Luf Paa on the Ottoman Caliphate

Author(s): Hamilton A. R. Gibb

Source: Oriens, Vol. 15 (Dec. 31, 1962), pp. 287-295
Published by: BRILL
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LUTFI PASA ON THE OTTOMAN CALIPHATE

by

HamiltonA. R. Gibb
Mass.
Cambridge,

HellmutRitterzum 7o. Geburtstage

So longago as 1929,Dr. Ritter,in the courseof one ofhis invaluable

surveysof manuscriptcollectionsat Istanbul, drew attentionto a
risila of the Grand Vizier Lutfi Pasa (d. 970/1562)on the question
whetherthe titlesof Imdmand Xalifa could be appliedto a sultanof
descent(Der Islam,38, p. 53 n.-54).1 Fromthismanuscript,
non-Quragi
numberedAya Sofya 2276 and entitledXalds al-ummaff ma'rifat
al-a'imma,he quoteda sectionoftheopeningparagraphand thecolophon,
signedby Lutfi Pasa on Sunday, 13 Rama<dn, 961, both in Persian.
Two or threeyearsago, throughthe kindnessof Dr. Tarik Z. Tunaya,
ofMS. Aya Sofya2277,whichcontainsthe corI receiveda photograph
respondingArabic text with an interlinearTurkishtranslation,and
signedalso by LutfiPasa on thesame date.
The manuscript consists of 25 folios, II x 16l cm., numbered 1-24,

fol. 18 havingbeen omittedin the numbering.

The
the page following
in a boldand clearnasx,witha fewwordsrendered
Arabictextis written
two marginaladditions,and occasional
partlyillegibleby overwriting,
errors
of
no
great importance.The interlinearTurkish
grammatical
is in a smallerriq'a hand.Withoutinspection
ofbothoriginals
translation
of the Arabicand Persian
thereis nothingto indicatethe relationship
textsto one another,but the sectionsquotedby Dr. Ritterare identical
in substance.
The characterand the significance
of the treatisewillbe mostclearly
translationof the firstpages:
appreciatedfromthe following
[2a] "Everlastingpraiseto Him to whomit belongsand blessingand
praiseupon His Prophet,and prayerforthe Imdmof the Age upon His
earth-O God, be pleased withhim and those who followhim. After
praiseto God and blessingupon the Apostleof God, I have begunand
1 There is a bare reference
to thisworkby Fu'ad K6priiliiin TiirkiyatMecmuasi,
vol. I, Istanbul 1925, p. 142, followedby a briefcritical analysis of Lutfi
Papa's
workson ?arcfydt.

