) is used to denote density, The mass density of water at 4°C is 1000 kg/m or 1.94 slugsft, For most applications in hydrologic and Inydraulic processes, the density is assumed tobe constant so that water is assumed incompressible Incompressibility does no always mean constant density because salt in Water changes the density of water without changing its volume Specific weights the gravitational force (weight per unit volume of Water, denoted by the Greek symbol (gamma), The specific weight of waterat4°Cis 9810 N/m’ or 624 Ih’, The relationship between density and specific weight is Gat) Specific gravity ofa Mud refers tothe ratio ofthe specific weight oF a given liquid othe specific ‘of Water Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 list he various physical propentes of water in English uni F32)or snd SI oni, rapes The eaombip betwen temper sae °C = In the flow of water shear force exists, producing fuid friction. Viscosity i the measure of resistance to shear or angular deformation. Fora velocity gradient, id. the shear sess € (00) between any two thin sets of fd is te 1 3.42) “S G12)84 Chapter 4 Hydraulic Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow (0) Pipe tow ter (6) Groudwatorfow Figure 4.1.1 Contot volumes for open-channel flow, pipe flow, and groundwater ow. though a porous medium is proportional to the heulloss and inversely proportional tothe length ofthe flow path, Qoilh/df Darey’s ux is expressed as dh 5 a= kG (44.3) and a o- -«at (4.1.6) where K isthe saturated hyaulic conductivity (L/7) ownits of velocity The criterion to differentiate viscosity effects, i. turbulent or laminar flow, is the Reynolds number, vo _var (4.7) ‘where Dis a characteristic Tength such as pipe diameter, isthe nydraulc radius defined 2s the cross-sectional area of flow A divided by the weited perimeter, P. of A, and v is the kinematic viscosity oF the hid. For full pipe flow, R= A/P = RD*/4/xD — D/4. The eriical number is ‘round 2000 for pressurized pipe low and SOX) for open-channel flow. Relow this eitical vale is ssimar flow and above this number is turbulent flow: For groundwater flow the Reynolds number cn he expressed with the velocity being the Darcy flax, andthe effective grin size (dq) is used for D. The effective grain size (dig) is used to indicate that 10% (by weight) of a sample has diameter smaller than dj. Darcy's law is typically valid for Reynolds number Ry < 1 and does nat ‘depart seriously until R ~ 10, which can be thought of as the wpper Himit for Darcy’s law ‘The eiterion to differentiate gravity effets, i, subcritical or supercritical low, i the Fromde number: (4.1.8)90 Chapter 4 Hydraulic Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow 43 HEADLOSSES Eat © Figure 4.2.3 Energy and hydroule grade lines (@) BGL and HG. foe system with pump and ‘ucbine, () System with satmospheic pressure (pipe is above the HGL}, felationshipto these terms. The HGIL isessentally the line py above the center ine of pipe, which Js tho distance water would rise in a piezometer tube attached t the pipe. The EGI. isa distance of aV/2g above the HGL, Figure 4.2. illustrates the HGL and EGL, ‘The eneruy equation (4.2.13) for pipe flow was derive in the previous section. This equation has ‘a headloss trm fi, that was defined as the oss of mechanical energy due to viscous stress. The objective ofthis section is to discuss the headlosses that occur in pressurized pipe flow. 43.1 Shear-Stress Distribution of Flow in Pipes Consider steady flow Qaminar or turbulent) ina pipe (acylindseal clement of uid) of uniform cnoss- scetion as shown in Figure 4.3.1, Foro uniform flow, the general form of the integral momentum ‘equation in the s-ireotion is expressed by Deed [pay Leova) (3.56) A sce [ np 0 eae eine a J 9(9Y-A) = Oba em ow etc opr gh ona sti SA0 43.)94 Chapter 4 Hydraulic Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow EXAMPLE 43.1 SOLUTION 1, D= 5mm ’ 10m Figure 4.4 Pipe system for eumple 43.1 For the system shown in Figure 4.3.4 determine the headloss per unit length of pipe and the discharge, assuming laminar fos (i= 1.002 % 10"? N-s/m#). ‘The headloss equation (4.38) for laminar pipe flow suse te determine the veloeity of How in the pipe, where fy = 10m, B= Sm, 7 = 9.79 KN/m* gh = 1.002. 10"? Nes rnb a (2.794 Nim’ > 1000}(10m)(5/1000m)" SR(LOOE x 10 Nef )(600m) v= 04125 mis Chock the Reynolds numer: YD _Vbp_ 0.125 x (5/1000) x 1000 vw roa % 10> Flow is laminar The Nowe is then [eee] = 6.24% 10? = 624 o-av 0425 nls = 2.45 x 10°F mts 245 x 10” §(1000)(60) 0.147 L fin ‘The headlass pe unit length of pipe is (10 n¥600 m) = 0.0167 mf 4.3.3. Headlosses from Pipe Friction ‘Various equations have been proposed to determine the headlosses due to friction, including the Darey-Weisbach, Chezy, Manning, Hazen-Williams, and Scobey foemulas. These equations felate the friction losses to physical characterises ofthe pipe and varius flow parameters. The Darey-Weishach equation is scientifically based and applies to both laminar and turbulent flows. ‘The Darcy-Weishach equation is (43.13) where fy, is the headloss due to pipe friction, fis the dimensionless fiction factor, Lis the length of tho conduit, is the inside diameter of the pipe, V isthe mean Mow velocity, and is the aoeeleration de to gravity. ‘The friction factor isa function ofthe Reynolds number (Rand the relative roughness k,/D. where {isthe average nonunifoem roughness of the pipe. For laminar flow (R, < 200) te friction factor is “a |e (43.14)98 Chapter 4 Hydraulic Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow For the reservoie surface py 0404-1000 = 0404-9505 + Toh, Table 43.1 Minor Loss Coetcints for Pipe Flow K {ype of minor toss Loss in terns of /2 Pipe fines: 50” elbow, segue 021-030 90° elbow, log radios 01-025 45° elbow, regular 02 eqn bend, regular oa Return bend, long radius 03 AWWA tc, flow through Sie outlet 95-180 AWWA tc, flow through Fun 01-06 AWWA tc, flow split side inet to run oss Valves Butterfly valve (9 — 90° for closed valve)" 8=0 0343 = 10 046-052 8 = 20 1314 8 = 30 36.39 8 = 40 ren n= 50° um = 60 90-120 Check valves (wing check fully pen 06-25 Gat waves (4 1 12 in) fully open oor-0.14 1/4 closea 047-033 1/2 closed 2226 3/4 closed Sluice gates: ‘As slbmerged por in 124 ‘As contraction in conduit ‘Width equal to condit with and without top submergence Enrance and eit losses Entrance, bellmouted Entrance, slightly taunted Enurance, square edged Entrance, projecting Exit, bellmouthed Exit submerged pipe to sil water “Los coco or partly open condos may vary widely. ladvioal manufrs shoud be onsale for specie conons. Siar: ded fom Von and Shon (1999) and V2/2¢ 50=h+ Th, ‘The minor lwses are102 Chapter 4 Hydcaulie Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow EXAMPLE 442 SOLUTION Figure 4.4.2 Nozze for example 4.1 where Fi = pay and Fs = pos = 0 (because this end of the moze is open wo the atmosphere and =O) Pr ~ Foo = POWs: Vs) (73.000) (90/1007 ) Fox = (104g 008 aH} 2s5a— 143) Water los though