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Chemistry
B
(Salters)
Support
Notes
Draw:
Label:
List:
Measure:
State:
Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.
Objective 2
Annotate:
Apply:
Calculate:
Find a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working (unless instructed not to do
so).
Describe:
Distinguish:
Estimate:
Identify:
Outline:
Objective 3
Analyse :
Comment:
Compare :
Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items, referring
to both (all) of them throughout.
Construct:
Deduce:
Derive:
Design:
Determine:
Discuss:
Give an account including, where possible, a range of arguments for and against the
relative importance of various factors, or comparisons of alternative hypotheses.
Evaluate:
Explain:
Predict:
Show:
Sketch:
Represent by means of a graph showing a line and labelled but unscaled axes but with
important features (for example, intercept) clearly indicated.
Solve:
Suggest:
Atomic Structure
Relative mass
1
1
1/2000
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Relative charge
+1
0
-1
The nucleus contains almost all of the mass of an atom because that is where the
protons and neutrons are found
The nucleus of an atom contains all of the positive charge
The electrons are outside the nucleus and, therefore, so is the negative charge
Atomic number
= number of protons in the nucleus
Mass number
= number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Number of neutrons
= mass number atomic number
Number of electrons
= number of protons (in a neutral atom)
Mass number = 9
Atomic number = 4
Be
4
2)
3)
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons (and different masses)
For example, chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl. Both have 17 protons but they
have 18 and 20 neutrons, respectively
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they have the
same electron arrangement
Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.
As an atom Cl has 17 electrons. A Cl- ion has gained one electron so it now has 18.
As an atom Na has 11 electrons. A Na+ ion has lost one electron so it now has 10.
Relative atomic mass
Relative atomic mass is the average mass of an atom of an element taking the
mixture of isotopes into account. However, learn the technical definition from
definitions sheet
To calculate relative atomic mass, add together (mass number x percentage/100) for
each isotope
Example:
75% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 35
25% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 37
Average mass of a Cl atom
For simple molecules, such as O2 and H2O, the relative molecular mass is calculated
by adding the relative atomic masses of the elements involved, giving 32.0 for O2 and
18.0 for H2O
4)
For giant structures, such as Na2S and SiO2, the relative formula mass is calculated
by adding the relative atomic masses of the elements involved, giving 68.1 for Na2S
and 60.1 for SiO2
Orbitals
5)
An orbital is a region that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins
Orbitals have different shapes called s, p, d, and f (but f orbitals are beyond our
syllabus)
S orbitals are spherical in shape and come in sets of one (which can hold up to 2
electrons)
P orbitals are hour-glass or egg-timer shaped and come in sets of three (which can
hold up to 6 electrons)
The first energy level (or shell) only contains an s orbital, labelled 1s
The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons
The second energy level contains an s orbital (labelled 2s) and three p orbitals
(labelled 2p)
The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons
The third energy level contains an s orbital, three p orbitals and five d orbitals
The third shell can hold up to 18 electrons
The order in which the orbitals are filled is as follows: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
Note that the 4s fills before the 3d
1 electron
7 electrons
11 electrons
16 electrons
20 electrons
1s1
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2
2p3
2p6 3s1
2p6 3s2 3p4
2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
In a Cl- ion, the 18 electrons are arranged 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
In a Na+ ion, the 10 electrons are arranged 1s2 2s2 2p6
The diagram over shows the relative energies of the orbitals from 1s to 4f
Ionisation energy
Energy
4f
4d
3d
3p
4p
4s
4s of "lower"
energy than 3d
3s
2
p
2s
1s
Source: www.chemsheets.co.uk
6)
Evidence that electrons are arranged in shells or energy levels can be obtained by
measuring the successive ionisation energies of an element
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy needed to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms i.e.
M(g) M+(g) + eNote - State symbols are essential in ionisation equations
7)
In general, ionisation is easier if the nuclear charge is smaller, the electron is further
away from the nucleus and there is more shielding from inner electron shells.
For an element, successive ionisation energies get bigger because the remaining
electrons are held more tightly by the unchanged nuclear charge.
Jumps in ionisation energies occur when going from one energy level (shell) to
another. This tells you which group the element is in. The jump in energy occurs
because the new energy level is closer to nucleus and less shielded.