287

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288

HamiltonA. R. Gibb

set forthin orderthe substancesof the concepts(ma'dni)togetherwith

theirattributes,
and prayerforthe Imam of the Age,he who standsin
ofthecorpsofIslam,strong
theplace oftheApostleofGod,thedefender
to aid theFaith ofGod,whois in no needofdescriptions
[2b] and titles,
he in whomall nobilitiesand titlesfindtheirhighestboast, to wit, the
Sultanofthepeopleofal-Isldmand thecommunities
ofthe nations,the
a just imamin the
subjugatorof the infidelsand repellerof oppression,
of the congregational
maintaining
prayersand the festivals,the courawho
to thecommandofGod,whogoverns
fast
and
holds
geous
excelling,
who
has maintainedin orderthe $ar'i laws
the affairsof His servants,
and reformed
the 'urfidiwdns,who is characterized
by divinefelicity
and accompaniedby the infiniteprovidence,the Sultan son of the
Sultan son of the Sultan,Sultan Sulaimn Xdn, son of SelimXdn, son
of Bayezid Xdn-may God Most High lengthenhis lifeand cause him
to attain what he wills in his earthlylifeand his hereafter,
Amen,O
I have entitledit The SalvationoftheComAnswererof the petitioners.
[3a] concerning
knowledge
of theImdms,by the providenceancd
muInity
aid of God MostHigh.
"To proceed,this is an organized treatiseto set forth clearlythe
since the 'Abbisid Caliphs,down to the
conditionof the Community
and
and
time
to apply the
hereafter, whetherit is permissible
present
name of Imam and Xalifa to the sultanswhentheyare of otherthan
Qurais. The reasonforassemblingthesemattersrelatingto the Faith
tradition(al-ldzimati
andmadenecessaryby authoritative
s-sam'i)is that
certainof the noblestof the asrdfput the questionto me one day, for
the removalof dubiety,and cessationof doubt and acquisitionof certainty(and amongthemsome of the eminentmen),in orderto obtain
decisiveproof,citingas argumentthe statementof 'Omaran-Nasafiand
Sa'daddin at-Taftdzdni.
They said, "What is the conditionof theComafter
the
munity
'AbbdsidCaliphs? For a man, whenhe becomesby
generalagreementand conquesta sultan,of otherthan Qurais,willbe
but is it permissible
a Sultan,withoutdisagreement;
to applythe name
of Imam and Xalifa to him or not? Because 'Omar an-Nasafihas said
in his 'Aqzda 'The Imam is of Qurais and may not be of otherthan
Qurais',and how can thisstatementbe consonantwiththe stateofthe
and of the sultans? If this statementbe correct,thenthe
Community
conditionof the Muslimsis a matterof uncertaintywhen they die
withouthavingknownthe Imam of theirtime,and theirdeath is a
death of the C~hiliya. Is this statementcorrector not ?"
"So at their invitation I have devoted myselfto this high quest and
have thoroughlystudied the books of high repute which separate out

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Lutfi

Papa

on the Ottoman Caliphate

289

thetruthfromfalsehood.These are thefatdwd1 ofal-QA<di

Xdn,2a thefab
wan-Nawdzil
tawdofMacma' al-IHawddit
[4a] wal-Wdqi'dt,Fatdwa'n-Nad Fatdwa'l-Muh4it,
e Fatdwa'lwdzilofAbu'l-Lait,c Fatdwa't-Tdtdrxdnfya,
g Cdmi'al-Fatdwdwa-Badd'i' as-Sand'i' ft
Waciz,f Fatdwa'l-Bazzdzfya,
k at-Tawfiq,
and
i and al-Muxtdrdt,
1Daxirat
tartfb
al-Hiddya
a?-$ard'i',h
o
Zubdat
m
and
and
of
the
ahddit
n
al-Masd'il,
al-'Uqbd
1arhal-Maydriq
P and of otherworkssuch as $arh ir'at al-Isldmq and
and al-Masdbih,
the historiesof Carir at-Tabari and
al-Miskfyafi'l-Fawdtih
r and at-Ta'rifdt,
oflanguageal-Qdmas.Then
Fawd'ih.
s and ofbooks
al-Makkfya
I foundin certainof the books mentionedthat the Apostle of God
appliedto thesultanthename(s)ofImdmand Xalifaand Amir;he said,
"Trulythe mostfavouredof menwithGod on the day of Resurrection
and the nearestofthem[4b] to Him in orderofrank(maclisan)[willbe]
a just imim,and the mosthatefulof mento God on the day of Resurrectionand the mosthatefulof mento God on the day of Resurrection
and the mostseverelypunishedof themand mostremotefromHim in
imdm".He said also, "The Imdmis a shield
rank[willbe] a tyrannical
"Whoso commandsto the good
behindwhichmen do battle"; further,
and forbidsthe evil, he is the Xalifa of God on earth"; also, "Whoso
obeys the amirhas obeyedme, and whosedisobeysthe amirhas disobeyedme". Likewisethe authorsof thesebooks aforementioned
permittedand appliedthe name of Imdmand Xalifato the sultanand the
wdli and the amir. Our 'ulamd (God have mercyon them)have said,
"What is meantby the Sultanis the Xalifa",and in anotherplace "The
1 The vocalizationfatawa is guaranteedby the interlinearTurkishtranscription

withfinalalif.
2a

D. 592: Brock. I, 376.

By al-KaQsi (d. 550): Brock. I, 375.

e
As-Samarqandi (d. 373): Brock. Supp. I, 347.
d By cAlimb. 'Al'addin
al-Hanafi (d. c. 752): Brock. Supp. II, 643.
e By
as-Saraxsi (d. 544): Brock. Supp. I, 641.
Ra.diyaddin
Ibid.
b

By al-Bazzdzial-Kardari(d. 827): Brock.II, 225.

