IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON PARTS,

HYBRIDS,

AND

PACKAGING,

Free Convection
Vertical
DAVID

Abstract-A
technique

simple
is presented

but relatively
for analyzing

W. VAN

VOL.

PHP-10,

NO. 4, DECEMBER

Heat Transfer
Fin-Arrays

DE POLAND

accurate,
approximate
the heat transfer due to

JAMES

00
S

ature. The finned surfaces and the base plate have been considered to be vertical U-shaped channels and a relationship
for

from

K. TIERNEY

= heat sink;
= ambient condition;

HS

natural convection
and radiation
from parallel-fin
heat sinks.
This technique
accounts for a nonuniform
base plate temper-

267

1974

= sector;
= quadrant;
= wall condition.

the NusseJt number has been used which has a suitable form
for both very long and very short fins. The accuracy of the

Other

Notation

= convective

losses for parallel

technique

lJ

= convective

losses for U-shaped

has been demonstrated

representative

by a testing

program

on a

sample of heat sinks.

base thickness;

center space;

CP

= specific

= channel

channels.

INTRODUCTION

NOMENCLATURE

a
b

plates;

Finned
of

aspect ratio = S/L;

surfaces

rejecting

waste

are frequently
heat

from

used as an efficient
electronic

method

equipment.

These

finned surfaces, commonly

known as heat sinks, are economical and highly reliable when cooling is by natural convection

heat at constant

pressure;

and radiation.

Several authors

have developed

thermal

relation-

= acceleration
due to gravity;
= Grashof number = g/3(T,+,-T,)r3/v2;
= Grashof number = g/?(T,-T,)H3/v2;
= average heat transfer coefficient;

to be only one general analytical

model for fin-arrays,
that
described by Fritsch [ 11. He neglects temperature
variation in
the base plate and uses parallel flat plate relations for the
convective
film coefficient.
However, many practical heat sink

designs may consist of a series of relatively short fins attached

to a heated base plate and cannot be accurately approximated

Gr,
GW
Ii

H
k
L
Nu,
NUH

Pr
0
r
Ra+
S
SF

ships for closed channels

source diameter;

height

of heat sink;

= thermal conductivity;
= fin length;
= Nusselt number
= E/k;
= Nusselt number
= EH/k;
= Prandtl number
= pCp/k;
= rate of heat transfer;
= characteristic
length
=

modified

Rayleigh

= space between

=
=

= constant

= (r/H)GrFr;

fins;

experimentally
and Welling
investigations
[4] who
describing

source factor;
absolute temperature;
in (2) = -11.8

plates, but there appears

by parallel flat plates. The base plate creates additional

surface
area and a corner geometry having a detrimental
effect on heat
transfer
rates. Fin-arrays
of this type, which
can best be
described
as a series of U-shaped
channels
(Fig. I), have

= 2LS/(2L+S);
number

and parallel

however,

been investigated
by Starner and McManus 121
and Wooldridge
[3].
Additional
experimental
have been conducted

have
heat

also developed
transfer
from

does not

hold

by lzume

a mathematical
fin-arrays.
Their

in the limiting

and Nakamura
relationship
relationship,

cases of very

Greek
P
P

= volumetric
coefficient
= dynamic viscosity;

ti

= kinematic viscosity;
= channel configuration

@J

of expansion;

factor;

angle in Fig. 3.

Subscripts
f

= heat source;

LS

heat sink at base of first fin;

line source;

Manuscript
received October 11, 1973;
The authors are with Bell Laboratories,

large or

very small fin length to fin spacing ratios (L/S). Donovan

Rohrer
[5] have theoretically
investigated
the radiative

(l/in.).

revised May 6, 1974.

Whippany,
N. J. 07981.

Fig. 1.

U-shaped

channel

and heat sink configuration.

and
and

268

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

convective

heat transfer

on a plane
effectiveness
tributions

characteristics

of heat-conducting

of radiation

and convection

for

a film

which was not a function

of the fin geometry.
The authors
have developed
a simple but
curate,
from

approximate

technique

for analyzing

heat sinks due to natural

nonuniform
model

base plate

of finite

element

sized

convection

temperature.
elements

size is of the order

applicable

fins

wall, but they were mainly concerned

with the
of the extended surfaces and the individual
con-

to

heat

sinks

and radiation
method

iteratively,

of the fin spacing.

having

fins

rectangular,
and mounted
normal to
constant thickness base plate as shotin

relatively

ac-

with

utilizes
where

a
the

The model

which

are

is

vertical,

the authors

have limited

the scope of this paper to that

is unknown

dimensions

(height,

depth

material

Therefore,
to infinity

fin length to fin spacing

may be considered.