Equations
Revision Notes
1)
Formulae
a)
Elements
b)
For most elements the formula is just the symbol e.g. Na for sodium, S for
sulphur
The exceptions are the seven diatomic elements H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and
I2
Ionic compounds
c)
Covalent compounds
Some formulae for covalent compounds can be worked out from the name.
The prefix mono- means one, di- means two and tri- means three.
Therefore, carbon monoxide is CO, silicon dioxide is SiO2 and sulphur trioxide
is SO3
Other formulae have to be learnt e.g. ammonia is NH3 and methane is CH4
2)
Equations
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
3
2
2
4)
Ionic equations
Ionic equations leave out ions that are unchanged in a reaction. They give a clearer
picture of what is happening in a reaction
To go from a symbol equation to an ionic equation:
o Split up anything that is (aq) and ionic (acids, alkalis and salts)
o Cancel ions that are on both sides
Example
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
5)
Simple Equations
2HCl(aq) + MgCO3(s)
salt + water
2HCl(aq) + MgO(s)
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
salt + water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
e.g.
Methane + Oxygen
CH4(g) + 2O2(aq)
e.g.
2HCl(aq) + Mg (s)
ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2SO4(aq)
Moles
Revision Notes
1.
In Topic 1 we met relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass. Remember that
relative means compared with 12C
The relative mass of a simple covalent substance, like H2O or O2, is called its relative
molecular mass
The relative mass of a giant ionic or giant covalent substance, like NaCl or SiO2, is
called its relative formula mass
Relative masses do not have units
Relative molecular masses and relative formula masses are calculated by adding up
relative atomic masses
2 x 23.0
1 x 12.0
3 x 16.0
2.
=
=
=
=
46.0
12.0
48.0
106.0
The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element in a compound
Write down mass or % of each element
Divide each one by the relative atomic mass of that element
Find the ratio of the numbers (divide them all by the smallest one)
Example Find the empirical formula of a compound which is found to contain 1.40g of
nitrogen and 0.30g of hydrogen
Composition
Divide by r.a.m.
Divide by smallest
Empirical formula
N
1.40
14.0 = 0.1
1
H
0.30
1.0 = 0.3
3
NH3
The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a compound
Molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula
Example Find the molecular formula of the compound whose empirical formula is CH2O
and whose relative molecular mass is 60.0
Mass of empirical formula = (1 x 12.0) + (2 x 1.0) + (1 x 16.0) = 30.0
60/30 = 2 so molecular formula = 2 x empirical formula = C2H4O2
3.
The mole
4.
Molar mass
5.
Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you are told about
Step 2 Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 Find the mass of the thing you are asked about.
6.
First 2 steps same as reacting mass calculations but in step 3 use 24 dm3 per mole of gas.
Work out the volume of CO2 formed from 3.99 kg of iron (III) oxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
Step 1: Moles Fe2O3 = 3990 159.6 = 25
Step 2: Moles CO2 = 25 x 3 (from equation) = 75
Step 3: Volume CO2 = 75 x 24 = 1800 dm3
7.
Titration Calculations
Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you know the concentration and volume of.
Step 2 Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 Find the unknown concentration or molar mass
25 cm3 of NaOH needed 21.5 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 for neutralisation. Calculate the
concentration of the NaOH solution.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2NaCl + 2H2O
Step 1: Moles H2SO4 = 0.1 x 21.5 1000 = 2.15 x 10-3 (conc x vol 1000)
Step 2: Moles NaOH = 2.15 x 10-3 x 2 (from equation) = 4.30 x 10-3
Step 3: Conc NaOH = 4.30 x 10-3 (25 1000) = 0.172 mol dm-3 (moles volume in dm3)
8)
Water of crystallisation
Hydrated salts, like copper (II) sulphate crystals, contain water of crystallisation as
part of their structure (they are not damp!)
The water of crystallisation is shown in the formula by . which effectively means +
e.g. CuSO4.5H2O
The water of crystallisation can be driven off by strong heating to leave an anhydrous
salt e.g.