By al-KAqni (d. 587): Brock. I, 374.
By al-Marcinani(d. 593): Brock. I, 376.

k By al-Camill

(d. 932): Brock. Supp. II, 640-1.

Unidentified,and never quoted in the risdla.

m
By
( elebi Tfiqdti (d. 904/5): Brock. Supp. I: 646; II, 301.
n NotAxi
identified.
o Probably that by cAbdallatifb. Firigta (d. c. 800) ratherthan that of CAtfifi
(d. 948): Brock. Supp. I, 614.
P By
al-Bacawi:Brock.Supp. I, 620-1.
q Probably that of al-Banbdni (d. 931): Brock. Supp. I, 642-3.
r By al-BistAmi
(d. 858): Brock. II, 231.
0 Most
probably those of Ibn Kamdl Papa (d. 950): Brock. Supp. II, 668; but
possiblythe workof Zakarlyd' al-AnsAri (?dficite, d. 926): Brock. II, 99.
Oriens 15

19

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290

HamiltonA. R. Gibb

Xalifa is the Imim above whomthereis no [other]imdm,and he is

called the Sultan". Therewill follow[quotations]similar[5a] to these
mattersof discussionfromthe aforementioned
books,if God will."
Beforeproceedingto cite relevantstatementsfromthese sources,
however,LutfiPasa presentsa generalsurveyoftheircontentin relation
to his problem:
"What is meantby 'the Sultan' accordingto the $ar' is the oath of
allegiance,conqueringpower (galba) and power of compulsion.The
Prophetsaid, "The Sultanis the ShadowofGod uponearth,withwhom
everywrongedone takesrefuge".He said also, "Obey the Sultan,even
if thereis appointedto commandover you an Abyssinianslave".
"What is meantby the Imdmis one who maintainsthe Faith and
governsthe kingdomof al-Isldmwith equity. It has been said, "The
Imamateis in Qurai?",and this[Imamate]is used to expressthe Xilifa
ofa particularpersonas substitutefortheApostleofGod witha general
headship(riydsa'dmma)in regardto the maintenanceof the penalties
of the Sar'i laws, accordingto the measureslaid downby the Prophet
(bil-mawdzinan-nabawiya).

"What is meantby the Xalifa is he who commandsto the good and

prohibitsthe evil. If the conditionsmentionedabove are combined[5b]
in one person,-to wit, conquest,power of compulsion,maintenance
of evil,
of the Faith withjustice,commandto the good and prohibition
and the generalheadship-thenhe is a Sultanwho has a just claim to
the applicationof the name[s]of Imdmand Xalifa and Wdliand Amir,
in viewoftheProphet's
withoutcontradiction.
Nay more,it is obligatory,
known
the
without
dies
"Whoso
Imdmof his age dies a
having
saying,
cdhil2death". He said also, "Whoso deniesthe Imamateof the Sultan,
he is a zindiq",and again,"Obey the Sultan,evenif therebe appointed
to commandoveryouan Abyssinianslave,and ifhe werenotfittedto be
and again,
an Imdmwe shouldnot makeobedienceto himobligatory",
"Whosofindsanythingobjectionableon thepartof an Amir,let himbe
patientunderit, forthereis not one of mankindwho goes out from
[allegianceto] the Sultan one span,and thendies in thisstate,[6a] but
he dies a cdhilideath".
"Our 'ulamd(God have mercyon them)have said, "A man becomes
a Sultan by two things:the first,by the swearingof allegianceto him,
executeshis decision."Thus,not one
and the second,thathe effectively
of the authorsof the books mentionedhas ruled or assertedin their
booksthat the Sultan shouldbe of Quraisnor of Hsimi [descent],nor