Experimental
presented

which

results

for

various

show good correlation

ratios

(L/S) of from

sizes of heat
with

zero

sinks

are

the mathematical

model. The effect of considering

the fins to be parallel flat
plates instead of the walls of three-sided
open ducts is also
illustrated.
MATHEMATICAL

temperature

source factor),

to that

assuming

positioned

through

source

is
is

are

one-dimensional
gradient.
film coefficients

nels on either
ship

for

the

relates the equivalent

number

conduction

in the base

for the U-shaped

developed

for definition

Nu, = +{I

{[I

+3

chan-

using the relationby the authors

[6]:

of terms).

- exp [-$(s)34]}

24(1-0.483e-0.7a)

dJ=

on

the base area; therefore

side of the fin are computed

Nusselt

line

(see section

of the fin closest to the source

constant temperature
3. The convective

(2)

[I + (l-e~0~83a)(9.14a1~2eVs-Cl.6~)]

1 3.

Through
the use of Newtons
law of cooling, the convective
thermal dissipation
is calculated
for the fin area plus one-half
of the base area on either side of the fin (local front area, see
Fig. 2). The fin efficiency
given by Gardner
[7] is used to
compensate for thermal gradients in lpng fins.

FIN

*3

ENTIRE

X/l
//

SVRFACES -FRONT
SURFACES-REAR

\\

SURFACES
SURFACES

1
Xl\\

HEIGHT

OF

LOCAL AREA
LOCAL
AREA

FRONT
LOCAL
REAR LOCAL

SINK (HI

USED

AREA
AREA

IN LOCAL

AREAS

ERMOCOUPLE

heat conduction
base plate

through

temperature

the base plate

in the horizontal

L-FIN

direction).
3. A series of constant thermal gradients between adjacent
fins (the heat lost from the base plate being combined
with
that from

emissivity

the heat sink base centerline.

2. One dimensional
(i.e., a nonconstant

which

to the real source and which

which

heat loss from

FIN 2

equivalent

source
heat sink

In all cases, the ambient

and surface

and no intermediate

The basic model views a heat sink as a series of adjacent,

U-shaped channels formed by the heat sink fins. The individual
fin temperatures
are used to determine
the thermal dissipations from each of the channels, which in turn are used in an
energy -balance of the entire heat sink to obtain an iterative

made approx/mately

principle

of the real source

the temperature

MODEL

solution. The model assumes the following.

1. A constant
temperature,
vertical
line

or width).

conductivity,

2. Using the source factor

source

where

for both very long and very short fins.

and the

unknown.
1. A value is assumed for the source dissipation.

base plate
relationship

behavior

1974

known. The procedure

is as follows when the device temperature and dimensions
are known and the source dissipation
is

(see nomenclature

has the proper

DECEMBER

and the rest are known:

temperature,

family of heat sinks. Techniques

for extending
the method to
analyze heat sinks having multiple
heat sources are currently
being developed.
The authors
have considered
the finned surfaces and the
to be vertical U-shaped channels and have used a
for the Nusselt number for that geometry
which

ANDPACKAGING,

device

is computed

a vertical, rectangular,
in Fig. 1 and having a

single source of heat at the center of the base plate. This heat
sink configuration
is common
in electronic
equipment,
and
thus

ing parameters

HYBRIDS,

dissipation,
temperature,

the heat transfer

This

solved

coefficient

ON PARTS,

DEVICE,

CHEAT

SINK

END
END

the fins).

4. Gray, diffuse surfaces.

5. A constant ambient fluid

temperature

which

is equal to

the radiative environment

temperature.
6. Heat losses neglected from the heat sink ends.
The model is based on an iterative scheme using a finite
sized element which is suitable for programming
on a digital
computer.
Due to the bilateral
symmetry
assumed by the
model, heat transfer
need be computed
for only one half of
the heat sink.
The iterative process can be used if any one of the follow-

L-HEAT

Fig. 2.