aorizontal 45° reducing bend shown n Figure 43, wih 36-indiameter upstream and a 244n diameter downstream, a the rate of 20 cfs unde a pressure of 1S psa the upstream end of the bend, Neglecting the headloss inthe hen, eleulate the fie exerted y the water on the bend ‘Thefice-tody dxgram shown n Figure 443s se, To solve thi problem, cqutions (44.3) and (4.4.4) wil be used De = 90, - Ma) (443) YB = 901M) (44a) ‘The frat objective isto determine the velocities in order to apply the energy equation to detemnie p: Vay = Vi = Q/As = 20/n(3)2/4 = 2.83 fs vy, =0 Vs = Q/A = 20/n(2)"/4 = 63785 Va, = Vy, = Vacos 45° = 6.370.707) = 4.50 fis TW 5 Figure 44.3 Reducing bend for example 442,106 Chapter 4 Hydaulie Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow were Us is Wes hy, = Mra fre nd sing the Darey-Weisbach equation (4.3.13), we get BL LW lah tel 0-2 jet Hen Because pipes A und B ae parallel the heallos in A is equal to de eas in B, so he heals for B cam also be used inthe above energy equation instead of for A. This energy equation has two uaknowas, and We, so that continuity cam be used a a second equation: + On = Oe AWVy+AaVe = AV Which intoduees a third unknown Vy. Because h, = hy, the third equation is 4a PD 1500) _ vi 2000) vj sono( gra) teas 05 ( is) sy 0.699v} = 1.5830 i Vp = 0.671Vy 2aaivy (8/12)" (6/12) (10/12)? [a2 ine Oo 4 8h + 6, = 1% sbsiuting Vp = 0.671Vy 64Y, + 36(0.671)¥4 = 100Ve 88.16V, = 100¥, Vy 1134Ve Subst Va = 134Ve in the energy equation 120~% + o.020| 2s and solve for Ve (3300) 134Ve" wa) ae Vo = 6.805 tus 2K110 Chapter 4 Hydraulic Processes: Pressurized Pipe Flow vbserve tobe 0.5m. Determine the hydraulic conductivity ofthe aquifer Take the porosity of the aquifer as 0.24 42.3 Draw (to scale) the hydraulic grade fine (HGL) and the energy grade lie (EGL) of the system in Figure 43.6 (exam ple 4.3.3), Tae the length of exch pipe as piven and neglect he height ofthe elbows 424 Suppose the water fountain in Fountain Hills, Asizona (sce Figure P424), rises vertically 10150 ft above the lake (when operated. Neglecting wind effects and minor loses, determine the velocity at which the water is ejected Figure P12 4.1.3 The iezometric heads atpoints | and Figure P&I 3 are found tobe 7 f and 72.5. Ifthe hydrate conductivity of the aquifer is $0 day, wha is the Darcy Mua? Determine the ‘ischarge by taking the average thickness ofthe aquifer as 100. 2} 2 SS 421 A Venturi meter with a thoat diameter 150 am is ‘conned 10 pip of diameter 250 mm to measure tho discharge in the pipe. The pressures just upsteam ofthe connection and at, the throat were found to he 140 kPa and 80 kPa, respectively Determine the flow’ rate in the pipe. Take the coeficient of Uisctarge forthe Venturi meter a8 098. 4422 The pres ference hetcen the upstream end section ‘andthe trout section of a Venturi meter composted oapipe Blow is found toe 12 ps. The diameters ofthe pipe andthe trot of he Venturi meter ae 1-7/8 in and 1-8 in, respectively. The act flow in the pipe is 0.353 1%, Calibrate the Vento meter for Reytolds mumhers atthe throat greater than 2% 10", Nort Figure P24 4311 Develop the expression forthe healossin pipe for ste lumina dow of an incompressible Dud (equation (4.3.8). 132 Suppose a slbe valve (K = 10) i present in a pipetine Of domter 300 ohm tat has a friton factor fo 0.420. What is the equivalent length of this pipe tha would cause equal heallns a the globe valve forthe sume discharge? Repeat this problem for app of 150mm dace that hos the same Ftion factor 4133 Two materials (otough ion, k, = 0.046 mn, and gata suzedion ky =0 ISmm)arcbeing considered or ane pipeline. ‘The expected discharge is 0.13 mls. Both th Palos and ont ate sought for, Wrought om pipe cots 5 cents mone than the galvinized irom pipe fr every meter length of the pipe Determine the eo between the cost and the ery hea for Pipe diameters of 200 rim and 180 rm. Take the temperate misc 443.4 For the pipe system shown in Figure PA3.4 determine the proportion ofeach pipes that the pipe iti loss in each pipe is tho same. Assume the same friction Factor in sil pipes.Td Chapter 5° Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow ‘Nonunorm ow Figure 8.141 Open-channel ow: uniferm and nonuniform ow. The as [ple as fw a 2 Joor2ya= Or aye=W¥ tet 12) (2 sagvan)ioalh (Bonn ran)ie-al — eta Dividing through by rng and rearranging yields pb (4) tig de ‘Similar to equation (42.10), the terms in square brackets represent the headloss fy, due co viscous sires (fection), This energy loss due to ftietion effects per unit weight of fluid is denoted as hy, ‘The energy equation for one-dimensional flow in an open-channel is (SA)5.1 Steady Unitonm Flow 117 Equating (51.16) and (5.1.17) yields oe (5118) ad solving for the velocity gives fe ove (5.119) Defining C= y/2¢/C>, then equation (5.1.19) can be simplified to the well-known Che=y equation veacvas (5.1.20) where C is referred to asthe Chez) eoefiient. Robert Manning (1891, 1895) derived the following empirical retation for C based upon experiments: G21) \where isthe Manning roughness coefficient. Values of ate listed in Table 5.1.1. Values of for natural channels have been also published by the U.S. Geological Survey (Barnes, 1962), Sub- stiuting € from equation (5.1.21) into equation (5.1.20) resus in the Manning equation val piige (5.1.22) which is valid for St m is and Sp = 5) Table 5.11 Values ofthe Roughness Coefiient Boldface heres are values generally recommended im design) ‘Type of channel and description ‘Minimnom Nonmal Masia ‘A. Closed conduits owing pany all ALL Metal Brass, smoath 0002 aot 9013 Stel 1 Lockbar and welded p10 9012 9014 2. Rivet and spl p13 001s 0017 Cast ron 1. Coated 0010 9013 aot 2. Uncoated oor aps a0 4 Wrought irom 1 Black p12 0014 ops 2 Galvanized 0013 90168 017 Corrugated metal 1 Suhdrain 0017 0019 oon 2. Storm drain oot — 0249080 A-2, Nonmctal ‘a Leite 0.008 0.009010 b.Gias 0.009010 9.013, 6 Cement 1. Neat, surface 0010 ool 0013 2 Mortar ool — 00130015, (ContimedTable S11 (Continwed) ‘Type of channel and description Minimum Normal Maximum 1d. Concrete 1. Culvert, straight and fee of debris 0010 ao 001s 2. Culvert with Rends, connections and some debris L011 O13 018 3, Finished ool 0912 0014 4 Sewer with manboes, alt, te, seat 00130015 0017 5. Unfinished, stool form 0012 0913 0014 6, Untnished, smooth wood form 0012 Bod 0016 7. Unfinished, rough wood frm ois 0917 oon Wood. 1, Stave 010 api. 001s 2 Laminated, treated aos 0017 0020 #Chay 1 Common drainage tte oor 0013 017 2. Vitrified sewer oor 00140017 3. Vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet, ee 6013 001s 0017 4. Vitrified subdrain with open joint 1014 0015 018 {&. Brickwork 1. Glazed oor 0013 om1s 2. Lined with cement monar 012 0913 0017 +h Saitary sewers coated with sewage slimes, 0012 0013, 9016 with beds and connections {Paved inven, sewer, smooth bottom 0016 am19 0020 Jj: Rubble masonry, cemented O08 0925 0030 B. Lined or buitsup channels BAL Metal «a Smooth stel surface 