CuSO4.5H2O
CuSO4 + 5H2O
Blue (hydrated)
white (anhydrous)
Introduction
2)
Ionic bonding metals transfer electrons to non-metals producing positive metal ions
and negative non-metal ions. An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. NaCl
In dative covalent bonds, one atom provides both of the shared pair of electrons e.g.
formation of an ammonium ion, NH4+, from ammonia, NH3, and H+
3)
Metallic bonding metals lose their outer shell electrons to produce a lattice of
positive metal ions surrounded by delocalised (free) electrons.
Types of Structure
a)
b)
o
o
o
o
c)
o
o
o
o
d)
o
o
o
o
4)
+ -
HCl
5)
Polar molecules have permanent dipoles that dont cancel out (e.g. H2O) because the
dipoles are at an angle
Non-polar molecules either have no dipoles (e.g. Cl2) or dipoles that cancel out (e.g.
CO2) because the dipoles are at 180
Intermolecular Forces
Arise from temporary dipole (uneven distribution of electrons) in one molecule that
induces dipole in another molecule.
The more electrons, the stronger the van der Waals forces
Occur in all simple covalent substances
b) Dipole-dipole
o
o
c) Hydrogen bonds
o
o
o
Water has some unusual properties due to the presence of hydrogen bonding
Ice is less dense than water because ice has an open structure caused by hydrogen
bonding
Water has a higher melting and boiling point than expected due to the strength of
hydrogen bonds that have to be broken
6)
Shapes of Molecules
Number of pairs
Examples
Name of shape
Bond angle
3 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
4 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
6 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
3 bonding, 1 lone
(lone pair repels
more than bonds)
2 bonding , 2 lone
(lone pair repels
more than bonds)
2 double bonds
(repel equally)
BF3
Trigonal planar
120
CH4, NH4+
Tetrahedral
109.5
SF6
Octahedral
90
NH3
Pyramidal
107
H 2O
Non-linear
104.5
CO2
Linear
180
OCR seems quite keen on SO2 where S has 2 double bonds and 1 lone pair. Repulsion is
roughly equal for double bonds and lone pairs so bond angle is 120, shape non-linear
Basic Concepts
Revision Notes
1)
Formulae
Be able to recognise and use the different ways of showing organic compounds.
Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element
in a molecule e.g. CH2 for ethene (from molecular formula C2H4 2)
Structural formula is the minimum detail that shows the arrangement of the atoms
in a molecule e.g. CH3CH2OH for ethanol
Displayed formula shows the relative positioning of atoms and the bonds between
them e.g. for ethanol:
All bonds should be shown. Do not put OH for the alcohol group
Skeletal formula shows just the carbon skeleton and functional groups e.g. for
ethanol
2)
3)
Structural isomers
Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
e.g. the molecular formula C4H19Br can produce four different structures
Differences between structural isomers arise from the position of the functional group
and/or the arrangement of the carbon chain e.g. C4H9Br has four isomers
1-bromobutane
2-bromobutane
2-bromo-2-methylpropane
4)
1-bromo-2-methylpropane
Cyclic Alkanes
5)
Percentage yield
Example
In the following reaction, 2.18g of bromoethane produce 0.75g of ethanol. Calculate the
percentage yield.
CH3CH2Br + NaOH CH3CH2OH + NaBr
Moles of reactant (bromoethane)
Possible moles of ethanol
Actual moles of ethanol
Percentage yield
6)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
mass/molar mass
2.18/109
0.020 mol
0.020 mol (from equation)
0.75/46.0
0.0163 mol
0.0163/0.020 x 100%
82%
Atom economy
Atom economy =
x 100%
Example
In the above example
Molecular mass of desired product
Molecular masses of all products
= 46.0
= 46.0 + 102.9
= 148.9
Atom economy
= 46.0/148.9 x 100%
= 30.9%
Chemical processes with a high atom economy produce fewer waste materials
A reaction may have a high percentage yield but a low atom economy (as in the
above example)
6)
Dienes
Compounds containing two alcohol groups are called diols while three OH groups
makes a triol e.g.
Ethane-1,2-diol
propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol)
e.g. hexane
Alkene
e.g. hex-3-ene
Alcohol
e.g. ethanol
Aldehyde
e.g. butanal
Ketone
e.g. propanone
Carboxylic acid
Ester
Amine
e.g. ethylamine
Benzene
or
Alkanes
Revision Notes
1)
General
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n+2
Saturated = only single C-C bonds
Hydrocarbon = contains C and H only
C-H bonds are non-polar (C and H have similar electronegativities) so:
o The only intermolecular forces in alkanes are Van der Waals forces
o Alkanes do not attract charged species (nucleophiles and electrophiles)
In alkanes, the bonds round each carbon are tetrahedral in shape. Each C has 4 bond
pairs in its outer shell which repel each other and get as far apart as possible.