4. The

Surface

radiative

SINK END

area notation and thermocouple

thermal

dissipation

location.

is calculated

for

the

U-shaped
channels using relationships
developed
for finned
surfaces by Fritsch
[l]
and the appropriate
geometric
view
factors for L shaped surfaces given by Kreith [8]. The same

VAN DE POL AND

local

front

TIERNEY:

FREE

area and fin efficiency

used.
5. Using the free convection
temperature

vertical

McAdams

flat

CONVECTION

HEAT

TRANSFER

as in the previous

step are

Nusselt

plate

number

given

for

269

for a constant

laminar

flow

by

191
[CrH Prl I4

NUH = 0.59

(3)

and Newtons
law of cooling, the convective
thermal dissipation from the rear of the heat sink is computed
for one-half of
the base area on either side of the fin plus the fin base area
(local rear area, see Fig. 2). The radiative heat loss from the
local
6.
areas
that

rear area is evaluated using the Stefan-Boltzmann

law.
The thermal
dissipation
from the local front and rear
is totaled, subtracted
from the dissipation
conducted
to
fin, and the temperature
of the next fin then computed

by again assuming a constant

temperature
gradient
between
the two fins.
7. Steps 3, 4, 5, and 6 are repeated until the end fin is
reached. At that point, the dissipation
from the outside of the
end fin is considered as that from a flat plate.

Fig. 3.

Geometry

for determination

temperature
at the base of the first
&+$I)
can be found to be

value.

If they

are not within

a specified

by

less than

that

prescribed

percentage.

At

this

where

#2-h

point

The temperature

(rf)

averaged

DERIVATION

0,

the

The source factor

OF SOURCE

other

FACTOR

is used to approximately

accounts for
The method

account

for the

temperature
variations
in the
used to determine
the source

is to calculate, with the real source, the average temperof the fin which is closest to the device assuming no
loss from

the base area and uniform

TLs - T,= SF(TD-Tf)

above first
(4)

In particular,
the source factor is determined
in the following way. Consider the fin closest to the device on the half heat
sink shown in Fig. 3, where C < D (device overlaps first fin).
In the sector $1, the temperature
at the base of the first fin is
equal to the source temperature,
assuming a uniform
source
temperature.

Using

the

radial

heat

flux

assumption,

Compared
to averaging over fin length, averaging over (I has
been found experimentally
by the authors to give good results
for heatsinks,
particularly
in the case where H >> C because it
reduces the effects of distant parts of the fin. Solving for 0,.

$6

0, = (TD-Tf)kHsb

the

In( -1

D cos $J

It is apparent

that this equation

C>

also holds for

D by defining

For the case of a vertical

constant

temperature

&
$2

H
c

line source,

and using the definition

SF=

d$

(7)

$1 = 0.

Q; = (TLS-Tf)Kjjsb;
Since 0;. must equal 0,
factor (4),

radial

heat conduction
in the heat sink base constrained
within the
sector -02 < @ < $2 (see Fig. 3 showing half of the heat sink).
Symmetry
is assumed about the vertical centerline.
Then the
theoretical
line source temperature
required
to obtain
a
temperature
equal to the above average for the same thermal
dissipation
is computed.
The source factor is the multiplication factor which converts the actual device temperature
above
first fin temperature
to the line source temperature
fin temperature.
This is defined by

(6)

($2

base and the one dimensional

heat flux from a constant
temperature,
vertical
line source through
the center of the

heat

In(C)
Dcos@

@hid
1

than

differences
between
the basically
radial heat flux from an
actual electronic
device located at the center of the heat sink

intermediate

over (J at the base of the first

fin in sector $2 is then given by

d@+$lTD

A similar series of steps is used if a parameter

the source dissipation
is unknown.

factor
ature

Q,=Qs-.

is reached.

base. It partially
vertical direction.

fin at any 4 in the sector

percentage,

the assumed dissipation

is modified
and steps 2 through 8 are
repeated until the assumed and calculated
dissipations
differ
solution

factor.