1. Unpainted oor a012 0014 2 Painted Go 09130017 . Comugated ao 0925 00% B-2. Nonmcia 4a. Cement 1. Neat, sufice 4010 aon 001s 2. Monat A011 0013 0018 >. Wood J, Plano, untested 010 0912 M14 2 Planed, creosote Gor a012 0013 3. Unplane for. 091) 01s 44. Plank with haters 00120915, M18 5. Lined with ooting poper 010 Gols 0017 1. Conerste 1. Trowel nish oor 013 0015 2 Flat finish 601s 0015 O08 3. Finished, wih gravel en bottom 0017 00.0 '$ Unfinished 0017 0020 5. Gunite, good section 0.019 0023 6, Gunite, wavy section 0022 0025 7.On goad excavated rock 0020 8.0m iepular excavated rock om 4d. Conetete boto loa ished with sides of 1. Dresed stone ia mortar 0017 0020 2 Random stone in mortar 002 0024 asTable $1.1 (Continned) ‘Type of channel and description Minimum 13. Cement rubble masonry. plastered 44 Cement mbble masonry 5. Dry ubble or siprap Gravel bottom with sides of 1 Formed concrete 2. Rando stone in mocar 3. Dry rubble or rprap a 1. Glazed 2 cement mortar . Masonry 1. Cemented rabble 2 Dry mie 4h Dressed ashlar Asphalt ‘Smooth 2 Rough J Negetl lining C. Exeavated or dredged «Barth, sight and wniform 1. Clean, recently competed 2. Clean, after weathering 3. Gravel, uniform scetion, clean 44. With short gras, few wees 6. Eat, winding and slugsish "No vegetation 1 2. Grass, some weeds 3. Dense weeds ov aquatic pants i deep channels 4, Earth bottom and rabble sides 5. Stony bottom and weedy banks 6. Cobble botom and lean sides ¢ Dragline excavated or dredged 1. No vegetation 2. Light bes on hanks 4. Rock eus 1 Smooth ad uniform 2. lagged and ieepular «Channels mot maintained, weeds and brash uncut 1 Dense woods, high ak Now dps 2. Clean bowom, brush on sides 5. Same, highest sage of How 4. Dense brush, high stage D, Natural seams DD-L Minor streams (top wid at flood stage <100 ft) «a. Streams on pin 1. Clean, suaigh, fll stage, no sits or dep pools 2. Same as above, ut more stones and weeds 3. Clean, winding. some pools and shoals | Same a above, but some weeds and stones 5. Same ay above, lower stages, more ineecive slopes and sections 02s oss 02s xs 080 0.040 03s 0.080 002s 0x0 0033 0035 0040 0.000 pms 0030 oon 0.023 0033 0013 ons 02s 032 015 0013 0016 pois oon os 0x7 ors 0.030 pois 0.030 0035 080 ons 030 xs oun 0x0 0050 oom 0.100 ow poss 040 035 as ‘Maxi on 0x0 0.035 ors 0.036 0.036 01s 018 0.030 ors 0017 0030 0.033 ons 0.035 040 030 0033 9.050 0080 0080 oan 0.080 ono 0.90 0033 080 ois 0.030 0088 (Comimed uy120 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow Table S11 (Continwed) ‘Type of channel and description Minimum Normal Maximum 6, Same as 4, bot more snes 008 0050 0060 7. Sluggsh reaches, weedy. deep pools 0050 0.070 0080 8. Very weedy reaches, deep poo}s o fodways 007s 0.10) 0.180 with heavy stand of inber and underbrush ‘b, Mountain streams, n0 vegetation in channel hanks usually step, tees and brush along banks sulbmerged at high stages 1 Bottom: graves, cobbles, and few oulders 0030 0049 0050 2. Boom: cobbles wit large boulders 001 0059 0070 1-2, Food plains 4. Paste, no brsh 1, Short grass 02s 0.020 002s 2. High grass 0030 00350050 >. Culivated areas LL No crop 00200030 DoW 2. Mature row crops ms 0033 04s 3, Mature fed crops 0030 0040 0.050 Brosh 1. Seatered brash, heavy woods 9035 0950 0070 2 Light brash and toes, in winter 00350050 0.060 3, Ligh brush and tees, in summer 0.000 0.060 0080 4 Mesum to dense brash, in winter 00's 007 a.110 5, Medium to dense bist in summer 007 010) 0160 Trees 1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.10 0500200 2. Cleated land with tee stumps, no sprouts 0030 00% 9950 3. Samo as above, but with heavy growth of sprouts 050 0.060 0.080 4 Heavy stand of timber. a Few dovyn tees. litle 080 0.100 0.120, undergrowth, od stage below beaches 5, Sune as above, but with ood suge reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.100 1-3, Major streams (top width flood stage > 100 £0, “The ali lest than that For mnor reas of similar description, because banks offer les effetive resistance 4 Regular section wth no boulders a beush ons 00 »,Ireguar and rough section 0033 0100 Scare Com 195% Manning's equation in St units can also be expressed as a= tansy? (5.123) For Vin fusce and Win fet (US. customary units), equation (5.1.22) canbe rewiten ay 19 pa v (5.1.24) and equation (S.1.23) can be written as on MY api? (5125) where isin and 5) = Table 5.1.2 list the geometric function for channel elements5.1 Steady Unitonm Flow 121 ‘Table 5.1.2 Geometric Functions for Chanael Elements Secon Recungle Taped Tingle Cisie 3 2 2 TT To “Sh ley , me Ea 1 : Aa G.t0y Losin oat Weed a.42VieF printer P Hydeatc ‘aus Top with 3 2 aid) (Be-+ 25958. +691 A(2sin 64 38— 38080) 2dR 1k SB +6 +4ntvieF 8 34,010 sin sin (0/2) seh Ad WR) Ge vo 3 2 Syl +) B+ VT where = 2eow-t(1~ 22 ceil j peed=200-"(1-2) Source: Chow (1959) (wth aon, EXAMPLE 5.1.1 SOLUTION ‘Todetermine the normal depth Jor uniform ow), equation (5.1.23) 0r(S.1.25) ean be solved with ‘specified discharge, Because the original shear sess) in equation (31,17) is for fully curbulent ow, Manning's equation is valid only for fully wrbulent flow. Henderson (1966) presented the following etteion for fully wrbulent Dow in an open channel: VRS 219% 10 (Rin feet) (5.1.26) nf SRS >A 10"? (Rin meters) (5.1.266) ‘An 8-(¢ wide rectangular channel with a bed slope 0.0004 ffi has a depih of flow of 2 Assuming ‘steady vnilrm low, dteemine the discharge iw the channel. The Manning coughness coefficient is n=00 From equation (5.1.25), the discharge is 148 yay] (820-1 1 Ee ag] oo 5 38S f0%8124 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow ‘The difference in water surface elevatonsis refered to asthe fal The Asa fator to account fora contaction and expansion of & reach. Fora contacting teach V, < Vj so k = 1.0 and for an expanding reach (V,> Vj sok ~ 0.5. The isc proximation woul compute the discharge using V5, wit the fiton slope compute ignoring the velocity heals. Using the fs approx ‘imation ofthe upstream an downstream velit ease computed forthe nextappeoimation of the friction slope, which is used to compute the second approximation of tho discharge. The procedure eaninves computing the new friction slope using the las discharge approximation 9 compute the new discharge, This process continues until the discharges approximations do not change significantly. 