2)
Boiling points
3)
Boiling point increases with chain length more electrons, more Van der Waals
forces
Boiling point decreases as branching increases branched alkanes have less surface
area in contact so intermolecular forces are weaker (or straighter chains can pack
closer, more Van der Waals forces)
Reactions
a)
b)
Combustion
Reaction with oxygen producing CO2 and H2O
Exothermic (produces heat)
Gas volume increases (used to drive pistons in engines)
Alkanes are used as fuels in industry, in the home and in transport
Substitution
H replaced by Cl or Br e.g.
CH4 + Br2 CH3Br + HBr
e.g.
e.g.
Termination step
e.g.
Br2 2Br
CH4 + Br CH3 + HBr
CH3 + Br2 CH3Br + Br
2CH3 CH3CH3
}
}
as a
pair
The reaction produces a mixture of products (CH3Br, CH2Br2, CHBr3 and CBr4).
This means that radical substitution is not a good way of making a particular
product (the reaction has limited use in synthesis which means making a
desired product in a number of steps)
Fuels
Revision Notes
1)
Fractional Distillation
2)
Processing of fractions
a)
Cracking
Crude oil contains no alkenes and more long chain alkanes than are needed.
Cracking converts long chain alkanes into shorter chain alkanes and an alkene
e.g.
C11H24 C8H18 + C3H6
b)
Isomerisation
Isomerisation turns straight chain alkanes into branched chain alkanes e.g.
Octane 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
c)
Branched chain hydrocarbons make better fuels as their lower boiling points
mean they burn more efficiently
Isomerisation increases the octane number of the hydrocarbon
It needs a catalyst and heat
Reforming
Reforming turns straight chain alkanes into cyclic alkanes and arenes (and
hydrogen) e.g.
C6H14
C6H12 + H2
Hexane
cyclohexane
C6H14
Hexane
Arenes contain a benzene ring (see A2 - Topic 1). Benzene can be represented in
several ways. The third one will make more sense next year:
Arenes make better fuels than straight chain alkanes as they have higher octane
numbers and burn more efficiently
Reforming needs heat and a catalyst
3)
4)
C6H6 + 4H2
benzene
Fossil fuels (coal, gas and oil) are very useful to us as sources of energy and as a
feedstock for making petrochemicals
However, they are non-renewable as they take millions of years to form and
increased CO2 levels from burning fossil fuels are leading to global warming and
climate change
We will eventually need to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources
such as biofuels e.g. alcohol made from sugar cane and biodiesel made from
grain
Biofuels are renewable as plant material takes only a short time to grow.
Octane Number
Octane number or Octane rating is a value used to indicate the
resistance of a motor fuel to knock. Octane numbers are based on a
scale on which octane is 100 (minimal knock) and heptane is 0 (bad
knock).
Examples: A fuel with an octane number of 92 has the same knock as
a mixture of 92% octane and 8% heptane.
Alkenes
Revision Notes
1)
General
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n
Cycloalkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n-2
Unsaturated = contain a double C=C bond
Hydrocarbon = contains C and H only
2)
Bonding in Alkenes
o
o
3)
The carbons at either end of the double bond and the 4 atoms they are bonded to
are all in a plane (flat). These 6 atoms are joined by single bonds
The bonds around each C in the C=C bond are trigonal planar in shape. There are 3
areas of electrons round each C (1 double bond and 2 single bonds) which repel
equally to give a bond angle of 120
The double bond is formed by sideways overlap of p orbitals producing a bond
(sausage-shaped clouds of electrons above and below the plane of the single bond
framework)
E/Z isomers
Isomers
___________________
Structural
Stereoisomers
Isomers
_____________
E/Z isomers
Optical isomers (A2 only)
Stereoisomers have the same structural formula but with a different arrangement in
space
E/Z isomerism is one type of stereoisomerism arising from restricted rotation about a
double bond when two different groups are attached to each carbon of the C=C
group
E is short the German word entgegen which means opposite i.e. on opposite sides of
the double bond
Z is short for the German word zusammen which means together i.e. on the same
side of the double bond
1-bromo-2-chloropropene displays E/Z isomerism. This is because one C of the C=C
bond is attached to an H and a Br, which are different, and the other C of the C=C is
attached to a Cl and a CH3 which are also different
Z-1-bromo-2-chloropropene
For an example like this you only need to say that it will have E and Z isomers, not
which one is which
But-2-ene is a simpler example where it is more straightforward to say which is E and
which is Z
Z-but-2-ene
(CH3s are together)
E-but-2-ene
(CH3s on opposite sides of the double bond)
Cis/trans isomerism is a special case of E/Z isomerism in which two of the substituent
groups are the same. Cis corresponds to Z and trans corresponds to E
Sticking with but-2-ene as the example
Cis-but-2-ene
4)
E-1-bromo-2-chloropropene
trans-but-2-ene
b)
e.g.