commissioned by the 'Abb~isid (ma'diinan min al-'Abbdsi) or by any

other person. [Even] Islam is not a condition required in regard to him,

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on the Ottoman Caliphate

Luffi
Papa

291

thatis, in regardto the Sultanwho is investedwithauthority;and the

lands of Islam whichare in the hands of the infidelsare undoubtedly
landsofIslam,notlandsof[theDomainof]War. 1 Likewise,just conduct
('addla) is not a conditionforthe legalityof the Imamateand Amirate.
How thenhas 'Omaran-Nasafilaid it downas a conditionthattheImdm
shouldbe of Qurai?,saying"It is not permissible
[thathe shouldbe] of
otherthanthem",[6b]withoutfurther
expositionorindicationofauthor? On the contrary,
the
ity forthisstatement(bi-ldta'wilwa-ldmahmkil)
'ulamdhave laid downas conditionsthat allegianceshouldbe givento
himand thathe shouldpossessconquering
powerand powerofcompulsion.
"If then mattersare as here set forth,the state of the Community
and of the Sultansis in accordancewiththe ordinancesof the $ari'a,
and thestatement
of 'Omaran-Nasafiis notcorrect,but in contradiction
to the Prophet'ssaying,"Whoso deniesthe Imamateof the Sultan,he
is a zindiq",and in oppositionto the unanimousagreement(icmd')of
theauthorsofthebooksmentioned,
and thisstatement
[ofhis]is erroneous
and void. Moreover,
the?aix Badraddinb. HIusainb. 'Abdarrahmdn
b.
al-Kabir2 has said in his bookKayf
Muhammadb. Abji Bakr b.
a-S-aix
wa-'aqd'id al-muwahhidin that 'Omar
al-gi.td' 'an haqd'iq
an-Nasafifell into error
and contradictedthe Sunna in his 'Aqida;
at-tawh.d
someonehas enumeratedthe questionson whichthey disagreedand
foundthemto be [7a] seven,and somesay more,and Thcaddinas-Subki
has set themforthto a numbergreaterthanhas been said.
"However,if his statement"The Imdm is of Qurais,and it is not
[thathe shouldbe] of otherthanthem"refersto the origins
permissible
ofappointment
oftheImdmin Islam at thetimeofthe Prophet'sdeath,
thenit maybe allowed,as al-Carir[sic]at-Tabarihas said in hisHistories.
Whenthe Prophetdied a disputearosebetweenthe Muhdcirtin
and the
Ansdr,and the Ansaraimedto set up an Imdmfromamongthe Ansdr.
Then Abil Bakr and 'Omar came to the meeting-house
of the Ansar,
and Abli Bakr said, "Ye Ansdr,how shalltherebe an Imdmfromother
thanQuraig? Have you notheardthesayingoftheProphet'The Imdms
are fromQurais'?" The Ansdracceptedthishadit fromAbil Bakr and
thereuponswore allegianceto him. What is meant by acceptingthe
authorityof thislhaditin relationto the earliesttimes,whenthe Imim
was [first]appointedin Islam,is soundand acceptable,and theCommu1 This sentenceis reproducedlater (fol. 2oa) as a quotation from
Fatawa't-Tatdrxd1nya,itself quoting al-Multaqa.t(of
as-Samarqandi, d. 656; Brock.
N.siraddin
I, 381).
2 D.
855: Brock. II, 185.