5.2. SPECIFIC ENERGY, MOMENTUM, AND SPECIFIC FORCI 5.2.1 Specific Energy ‘he Jota head or energy head H, at any location in an opes-channel flow can be expressed as Hoyts (5.6) ‘which assumes thatthe velosty distribution is uniform ti. e hydrostatic (i, p= yy). Using the channel hottom as the datum (ie, head above the ehann ) and the pressure distribution is = 0) then define the cra (2.1) Using continuity (V = Q/A), the specific energy can be expressed in terms ofthe discharge as gnyt 2 eet (52.2) Specific energy curves, such us are shown in Figure 5.2.1 and 5.2.2 canbe derived using equation 622), Figure 5.2.1 Spocitic energyEnergy; Momentum, and Specific Foree 125 5.2 Specie a Ze Bartha Figure 522 Specific energy showing subcritical and supeteiial flow ranges Critical flow occurs when the specie energy is minimum fora given discharge (ie. dB/dy = 0), so that de, Qa ama (5.23) Referring to Figure 2.1, the top-width isdefined as 7 = dA /dysoequation S.2.3)eam be expressed (524) wat 525) To dente cecal condone we Ty Vy an $0 TO 526 a wa fd 527 eT. (5.2. Equation (5.2.6) of (5.2.7) ean be used to determine the evitcal depth andor the critical velocity, Rearranging equation (5.2.7) yields am" (5.2.8) ‘The hydra depth is detined as D = A/T so equation (5.2.2) becomes 1 (5.2.9)126 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow EXAMPLE 5.2.1 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 5.2.2 (5.2.10) the Froude munber,F,, which is | at efitial flow << Lsuberitical flow 5 = critical flow (21) > supescritial flow Figure 5.2.2 illustrates the range of subcritical low and the range of supercritical Now slong withthe location ofthe eriicl states, Note the relationship of the specific energy curves and the fact that Q; >: >). Figure 5.2.1 illstates the alternate depths y, and y3 for which 5 (5.2.12) Fora rectangular channel D, = A,/T, = y, 80 equation (5.2.10) for extical ow becomes (5.2.13) vere If we let g be the flow rate per unit width of channel Fora roctangular channel, i... = Q/B where T = B, the width of the channel (or g = Q/7), then equation (5.2.6) can be rearanged, T.Q"/(eTey?) = g° /(gys) = 1, and solved for y. to yield (2.4) Compute the criical depth forthe channel in example 5.1.1 using a discharge of 10 cf, 100/850 Using equation 6.2.13) Ve = VBE Altemativel, using equation (5.2.14) yields (: ro)", 1.691 Foca rectangolar channel of 20 with constrt a family of specie energy curves for 2 = 0,50, 100, und 300 fs. Draw the leu ofthe eriical dept pints on these curves. For each flow rate, wha isthe ‘minimum specific energy Foun om thee curves?5.2 Specific Energy, Momentum, and Specific Foree 127 SOLUTION uation (2.1: oe 2a(aoyjt 2 * 35,760" (Computing erica depths forthe ow rates wsing equation (5.2.14) with q = Q/ yields {50 O = Sets = Vaoiaan -O* 10 100. [008 Vraaa oak (300" 300 [300 Q~ 30s \ 20°32.) Computed specific energies are listed in Table 5.2. ‘The specific energy curves ae shown in Figure $2.3. The minimum specific energies are 2 = 50cK Enn = 0.868 1008: Enis = 1.379 0 = 300cK: Enin = 2.868 ‘Table 5.2.1 Computed Specific Eneray Values for Example $22 pote eneray, & (tb) Depth») e-0 = 2 100 =m os ps0 099 205 1486 06 0.60 037 Los 1037 os bso 9s. Lat al 1 1.00 110 139 49 12 120 127 Lar 30) va V0 135 60 32 1 160 Lt Ls 3.0) Ls 180 bss Le 291 20 200 202 210 209 22 220 22 228 20 24 240 22 2a? 300 26 2.60 Det 266 3a as 280 2a1 23s 326 30 00 io So 300 35 350 331 353 an 40 400 401 soz 4n 45 450 450 452 468 50. 5.00 500 302 5d130 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow Figure 52.5 Application of momentum principle ‘The momentum entering from the upstream is — pB, Vi and the momentum leaving the control volume is pB:V2Q, where B is called the somientunn correction factor that accounts For the nonuniformity of velocity (equation 3.7.8), so that Lp V-A= ~pB, V+ pB.¥20 (5.2.16) ‘The forees are (5.2.17) The hydrostatie forces are Faas (5.2.18) and (5.2.19) ‘where 9 and 3p are the distances tothe centroid, The gravity force F due to the weight W’of the water is W sin @=peddx sin 8, where W-=pgAdy. Because the channel slope is small Si = sin 8, and the foree due to gravity is Fy = puldrs (5.2.20) where A= (Ar +Az)/2 is the average eross-seetional area of flow. The external force due 0 friction created by shear between the channel bottom and sides ofthe control volume is ~ tyPate whore is the bed shear stress and P is the wetted perimeter. From equation (5.1.6), t= YRS, = pel4/P)S;. So the friction foree is then Fy ~poasats (3221) For our purposes here we will continue to use F, and Fi. Substituting equations (5.2.15) through (5.2.21) ino (3.5.6) gives AAs, — VAs + Wain OFF = — 9B, MiQ+ PBVO (5.2.22) hic isthe momentum equation for steady state open-channel flow should be emphasized that in the energy equation the F (loss due to frietion) is a measure of the internal energy dissipated inthe entie mass of water in the contcol volume, whereas Fin the523 Specific Force 5.2 Specific Energy, Momentum, and Specie Foree 131 omentum equation measures the losses due to extemal forces exerted on the water by the wetted perimeter ofthe contol volume. Ignoring the small difference betwen the energy cosficent and the momentum coeficient fin gradually varied flow, the internal energy losses are practically identical with the loses dus to external forces (Chow, 1959). For uniform flow. F = Fi Application of the energy and momentum prinsipls in open-channel flow can be confusing at first I is imporant to understand the basic differences, even though the 1wo principles may produce identical or very similar results, Keep in mind that energy is a sealar quantity and ‘momentum is a vector quantity and that energy considers internal losses in the energy equation ‘and momentum constders external resistance in the momentum equation. The energy rrinciple is simpler and clearer than the momentum principle: however, the momentum principle has certain advantages in application to problems involving high internal-enerey changes, such asthe hydraulic jump (Chow, 1989), which is discussed in section 8.5 on rapidly varied flow. Forashortborizontal each (como volume) with® = Oandthe gravity free Fy = W'sin® = Othe sternal force of ition F, canbe neglected so Fj ~ O und F,~ 0. Albo assuming By ~ Byte omentum equation (8.2.23) reduces to VAyy— Tavs = —PMIO+PVI (52.23) Substituting Vi = Q/A1 and ff and then rearanging yields Q/As, dividing through by 7 and substituting 1/¢ e eA o § +n = 2 +4, (52.2 ‘The specific force F (Figure 5.26) is defined as e - Say (5.2.25) F Figure $2.6 Specific force curves132 Chapter 5 Hydraulic Processes: Open-Channel Flow which has units of 1° or m*. The minimum valve of the specific force with respect wo the depth is determined using (5.2.26) which results in ae 1 ae oat (5.227) Refer to Chow (1959) oF Chaudry (1993) for the proof and further explanation of a AS)/ey = A. Equation (5.2.27) reduces to — V?