CH3CH3
ethane
Needs a Ni catalyst
One mole of hydrogen needed per double bond
This reaction is used to produce margarine from unsaturated vegetable oils by
catalytic hydrogenation
Addition of halogens produces a dihalogenoalkane
CH2=CH2 + Br2
CH2BrCH2Br
1,2-dibromoethane
c)
e.g.
CH3CH2Br
bromoethane
If this reaction is done with an unsymmetrical alkene, two isomeric products may
be formed e.g.
CH3CH=CH2 + HBr CH3CHBrCH3
2-bromopropane
and
d)
e)
CH2=CH2 + H2O
CH3CH2OH
ethanol
Needs a strong acid catalyst e.g. phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Temperature must be above 100C so that H2O is in the form of steam
Mechanism for Electrophilic Addition
The high electron density in the bond makes alkenes attractive to electrophiles
(electron pair acceptors, such as Br2 and HBr)
As the bromine molecule approaches the bond, the electrons in the Br-Br bond
are repelled. A dipole is induced in the bond with the Br nearer the alkene being
+
The Br-Br bond undergoes heterolytic fission to produce a cation (positive ion)
and an anion (negative ion), Both electrons from the bond go to the negative ion
Br2 Br+ + :Br-
The Br+ is the electrophile that accepts an electron pair from the bond to
produce an intermediate, CH2BrCH2+
The intermediate is a carbocation (it has a carbon with a positive charge)
5)
Polymerisation of Alkenes
Examples
Equation
b)
Ethene
poly(ethene)
Chloroethene
poly(chloroethene)
Feedstock recycling Waste polymers can be cracked and the products used to
make fuels and other polymers (after separation)
d)
Chemists and chemical processes can minimise the environmental damage caused by
disposing of polymers
Enthalpy Changes
Revision Notes
1)
Introduction
2)
Exothermic Reactions
3)
Endothermic Reactions
4)
Secondly:
H = q/n
Where n= number of moles of reactant (mass/molar mass or conc x
vol/1000)
o
o
Enthalpy changes measured from calorimetry are smaller than the expected
values because of heat loss to the apparatus and the environment
Other reasons for differences from standard values are non-standard conditions
and evaporation of water
Example
The combustion of 0.15g of ethanol, C2H5OH, in a spirit burner increased the temperature of
75 cm3 of water by 12.5C. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol in kJ mol-1.
5)
= -mcT/1000
= -75 x 4.18 x 12.5/1000
= -3.919 kJ
= 0.15/46
= 3.26 x 10-3 mol
= -3.919/3.26 x 10-3
= -1202 kJ mol-1
Enthalpy Changes
The standard conditions for measuring enthalpy changes are a pressure of 100
kPa and a temperature of 298K. Standard enthalpy changes are indicated by the
symbol
Enthalpy change of reaction, HR, is the enthalpy change when the reaction
occurs in the molar quantities shown in the chemical equation
Enthalpy change of combustion, Hc, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a
substance is completely burnt under standard conditions e.g.
C5H12(l) + 8O2(g) 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Some substances cannot be burnt and have zero enthalpy of combustion e.g. O2,
CO2, H2O
Enthalpy change of formation, Hf, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a
substance is formed under standard conditions e.g.