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292

HamiltonA. R. Gibb

are unaninity of those who followthe Sunna and the Congregation

in
on
this
statement.
His
"The
Imdmsare of
saying
mously agreement
to the earliesttimesof Islam, [however],not
Qurais" is to be referred
to this time. But if the meaningof his (an-Nasafi's]statement"The
Imdmis fromQuraisand it is not permissible
[thathe shouldbe] from
is
Imamate
from
the timeof Abil Bakr
because
the
than
them"
other
as-Siddiq to the end of the 'AbbdsidCaliphs[was fromQurais],then
afterthe 'AbbdsidCaliphsthematterwouldbe problematical
(muSkilan),
has said in his Commentary
to the 'Aqida of
as Sa'daddin at-Taftdzdni
'Omar al-Nasafi: "As for[the period]afterthe 'AbbdsidCaliphs,the
matteris problematical".And someonehas said in [8a] the supercomon the 'Aqd'id: "The matteris problematical
to thecommentary
mentary
because afterthemthereis no Xalifa, since it was with the Rdsidfin
CaliphsthattheXilfa ofthePropheticMissioncameto an end; and there
is no Imdmeither,sincethe Imdmis of Qurais; and as forthe statusof
the Sultans,thisarisesfromconquestand seizure,not fromfitnessand
it is not permissible
to apply the term
therefore
(istiihqdq),
rightfulness
if
are
not
of
Sultans
to
Imdmor Xalifa
they
Qurais".
"Now this statementis void and to be rejected,departingfromthe
and in
of the Sunna and the Congregation,
[doctrinesof the] followers
of
the
sect
the
For
of
the
doctrine
with
RMfidis.
agreement
Imamiya
of
of
the
the
doctrine
who
hold
theseare they
explicitdesignation the
Imamateof 'Ali,and theyassertthe ImamateoftwelveImdms,namely
thenhis son al-H;Iasan
al-Mucabbd[sic]-and the "Book
'Ali al-Murtada,
was depositedand established
of
the
Imamate"
and
oftheCommunity
[8b]
has
continued
reason
this
and
for
withhim
(lam yazal) in his housethe martyrof Karbald', then his son 'Ali
then his brotheral-HI.usain
as-Saxxd Zain al-'Abidin,then his son Muhammadal-Bdqir,then his
then his son Miisd al-Kdzim,then his son 'Ali
son Ca'far
his
son
then
ar-Ritd;, as-S.diq, Muhammadat-Taqi, then his son 'Ali an-Naqi,
thenhisson al-IHasanaz-Zaki,knownas al-'Askari,thenhissonMuhammad 'the Proof',who is the QA'imand the "Expected One", and the
conditionin respectofhis [continued]
livingis similarto thatofal-Xi1dr.
in
relation
to thechildrenofIsmd'illike
are
these
that
hold
Imdms
They
the [twelve]naqibs in relationto the childrenof Isrd'il.1
[9a] "No one thereforemaintainsthis doctrine,which is opposed
of the Sunna and the Congregation,
to [thatof]the followers
exceptan
of the Sunna and the Congreinnovatorwho departsfromthe followers
oftheTraditionsofthe
gationand whopays no heedto thetransmittors
1 A quotation fromAb-i Cacfarat-Tahawi is omittedhere, as irrelevantto the
main argument.

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Lutfi Papa on the Ottoman Caliphate