/e+A/T=0 where the hydraulic depth D = A/T, s0 ¥ v Doo @ @ Which we have already shown is the eiterion for ertical low (equation (52.9) or (5.2.10). ‘Therefor, at real flow the specific force is a minimum fora given discharge Summarizing. critical flow is characterized by the following conditions (5.2.28) + Spocifc energy is minimum fora given discharge «+ Spocifie force is minimam fora given discharge + Velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth + Froude number is equal to unit. ‘Two addtional conditions that sre not proven here ate (Chow, 1959) + The discharge is maximum for a given specific energy. ‘+ The yeloity of low in channel of small slop with uniform velocity distribution sequal tothe celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by local disturbances. ‘When flow is ator near the critical state, minor changes in specific energy near erica ow cause major changes in dopth (see Figures $2.1 o $2.2), eausing the flow to be unstable, Figure 5.2.7 ithustates examples of locations oferta! flow. « w Taaauie mp © w igure $2.7 Example location feriial ow.) Critica dep near free overall (6) Change in rade Df chan! botiom;(e) Flow ever a hroad-eestd weir) Few tho hydra jumpSpecific Energy; Momentum, and Specific Foree 133, EXAMPLE 524 Compute the specific force curves forthe channel and ow rues used in example 5.22. SOLUTION The specific force vals are computed sing equation (5.2.25) withthe vals presented in Table $2.2. ‘The curves are plowed in Figure 52. ‘Table §2.2 Computed Specitic Force Curve Values for Example Specific free, Fc) Depth » tt o=0 o= 80 2-0 ow oa 040 155.38 1397.62 02 p40 7508 99.16 04 160 4oa2 350098 06. 360 avs 23652 ox 6.40 2581 18109 10 10.00 2553 149.15 12 an aM 1086 ha 19.60 30.69 i942 16 25.60 35.30 1394 Ls nao 4103 008 20 40.00 47.76 Jos.8s 2 8.40 ss46 1192 24 51.60 star 11583 26 160 7337 12135 2s a0 as95 nasa 30 90.00 95.18 136.58 35 12.50 12698 162.43 40 160.00, 16388 198.94 45 2.50 20395 23356 50 250.00 25h) anos 0204080 800204016) 100 FIR Figure $2.8 Specie force curesT34 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow 5.3 STEADY, GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW 53.1 Gradually Varied Flow Equations Several types of open-channel flow problems can be solved in hydraulic engineering practice sing the concepts of nonuniform flow. The first to be discussed are gradually varied flow problems in which the change in the water sutace profile is small enough that it is possible © Iegrate the relevant differential equation fom one section to an adjacent section for the change in depth or change in water surface elevation. Consider the energy equation (5.1.6) previously derived for nonuniform flow (Figure 5.11) using the control volume approach (with a =a = 1) (5.1.6) Because hy = S. = Ss letting Ay —y3— yx and A= wan be expressed 28 SoA, then equation (5.1.6) $a (53.1) Rearrunging yields : % ia (2 (saa and tele- EG) ~a Ge) om Substituting these ito equation (5.3.3) and rearranging yields a ayy , B+ £(E)-8-5 (53.6) ‘The second term ® can be expressed as 4 5 so that equation (8.3.6) ean be simplified to“ 8 a (53.7)enon th re i a Oy aoe reac © sel in “a Figure $48 (Coninued) 1st152 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow Table 542 Standard Step Backwat Computation foe Red Fox River » 8 oo © © © ® & oD Om ay Oy 4D U6 Wer verge Pnengy Coxe sires Hydric Maing Average ton Friction someon section elevation Ares radi roughness Comeyance comeyance sle loss 42 fst Velocity 2 g(a y Te ee eT OAC) yw, wy ay au) Uo) We) mH) 1 s7ios* a 70003-76400 to Iss 372 2 S147 4m 76 aos steo aut aw 2s ons 14.200 a0 x0 Jotse S020 519 260 SIS 18H BO 18S 77 aus srIsonre my 270s sis ‘oo isa 95500 462-231 3703 199A LHk 202 021 STIS 3 sTIRO Hes $85 acs I8hteo 19.400 189 075 to $68 050 +113 048 S717 S71 97 $6 00S ISIS F300 2H MDs L670 0704-93 0m S717 “Kum ating wate nrc elevation, Wee) = S710 717742 604018 ~ $718.09 ~ SOUS a (A 924}/A} 70K) ba = (0/2) for A(AV™24) 0 Gos de wo chanel expamsion: hy = €,/a(aW 24 for ala Source: Hoggan (997. /2g)>0 oss du 1 channel cntactiony: Wx = Wat A(a¥*/29) 6h 5.8 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW ‘Rapidly varied flow occurs when awater low depth changes abruptly over avery shor distance. The following ate characteristic features of rapidly vaied flow (Chow, 1959) ‘+ Curvature of the flow is pronounced, so that pressure distribution cannot he assumed 19 be hydrostatic 1 The rapid variation occurs over a relatively short distance so that houndary ftition is ‘comparatively small and usually insignificant ‘+ Rapid changes of water area occur in rapidly varied flow, causing the velocity distribution coefficients and f to be much greater than 1.0. Examples of rapidly varied flow are hydraulic jumps, transitions in channels, flow over spillways, low in channels of nonlinear sections such as flow in channel junctions, flow through piers ‘The discussion presented in this chapter is imited to the hydraulic jump, The hydraulic ump occurs when a rapid change in flow depth oceurs from a small depth to Targe depth ‘sel chat there i an abrupt ise in water surface, A hydraulic jump aveurs wherever super- critical flow changes to subcritical Nos, Hydraulic jumps can accur in canals downstream of rgulatingsluices atthe foot of spllways, or where a steep channel slope suddenly bocomes fat. Figure $$. illustrates hydric jump along with the specific energy and specific fares curves. “The depths of flow upstream and downstream of the jump are called sequent depths or comfugate depths. Because hydeulic jumps ace typically short in Tength, the losses due fo shea along the wetted perimeter are small eompared tothe pressure forces. Neglecting these forees and assuming a horizontal channel (#, = 0), the momentum principle can be applied as in section $.2.3 to derive ignment, and flow through nonprismatic channel sh racks, and low herween bridge5.5 Rapidly Varied Flow 153 st te spect eer cue rea amp Spec cure Figure S.1 Hydraulic jump equation (5.2.24 (5.2.24) eA Consider a rectangular channel of width B > 0, so Q = AiVi =AiVi,As = ByiyA2 = Boo, By = a/2, and 5 = 92/2: (5.5.1) ‘Simplifying yields Dividing by »}, we get +) (552) ‘The Frowde number for s rectangular channel is Fi, = Vi/ VaDi = Vi/ yTs Wertore equation (5.5.2) reduces to (5.53) (5.5.4)154 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Processes: Open Channel Flow EXAMPLE 55.1 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 5.5.2 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 553 SOLUTION Altematively. Q = By:Vs and F,, = V/ 93 could have been used to derive 11. yin) 855) Equations (5.54) and (5.5.5) can be used w find the sequent depths of 4 hydraulic ump. The use of hydraulic jumps as energy dissipaers is further discussed in Chapters 18 and 17. CConsiderthe 8. ide ectngular channel usedin examples S.1-1,5.13,and 83. withadscharge of 100 cfs IFa weir were placed inthe channel and the depth upstream ofthe weir were $f would 2 hydraulic jump form upstream of the weir? Forthe discharge of100efs, the normal depth is), = 3.97 from example 5.13, and the critical depths ye = 169, Because y,< yy fh a hydroulic jump would not form. As a result of yy > ye. a mild slope exits, For a jump 10 form, ¥y< Yo, Which i steep slope. For example 5.3.1, determine wheter a hydraulic jump will occu ‘The normal depth and ertical depeh must be computed and compared. Using equation (5.2.14) with g = 4.686 0% per meter of width, we get v6)" (58) st “81 The depts of flow ty, = O57 m an at yp — 015m, s this fw is special flow Next, the normal depth s computed using Mannings equation (5.1.29 a lawns? 