5C(s) + 6H2(g) C5H12(l)
7)
These diagrams show the difference in enthalpy between the reactants and products.
In the space below, draw in an example of an exo and endothermic reaction.
Endo
8)
For a bond such as C-H that is found in many compounds, the value given in the
data book is an average over many compounds containing the bond
Average bond enthalpies have a positive sign because energy is needed to break
a bond
9)
Exo
Using average bond enthalpies gives less accurate results than the other two
methods because bond enthalpies are not specific to the compounds involved in
the reaction (they are average values from many different compounds)
The reaction is exothermic if more energy is released when new bonds are
formed than is needed to break the old bonds
The reaction is endothermic if more energy is needed to break bonds in the
reactants than is released when bonds are formed in the products
H = Hf(products) - Hf(reactants)
H
= (-596 + (-394)) (-1216)
= -990 + 1216
= 226 kJ mol-1
H = Hc(reactants) - Hc(products)
H
= (3 x -394) + (4 x -286) (-2220)
= -2326 + 2220
= -106 kJ mol-1
2850/01
CHEMISTRY (SALTERS)
Chemistry for Life
*OCE/T76076*
Scientific calculator
*
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
Write your name clearly in capital letters, your Centre Number and Candidate Number in the boxes above.
Use black ink. Pencil may be used for graphs and diagrams only.
Read each question carefully and make sure that you know what you have to do before starting your answer.
Answer all the questions.
Do not write in the bar codes.
Write your answer to each question in the space provided, however additional paper may be used if
necessary.
Max.
21
12
22
20
TOTAL
75
Mark
Turn over
2
Answer all the questions.
To produce maximum power in a car engine, the fuel must ignite at the correct stage of the engine
cycle. Auto-ignition causes a loss in power.
(a) What name is given to the number which is used as a measure of the tendency of a fuel to
auto-ignite?
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) The branched hydrocarbon 2,2,4-trimethylpentane is an isomer of octane and has a low
tendency to auto-ignite.
(i)
octane
2,2,4-trimethylpentane
[2]
(ii)
(iii)
name .............................................................................[2]
OCR 2009
3
(c) The process of reforming produces cycloalkanes such as cyclooctane as the main products.
Cyclooctane is not an isomer of octane.
(i)
(ii)
[2]
(iii)
OCR 2009
Turn over
4
(d) Molecules that contain an oxygen atom, such as alcohols, also have a low tendency to
auto-ignite and can be added to petrol blends.
(i)
What is the general name given to oxygen-containing molecules added to petrol blends?
...................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii)
In the box below, write a balanced equation to show the complete combustion of
methanol, CH3OH.
[2]
(iii)
2O2
CO2
2H2O
In the combustion chamber of a car engine, alcohols burn more completely than alkanes
that contain the same number of carbon atoms.
Use the equation above and your answer to (ii) to suggest why alcohols burn more
completely in the combustion chamber.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iv)
Name a product of incomplete combustion of alkanes and say why it is a polluting gas.
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(v)
OCR 2009
6
2
description
type of emission
(, or )
[3]
(ii)
In the above application the beta particles pass through the film and cause a small
current to flow in a detector.
Suggest why an alpha emitter would not be suitable for monitoring the thickness of thin
films.
...................................................................................................................................... [1]
OCR 2009
7
(c) Nuclear fusion reactions occur in the Sun.
Suggest why it is very difficult to reproduce fusion reactions here on Earth.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [3]
[Total: 12]
OCR 2009
Turn over
8
3
Until recently, solder containing lead was used to join metals together. Chemists can use mass
spectrometry to distinguish between various types of solder by the ratio of the isotopes of lead
they contain.
(a) (i)
Use the following terms to label the diagram of the mass spectrometer below.
electric field
ionisation chamber
magnetic field
sample inlet
OCR 2009
9
(ii)
The analysis of one sample of solder showed the existence of three isotopes of lead. The
mass spectrum is shown below.
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, for this sample of lead from the data on the
spectrum.
Give your answer to four significant figures.
53
relative intensity
25
206
22
207
208
mass
Ar = ................................................... [4]
(iii)
Complete the following table, with the help of your Data Sheet, to show the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in the three isotopes.
isotope
number of protons
number of neutrons
number of electrons
lead-206
lead-207
lead-208
[3]
(b) In the past, solder was an alloy of tin and lead. 100 g of one type of solder contained 0.500 mol
of tin. Calculate the mass of lead in 100 g of the solder.