293

Andno oneaccepts[9b]thisdoctrineexcept
Prophetand theCompanions.
the companyof thosewho have strayedfromthe straightpath; if they
repentand return,theywill gain salvationand escape damnation,but
iftheypersistand do notrepent,theirperditionis accomplished.
O God,
we seek refugewithThee fromthe evils of our own souls and fromthe
wickednessof our acts, and we have returned;and in God [we seek]aid
of [these]questionsfromthe books mentionedby
forthe clarification
carefulinvestigation."
fromthe
From this point Lutfi
to
Papa proceeds quote extensively
sourceswhichhe has enumerated,with the generalobject of demonof the Sultan are the same as thoseassigned
stratingthat the functions
in legalworksto theImdmor theXalifa,and thatin a numberofdefiniThe organizationof
tions the termsare used almostinterchangeably.
thesematerialsappearsto be somewhathaphazard,and althoughsome
I pass directlyto the concluding
of themare of interestin themselves,
sectionsof the treatise.
to al-Maydriq:"The Imim is he who
[2zb] "And in the commentary
theFaithand administering
takestheplace oftheProphetin maintaining
and executionof the
the kingdomofal-Islhmby command,prohibition,
laws and penaltiesand retaliation."As forthe SupremeImdm,who is
the highestSultan, [22a] under whose governmentare most of the
important(al-mu'taddbi-hd)lands of the Muslims,such as thelandsof
and the Yaman, to the extremities
of
Riim and the Arabs,the
.Hicdz
'Omdn,and 'Irdq al-'Arab,
Bagddd,Diydr Bakr, and the Magriband
to the furthest
limitsof Alamdn,and to whose
the lands of al-Ankartis
shade are broughtthe affairsof the age in the periodof the present
like the Sultan Sulaimdnb. Selim Xdn b. BdyezidXdn,he is
conflicts,
of (ma'a) the relevantstipulations
the Imdm of the Age in fulfilment
of the homeand guardianship
of
the
Faith
to
the
maintenance
relating
landsofal-Islam.So ifit is asked: "What is thepositionofSultanSulaiman-is he the Imdm of the Age or not 1?", the answer is: "He is the

Imdmof the Age withoutdubiety,and he is trulythe defenderof the

5ar', and so also [22b]are his deputiesand his amirs;the 'ulamdof the
age servehim,and also the sultansof the Arabs,the Turks,the Kurds
and thePersians,and underhishandare manylands,as we have stated;
oftheImdminasmuch
and thereis rightly
applicableto himthedefinition
as he is the lieutenantof the Apostlein maintainingthe Faith in the
requisitemannerover all the peoplessubjectto him."
1 Marginal addition: 'by reason of the Prophet's saying, "Whoso denies the
Imamate of the Sultan is a zindfq"'.

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294

HamiltonA. R. Gibb

"Thenifit is asked"What is theproofofthenecessity

ofbeingsubject
therewould
to him?", theansweris: "If he or hislikewerenotfollowed,
of
exist
the
of
the
matters
not
regularordering
temporalexistenceand
the futurelife(al-ma'd~wal-ma'dd)amongmankind;and thisis evident
to anyone who investigatesand examinesinto the conditionsof all
mankind.For the majorityof the people of his age are his freedmen
('utaqd') and the freedmenof his fathersand ancestors,and it is not
ofthatfomentor
ofdiscords(ahliddlikadi'l-fitan)
possibleforthefollowers
to agree upon becomingsubject to otherthan him; since thereis no
of any other
possibilityof bandingtogetherforthe support(at-tandsiur)
than the 'Otmdni,because the 'Otmni[s] are blameless1 in respectof
maintenanceof the Faith and Equity and the Cihid. So if thereis born
a childofthatlineage,he willfollowthewayofhisfathers
in maintaining
the Faith and the Cihid, by virtueof the rule of major probability
i-aglaba,sic), and in accordancewiththe customof God Most
(bi-h.ukmi
in regardto His creaturesthe sons resemblethe fathersexceptin
High
a rarecase thatarisesin His wisdom(illdnddirankd'inanli-hikmatihi).
Because thereis not to be foundany man who parallelsan 'Otmdniin
the qualitiesdescribedabove,suchthatit is incumbent
upon the people
forthe
to becomesubjectto him and to be agreeduponhis worthiness
fullSultanateand the Xilifa in thetimeofdiscords".
"Here ends the discourse[23b]in expositionof the Imamateand the
Xilhfa.So those who hereafterdeny the applicationof the name of
Imdmand Xalifa to the Sultan of the Nations,namelythe Sultan son
oftheSultan[sonoftheSultan],SultanSulaimdnXdn,son oftheSultan
SelimXdn, son of the Sultan BdyezidXan, are requiredto presentthe
notby intellectual
evidence,fromSar'i tradition,
?argument(bin-naqli
dina
And
we ask of God, the Helper,the Generous,that
?ar'f
1-'aqlf).
He assist us in all that relatesto speechand act towardswhat pleases
and excellentas a GuarHim,and to all Believers;He is ourSufficiency,
a
as
and
a
and
God's
dian,
Master,
Helper;
blessingbe uponourLord
and
his
and
his Companions."
Mulhammad
Family
of
"Here endstherisdlaon the Imamate,by thehelpand furtherance
of
the
of
the
months
God, on Sunday,13thRamatddnal-mubdrak
[24a]
year961 of the Prophetichicra.By the hand of the pilgrimto the Two
Noble Sanctuaries,Lutfi
God give him aid in thisworldand the
Papa,
next."
The importanceof this treatisein relationto the Public Law (or
"political theory") of Islam, quite apart fromthe specificargumenton
1