1 a= ton 1 ss, va 4.646 = 5 gygrt 10.0003) ‘Thus yp = (5.365) = 2.74 m, Unde these conitons y,> y, > 05 m, an M3 water surface profile exists anda hydraulic jump occurs. If normal depth oceurs downstream ofthe jump. what i the dep before the jump? Using equation (555) with y» = 2.74 m, we find that ys 0.5m, ‘A rectangular channel is 10.0 ft wide and earres a flow of 400 efs at @ normal depth of 3.0. ‘Manning's 2 = 0.017, An obstuction causes the depth just upstream ofthe obstruction to be 8.00 {zep. Will «jump form upstream from the obstruction? Tf so, how far upstieam? What typeof curve will be present? First a determination must be made whether a jump wil form by comparing the normal depth and eritieal depth. Using equation (5.2.1), we find ) GR) 365.5 Rapidly Varied Flow 155 aed. >, = 308 therefore the channelissteep. Because yyy, ni665 Transient Well Hydraulies—Confined Conditions 201 bbecome negligible. Thea the well function can be expressed 2s W(u) = -0.572-Inw (65.12) which has am error < 3% for w-< 0.1. The drasdown for this approximation is expressed in US. {customary units (gallon-day-foot) as MESO 9 5779 tna) (6513) and in ST units as ° 6 s= 2-072 -Imy (5.14) Substituting equation (6.5.13) in equation (6.5.8) yields =0.8772= In (65.15) 14.60 269375] T Tr ‘This shows that the drawdown is a function of log so that the equation plots asa staght line on semilog paper. ‘Consider the change in drawdown Ara distance» ftom the pumped well over the time interval f And f, which ate one log eycle apart. The drawdowns at 1) and fare, respectively, sand sy. The ‘change in draudown As is then expressed as a = aon MEE ll spss) ees) stu) If and fare chosen one log eycle apart log (65.16) 1, the above equation simplifies 19 2640 at 65.17) n which Q is in gpm and T's in gpd [Next consider that at ine fo, when pumping begins, the drawdown is in the observation well f ‘om the pumped well. so that equation (6.5.15) is expressed as 114.60 05772423 egg ess ia ite a seg, 6519) “The time fis the time imerceptonthe zero-drauidown axis, keeping in mind that Jacob's method isa straight-line approximation on semilog paper Refer to Figure 65.3202 Chapter 6 Hydraulic Processes: Groundwater Flow ‘Jacobs approximation fy A fogr ns Lt Figure 68.3 llusation of Jacob's method showing the straight-line approximation oa semilox pape EXAMPLE 655 Forthotime-drasdown dats ited below, calculate Tand Susing Jacob's approximation, After computing and §, check see thatthe basic tssumpion of this approximation ie satis fied, Forte vals of T and S that you computed, after how many minutes of pumping would Tacoh's appeimation be valid? The discharge is @ = 1500 gpm andthe radius 7 = 300 ‘Time ater pumping started (in) Daawown (f) 1 04s 2 ors 3 091 4 Los 6 121 5 iar to as 30 202 40 so o “0 10 200 400 ‘00 800 100 430 SOLUTION Step 1. Plot the field data on emilog paper (# vs log 128 shown in Fig Step 2, Fite straight line tothe data (Figure 6.5.4. Step 3. Find from the plot (= 04S min fors = 0, Step 4. Find As for values of t4 and 45 one log eyele apart (4, = 10 min and 4 = 100 miny Aso = 267-145 — LOSE Step 5. Compute (om equation (65.17): 2640 _264(1500) _ 7 = 280 _ 2A) — 366,700 endit(65 Transient Well HyJraulies—Confined Conditions 203 sist ee so EE yes st TT] : mm | i, Hi 7 I : : N 7 D Figure 64 Time-drawdown for example 655, Step 6. Compute 5 Tiy__366,700(0.45) ~ 33 «10-4 7307 ~4790(300%) s oK {Jacob's approximation for this problem i vali for 5 209825 _ 2693(300)1(3.83 x 10-4) oot iu 366,7000001) 12253min| Distance-Dravdown Analysis [A similar analysis using Jacob's approximation can be used to approximate T and S using distance- drawdown fel data, The drawdown must be measured simultancously in three or more observation Wells each at a different distance from the purnped well, The drawdowns in the observation wells plot a straight line on semilog pape (vs. log). By considering the distance rp ftom the pumped well, where the drawdown is 0, then equation (6.5.15) can be expressed as 160 e938 “2 ~08772-In (65.20) whieh can be simplifiod s= 1/4797, (65.21) ‘of the extended siright line fie tothe fed distance-drawdown whore the imtreepe ats data,204 Chapter 6 Hydraulic Processes: Groundwater Flow EXAMPLE 6.5.6 SOLUTION Following the same procedure us for the time dravdown analysis, consider the change in drawdown As sys; ata time # over the distance 7310 7, where rs and r; are chosen to be (ne log eyele apart on te pot. The dravdowns at rand re respectively sands, The changein drawdown Ae is then expressed as sas 2640 [2693738 269374] S28O, (rs FE hog RF — jog | — RO hog (6.5.22) Because 7 and rare chosen one log eyele apart, (log r:/r1 = 1), the above equation simplifies to so 4 (65.23) Awellis pumped a1 200 gpm for a perio of 500 min, Three observation wells 1.2.and3 ($0. 30,and 100 fom the pumped well, respectively) have draveowas of 10.6, 13.2, and 7.9 f respectively. Determine 7 tnd S. (From Gehm and Bregman, 1976.) Step 1, Plot the fed data on sesilog paper (69s. log as shown in Figure 65.5. Step 2. Fit straight line to the data Figure 65.5). Step 3. Find from the pt (ro = 500 1, Step 4, Find As for vals of r ands tha are selected one log-eyele apart: Ar = #3 — = 10.6 Step 5. Compute F (fom equation (65.23): 9 oor a ‘Astumad dbaervation was 4 Baie : i, Cel Reray=er aos é * > =e) , Err 10 100 1000 ‘stance from pumped wal (et) Figure 6.5 Trace ofthe cone of depression plod on semieg coordinates hocomes a straight ine Dawdown in cach well was measured at SU) min after starting the pumping tex66 Transient Well Hydraulies—Uncontined Conditions 205 66 TRANSIENT WELL HYDRAULICS—UNCONFINED CONDITIONS, ‘Uncentined (water table) conditions differ significantly from those of the confined aquifer. For luncoafined conditions, the pumped water is derived from storage by gravity drainage of the Inerstices above the cone of depression, by compaction ofthe aquifer and expansion of the water as pressures reduced from pumping. For confined conditions the nonequilvium solution is based on the assumpdons that the coeficient of storage Is constant snd water is released from siorage instantaneously with a decline in head, The effects of gravity drainage are not consigered in the ‘nonequilibrium solston. Gravity drainage is ot immediate and, for unsteady flow of watertoward a ell for unconfined conditions, is characterized by slow drainage of imerstces. “There are thee distinet segments ofthe time drawdown curve for water tle conditions, 3s shown in Figure 6.6.1. The frst segment occur fora sor time ater pumping begins: the drawdown reucts in the sume manner us un artesian aquifer. In other words, the gravity drainage is not Immediate, and the water is released instntaneously from storage. It is possible under some {conalitions to determine the coeticiet of transmissivity by applying the nonequilibrium solution. the early time-drawdown data, The eoeiient of storage computed using the early time drawdown is in the anesian range and cannot he used to predict long-term drawdowns, The second segment represents an imermediate stage