Ar: Sn, 119
OCR 2009
Turn over
10
(c) Solder can be used for electrical connections because both lead and tin are good conductors
of electricity. This is because of the nature of metallic bonding.
(i)
[3]
(ii)
(d) Tin and lead are in the same group of the Periodic Table.
For the metals in Group 2 of the Periodic Table, explain the similarities and trends in the way
the elements react, in terms of their electronic configurations.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [5]
[Total: 22]
OCR 2009
12
4
Known crude oil reserves are likely to be exhausted long before coal reserves. Methods of obtaining
a variety of hydrocarbons from coal are increasing in importance.
(a) The first stage of one process involves the reaction of the carbon in coal with steam and
oxygen. The products are carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the ratio 3:1 by moles.
Write a balanced equation for this reaction. Include state symbols.
[3]
(b) The bonding in carbon monoxide can be represented as shown.
C O
Name the bond represented by the arrow in this formula and explain how it arises.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [2]
OCR 2009
13
(c) The equation for the production of heptane from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is given
below.
(i)
7CO(g)
compound
Hf /kJ mol1
CO(g)
111
C7H16(g)
224
H2O(g)
242
15 H2(g)
C7H16(g)
7H2O(g)
elements:
OCR 2009
Turn over
14
(d) Coal is used as a fuel in some power stations. Sulphur impurities present in coal react and
produce the toxic gas sulphur dioxide, SO2.
The sulphur dioxide can be removed by reacting it with calcium hydroxide in the presence of
oxygen, as shown below.
2SO2(g)
2Ca(OH)2(s)
O2(g)
2CaSO4(s)
2H2O(l)
Calculate the volume of sulphur dioxide (in dm3) at room temperature and pressure that could
be removed by reaction with 1.0 kg of calcium hydroxide in the presence of excess oxygen.
1 mol of any gas at room temperature and pressure occupies 24 dm3.
Ar: Ca, 40; O, 16; H, 1.0
OCR 2009
15
(ii)
Describe the bond-breaking and bond-making processes that occur when nitrogen reacts
with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [3]
[Total: 20]
OCR 2009
full structural(1) ;
iii
iii
arene/aromatic (hydrocarbon)(1) ;
ii
oxygenates(1) ;
bonds break(1) ;
(1) ;
21
octane (number)(1) ;
(1) ;
Marks
Additional Guidance
June 2009
Not oxidiser
allow unsaturated
Mark Scheme
Expected Answers
ii
Question
1 a
2850
iv
iii
Question
ii
2850
21
Total
22
ether(1) ;
allow alkoxy(alkane)
allow CO
allow description of nature of problem e.g. irreversibly bonds to
haemoglobin AW
June 2009
carbon monoxide(1) ;
balancing(1) ;
Additional Guidance
do not allow balancing mark if formulae incorrect.
ignore state symbols
Marks
formulae(1) ;
Expected Answers
Mark Scheme
ii
Question
2 a
2850
204
82
Pb +
0
1
e /
Tl
204
81
Type of
radiation
(, or )
Expected Answers
23
one
mark
each
Marks
Additional Guidance
June 2009
do not allow e-
Mark Scheme
iii
ii
Question
2850
82
82
82
lead-206
lead-207
lead-208
126
125
124
Number
of
neutrons
82
82
82
Number
of
electrons
Number
of
protons
Isotope
added(=20728)(1) ;
sample inlet(1) ;
ionisation chamber(1) ;
magnetic field(1) ;
electric field(1) ;
Expected Answers
25
one
mark
for
each
row
Marks
Additional Guidance
June 2009
Mark Scheme
ii
Total
Expected Answers
Question
2850
26
22
Marks
Additional Guidance
Mark Scheme
June 2009
ii
Question
2850
7C + 3O2 + 15H2
27
correct numbers(1) ;
June 2009
Additional Guidance
Marks
elements:
formulae(1) ;
balancing(1) ;
Expected Answers
Mark Scheme
ii
Question
2850
Total
ON bonds formed(1) ;
Expected Answers
28
20
Marks
con intramolecular
Mark Scheme
Additional Guidance
June 2009