Text: musallamilna,which the Turkish translationrendersby cayipsizlardir.

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Lutfi Papa on the Ottoman Caliphate

295

behalfof the house of 'Otmln, needs no elaboration.The basis of its

argumentis that the just Sultan,who maintainsthe ordinancesof the
1 Thereis, ofcourse,no hint
Faith,is in factthe Xalifain his territories.
of such an absurdityas "testamentary
designation"by the last pseudoof
Cairo
claims
deniedin the arguare, indeed,implicitly
Caliph
(whose
mentquotedon foll.7-8 ofthe treatise).The wholerisdlathusbearsout
the view expressedin my paper on Some Considerations
on theSunni
TheoryoftheCaliphate(Archivesd'Histoiredu Droitoriental3, Wetteren
1948, 401-41o). The theory of the Caliphate that it illustrates,and that

copiously,is notthatoftheA?'ariteschool(represented
by al-Bdqilldni,
al-Mdwardi,etc.), but that of thephilosophical
school,adoptedalmost
universallyby Muslimwritersof the post-'Abbdsidage, fromTiisi to
illustrationof the
Ibn Xaldiinand CalhladdinDawdni. Also, in further
forward
in
the
same
article,LutfiPasa nowhereapplies
argumentput
the title of Amir al-Mu'mininto the Ottomansultan.
Althoughthe treatisemay be criticizedas a patentlypropagandist
the
argumenton behalfof the OttomanSultansby one oftheirofficers,
that
it
cannot
be
dismissed.
On
the
argument
presents
lightly
contrary,
all availableevidenceindicatesthatthiswas theviewmaintained
throughout the existenceof the Ottomanempire,in spiteof the supposedclaim
to the universalcaliphatemade forthe Sultan in the treatyof Kii iik
evidenceis suppliedby the collection
Kaynarca (1774).2 Confirmatory
of convocationsto the Ramatdn-sermonsbeforethe Sultans, made by
the late Ebiil 'Ula Mardin(Huzur Dersleri,Istanbul, 1956). In these
formaldocumentsrelatingto an officialreligiousrite,from1172/1759
onwardsto the end ofthe Sultanate,no Sultanis giventhetitleofAmfr
al-Mu'minfn;at the most, and that by no means universally,he is
called xildfetpendhz
("refugeof the Caliphate").3 The bearingof all
thesefactsupon the "universal"OttomanCaliphateof the nineteenthcomment.
centuryPan-Islamicmovementis obviouswithoutfurther
1 The limitationis clearlystated in fol.22b, but thereis evidenta slighttendency
to hint indirectlyat a more universalCaliphate forthe Ottoman Sultan.
2

See T. W. Arnold, The Caliphate (Oxford 1924), 165-6.

3 How little of "universal" significanceattached to this common title may be

seen fromits application by the vizier-historianRa?idaddin to the Ilxdnid Ogzdn
(Mukatabat-i Rapidi, ed. Muhammad Safic, Lahore 1947, P. 141)*

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