when the expansion of the cone of depression decroases because of the gravity drainage. The slope of the time-drawdown curve decreases, reflecting recharge. Pump {est data deviate significantly from thenonequiliium theory durin the second segment. During the third sepment (Figure 6 6.1), the ime-drawdown curves conform closely tothe nonequilibeium type {euves, as shown in Figure 66.2. This segment may start fom several minutes to several days after pumping stars, depending upon the aquifer condition. The coefficient of transmissibility of an faguifee can be determined by applying the nonequilibrium solution to the tht segment of time: drawdown data. The coefficient of stage compute from these data willbe inthe unconfined rang, Which can be used to predict long-term effects. Pricket (1965) and Neuman (1975) developed type curve solutions for water table conditions. The following equation for drawdown in an unconfined aquifer with fully penetrating wells and a ‘constant discharge condition Q was presented by Neuman (1975) Q Mle Hy) (664) whore (applicable for small values of 2 =F (applicable Forsmall values of 1) (6.6.2) vor Figure 661 Tree segments oftime-dravdowa curve for water table conditions214 Chapter 6 Hydraulic Processes: Groundwater Flow 68.3 Multiple Boundary Systems Image well theory can also be applied to aquifer systems with multiple boundaries by considering suecessive reflections on the barrier and recharge boundaries. This is secomplished through a ‘number of image wells Placing a primary image well across each boundary balances the efecto the pumped vel at each boundary. I pair of egnverging boundaries is required, each primary image well then produces an unbalanced effect atthe opposite boundary. This unbalanced effect is corrected by placing secondary image wellsuntl the effects ofthe eal andimage wells are balanced at both boundaries, These concepts are llutated in Figure 6.8.7. ‘A primary image well placed seross a barrier boundary is discharging in character, A primary 1 well placed across a recharge boundary is recharging in charaetet. A secondary image well, placed across barrierboundary has the same character ass parent image well, A secondary image e =O Berrer Boundary AQUIFER, o Dieerersina roal wal 9 ! ° i i hb b ‘mage wol, 1, are pumberedin the jaquance in which tey were considered sodtoete "Sortie dacarging wat Signifis recharging well Figure 68.7 Plans Fimage-well systems for several wedge-shaped aquifers from Ferris ctl. (1946).6.9 Simulation of Groundwater Systems 215 well placed aeross a recharge boundary has the opposite character to its parent image wel Figure 68.7 shows image well systems for wedge-shaped aquifers. For parallel boundary systems, itis only necessary tondd pairsof image wells uni the nest pair has negligible influence onthe su of all image wel effects out tothe point 6.9 SIMULATION OF GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS, 69.1 Governing Equations Darcy's law relates the Darcy xv with dimension L/T tothe rate of healoss per unit length of ‘porous medium 2/21. The negative sign indicates tha the total hea is eereasing inthe direction of ow because of fiction. This law applies oa cross-setion of porcus medium that is large compared to the cross-section of individual pores and grains of the medium. At this scale, Darcy's lw id element is describes a steady uniform flow of constant velocity, in which the net force on any zero. For unconfined saturated ow the two forces are gravity and friction, Darey’s law ean also be expressed in terms of the transmissivity for confined conditions as rah v= - 7% (694) ‘or for unconfined conditions os 4 (692) ne Considering two-dimensional (horizontal) Now, « general Now equation ean he derived by considering flow through a rectangular clement (contol volume) shown in Figure 69.1. The flow components ( A= Ax h for unconfined conditions and A Av) for the four sides of the element are expressed using Darey’s law where 1b for confined conditions, so that a= =r.ay(2), (939 ae ‘ n= -na(2), (6938 miele ‘ ‘e gece ' ser le ce fotos |: ve T ; aimee jel) '® e 2 ‘taken into storage) a Col 0.cot water tanetors Figure 691 Finite difference er711 Introduction to Hydrology 229 (Wn his gravitationally powered runoff process, the water may spend mein one or more natural storage reservoirs such as snow, glaciers ice sheet, lakes, streams soils and sedimeats, vegetation, ‘and rock. Evaporation from these reservoirs shor-cteuits the global hy drologiceyee into subeycles with a broad spectrum of scale. The runoff i perhaps the best-known element of the global hydrologic eyo, but even this is subject to signtieant uncertainty. 7.1.3 Hydrologic Systems (Chow, Matdment, and Mays (1988) defined a fydralogic system asa structure or volume in spe, ‘surrounded by a houndary that accepts water and other inputs, operates on them interally anc produces them 3s outputs. The structure (for surface or subsurface flow) or volume in space (for ‘atmospheric moisture flow) isthe totality of the flow paths through which the water may pass as thvowshput from the point it enters the system tothe point i eaves, The boundary isa continuous surface defined in three dimensions enclosing the volume or structure. A working medium enters the system as input, interacts with the structure and other media, and leaves as output. Physical chemical, and biological processes operate on the working media within the system; the most ‘common working media involved in hydrologic analysis are water ir, and beat energy The global hydrologic cyele can be represented asa system containing three subsystems: the atmosph Figure 7.1.3. Another example is the storn-rainfallsunofT process on a watershed, which can be represented 2s a hydrologic system. The input is eainfall distributed in time and space over the ‘watershed, and the output is streamflow atthe watersbed outlet. The boundary is defined by the watershed divide and extends vertically upward and downward to horizontal planes. wate system, the surface water system, andthe subsueface water system, as shown in ‘Aimospherc ‘wate ssurace ‘Overand ‘Surface iol io seams wat ‘and ocean ‘Sueautace ‘ato Figure 7.1.3 Block-diagram representation ofthe plobal hydrologic system (from Chow et al. (1988).230 Chapter 7 Hydrolopie Processes Drainage basins, cuichments, and watersheds are tee synonymous terms that refer 10 the opographie area tht collects and discharges surface streamflow dhrough one outlet or mouth, Catchments ar ypivally referred to us small drainage basins, but no specific area limits have been stblished. Figure 7.1 illustrates the drainage basin divide, watershed divide,or catchment divide, which isthe line dividing land whose drainage flows toward the given stream from land sthose drainage flows away feom that stream. Think of drainage basin sizes ranging from the Mississippi Drainage divide Drainage divide ‘Figure 7.14 Schematic diagram of a drainage basin, The high train on the perimeter isthe Arsinage divide (rom Mars (1987), Figure 7.15 Musiration of the nested hierarchy of lower-order basins within a large drainage basin (rom Marsh (1987)7.1 Introduction to Hydrology 231 River drainage basin o small urban drainage basins in your local community o Soave small valley ia the countryside near you As shown in Figure 7.5, drainage basins can be pitured ina pyramidal fashion a dhe runofTs {rom smaller basins (subsystems) combine w form larger basins (subsystem in system), and the ‘unofs from these basins inturn combine to Form even larger basins and soon. Marsh (1987) refers to this mode of organization as. hferarchy or nested hierarchy, as each st of smaller basin i 01 Inside the nex layer. A similar concepe stat streams that drain small basins camiine to farm larger streams, nd s0 on Figures 71.6-T.1.10illasrate the hierarchy ofthe Fiend Creek watershed located inthe Lake Decatur watershed (deuinage area upstream of Decatur, Hlinois, on the Sangamon River with drainage area of 925 mi” or 2396 km). Obviously, the Friends Creek watershed ean he subdivided {ta nuch smaller watersheds. Figre 7.1.8 Mlstates the Minis River basin (29,000 mi) with the Sangamon River. Figure 7.19 illustrates the upper Mississippi River basin (excluding the Missouri River) with the Illinois River. Figure 7.110 illustrates the entite Mississippi River hasin (1.15 million mi”). This isthe largest river basi inthe United States, draining about 40 percent of the country, The main stem of the river is about 2400 miles long ‘Seale 1 750,000 Figure 7.1.6 Friends Crook watershed, subwaterhod ofthe Lake Decatur watershed. (Counesy of the Illinois State Water Survey, compiled by Erin Hessler Baues)484 Chapter u ‘Water Withdrawals and Uses 400 380] g g 3 (Curative flow volume (10004F) 3 a a a ‘Time (months) Figure 11.7.5 Cumulative mass curve fr Liwle Weiser River, and spplication of mass curve analysis ‘sompate fm yield (Example 117.2. Algsbraically, the sequent-peak method can be implemented using the following equation recursively = [Boor amine it7ay whore othe egured storage capacity athe begining of pero s-The intial value of Kat = 0s Set to zero, In goneral, the method using equation (11.7.1) is applied repeatedly, up 10 twice the length ofthe recorded time span, to tae into account the possibility thatthe erica flow sequence ‘curs atthe end ofthe streamflow record, The maximum value of the calculated Kis the rquited active reservoir storage capacity forthe low sequence and the considered releases. Intealty the hydrological eomponens, precipitation, evaporation and seepage, in addition tothe streamflow inflows, determine the storage velume i reservoir Precipitation that falls directly on the reservoir surface contibutes to the storage volume. Evaporation and seepage resuitin losses tothe available water in active reservoir storage, Depending ‘on the location andthe geological conditions of the reservoir site, the total losses from evaporation and seepage are an important influence on the mass balance ofthe reservoir system. Neglecting such factors would result in serious overestimation of the water availablity and, consequent, under ‘estimation ofthe required reservoir storage capacity to support the desired releases In arid and semi acid areas, suel as the southwestern United States, the quantity of water loss Uarough evaporation ‘may be large enough to lessen significantly the positive effects of impounding the water.876 Indes Discharge, 25 Discharge-area (conservation form, 344 Hydroerapl, 284 Measurement, 158-166, See also Flames: Wei Discrete convolution equation, 291 Distance-trawdown analysis, 203-204 Distributed event based model, 320 Distibutd How routing, 344-350 Distributed routing, 344-380 Distribution of water, 463-545 ‘Components, 63-70, See als Fitines se for wate distbuton; Pipes, for water distribution; Pumps for water disibution; Valves used for water sisibuton Distnbution piping, 463 Distiburion storage, 463, Pumping stations, 163, Description, 463-470 Movdeling, 325-527 Application of 526 CCalitraton, 525-526 Computer models. 525, ‘ater quality modeling Pipe sections oF links, 464 ‘Cementlined 465% Coated steel pipe. 465° Purpose, 463-470 Sobeomponents, 4686 Sub-subcomponents, 468 System, 6A, 475-492, Seeulso System ‘components, in water distibuion Ditch dlivery systems, 416 Divessing tansivion, 162 Division boxes, 416 Fixed propostional flow divide. 417 Weieaype overtiow outlets, 4178 Domestic watr we, Tt Downstream boundary condition, 147 Draft thes, $52 Drag coeliciemt 778, Drainage asin, 230, 230, 283-287 Dende patterns, 283, Rectangular patterns, 283-284 And runoff, 283-287 Siream orders, 2647 ‘Trelis on folded terrain, 283%, 284 ‘ral on mature, disseted coastal plain, 283" Drouin. 190-191, 196, Drip inigation. $18 Drop inlet spillways, 738-746 (Circular sharp-crested weirs. 7414 Drup manholes, 635 S257 Drought management, 0147 Agricultura drought, 440 Demand reduction measures, 414 Economic doughy, 440 Emergency water sppties, 441 Heydrologie drought, 440 ‘Metcorogica roveht, 440 Options. 40-442 System improvements, 441¢ Drought severity, 432-444 Palme Drought Severity Index (PDSD. 303 Souther Oscillation Index (SO, ous Surface Water Supply Index (SWSD, 48 Droughs, 21-22, See also Drowght management: Drought severity Progression of, impacts, 216 Types of ‘Agricultural 40 Economic, 440 Hycelogic. 440 Meteorological 440 US. droght monitor. 22¢ Dry alisbatc lapse rate. 238 Dublin principles, Duoys formula, 793-794 Duele iron pipe (DIP) 486, 4881 Dupuit equation, 88 DWOPER. 675 Dynamic visosity, 38 Dynamic wave model, 345, 956-389 Earth dams, 715 Ecologies! foeprint, 28 Economie drought. 440 Economics, water resources, 49-856, ‘Benefit cost analysis, 881-884 CCapita-recovery Factor 8504 Discount factors, 849 Enginecring economic analysis, 149.851 Series compouind-amont factor. 850 Series present-wort lator, 850 ‘Sinking-fund factor, 8501 ifm gaon series factors, 850 Value of water for sustainability, eSi-8ss Edwards (Baleaaes Fault Zone aguite, n awards Aguifer, Texas, 37-41 ‘Annual discharge from (1986-2001), ‘i Annual recharge 1 (1980-2001), 391 low paths of, 38¢ aged basins 39f Springs, 38° Ungaged areas, 398 fective porosity, 273 Effective tail, 287 Effective saturation, 279 ficiency ofan inet, 678 Egypt irsgation netwovks in, 2,2 Flastcity 59-60) ‘Balk medalus of elasticity, 39 (Of demand, 436, Eeite power plans Processes nd materials, 406t Unit processes, 78 Eeitcal demand, terminology Base load, 547 Capacity demand, $47 Dally load shape, 547, $48 aration curve, $51F nergy demand, 547 Itermediate load, $47 oe curves, 538 ‘Lood- duration curve, $51 Loe factor, 538 Peak load, $47 Plant factor, $48 ‘Weekly load curve, $49F Eleewicity production, consumptive water ‘8 foe, 405 Basic unit processes for, 407 ‘Materials, 406 Processes flows in, 406 Enibanhrient dams, 692-493, 692 Diaphragm-type earths, 715 anil, 715 Homogeneous, 715 Rockfil, 7178 oned-

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