(5)

8. After the thermal dissipation

of the end fin has been
computed,
the total computed
dissipation
is compared to the
assumed

of wurce

In(m)

cos @

d@

(8)
of the source

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

279

@1=,

ON PARTS,

HYBRIDS,

AND

(9)

RESULTS,

Various configurations
of commercially
available aluminum
heat sink extrusions
were experimentally
tested to verify the
mathematical
model. These heat sinks were suspended in free
air using ceramic standoffs
to minimize
the effects of the
structure.

The

tests were

protected
the test specimen
The heat source, an actual

performed

were painted

with

3-M Corporations

velvet paint to assure an emissivity

in a shroud
-0

Fig. 5.

instrument
power

were

input

calculated

measurement

to

wire

be less than

was estimated

Out of the large variety

have chosen

6Or

sample

for

experimental

they

feel

1.3C.

Error

to be between

testing.

to

Figs.

20

25

-WATTS

and experimenta;

heat sink data.

,I P.

H : 4.90

5 zoGi

10

15

20

SOURCE

Fig. 6.

Correlation

DISSIPATION-WATTS

of theoretical
-

the

H= 4.96

in

0 and

.W

a loI
Y

and measuring

of sizes of heat sinks available,

what

15

DISSIPATION

of theoretical

,
u

+5%.
authors

Correlation

.c!

near unity.

due to thermocouple

10

H=Z.O
H = 5.99

Nextelblack

thermocouple
junction
by forcing
a taper pin into the hole
between the wires (see Fig. 21. Temperatures
were recorded on
a Digitec@
590TC
Thermocouple
Thermometer
calibrated
with a Leeds and Northrup
8686 Millivolt
Potentiometer.
error

5
SOURCE

Temperatures
were measured using a thermocouple
made in
the heat sink by drilling a small diameter hole in the base plate
opposite the semiconductor
device, inserting 30 gauge copper
and constantan
wires separately
into the hole, and making the

Temperature

0
U&P

0
0

from stray room air cursemiconductor

device ir

either a TO-3
or TO-66
case and operated
as a variable
resistor, was located at the center of the heat sink base. All
surfaces

1974

C-CD.

EXPERIMENTAL

supporting

DECEMBER

C>D

cos-($I

which
rents.

PACKAGING,

and experimental

heat sink data.

2.58 -

be a representative
4 through

8 present

observations
for nine of the.heat
sinks tested, giving temperature rise above ambient as a function
of source dissipation
for
the heat sink configurations
whose dimensions
(in inches) are
shown.

The solid

computer

lines labeled

program

which

U represent

employs

the

the results

from

mathematical

model

presented
here. The solid lines labeled P were determined
in
the same way except the convective
losses were calculated
assuming

the fins

to be parallel

flat

plates.

These

computed

results show good correlation

with the experimental
data. In
every case examined,
including
the ones not presented here,
considering
the heat sinks as three-sided
open channels gave
results

closer

to the experimental

Fig. 4.
t JEDEC
size [lo].

5
SOURCE

Correlation
(Joint

10

15

20

DISSIPATION

-WATTS

of theoretical
Electron

data

Device

than

25

and experimental
Engineering

the parallel

SOURCE

Fig. 7.

Correlation

10
DISSIPATION

of theoretical

15
-

20

WATTS

and experimental

heat sink data.

flat

30

Council)

standard

heat sink data.

SOURCE

10
15
DISSIPATION-WATTS

20

case
Fig. 8,

Correlation

of theoretical

and experimental

heat sink data.

VAN

DE POLAND

TIERNEY:

FREE

CONVECTION

HEAT

TRANSFER

271

plate analogy where they differed.

The error was reduced in
one case from 6C to 2C as shown for the 3-in high heat sink
of Fig. 7 which exhibits
relatively
short fins and a relatively

optimization

small value of the characteristic

length r. Also, as illustrated
Fig. 8, a similar but unexpected
improvement
was found

tions.

heat sinks with

relatively

long fins and a relatively

of the characteristic
length r (narrow
small r, however, the P and U solutions

in
for

routines

Thjs

program

has

ACKNQWLEDGMENT

small value

fin spacing). For very

must coincide.

for most dimensions.

been an invaluable tool used in the evaluation

of over 50 heat
sinks, most of which were examined for actual design applica-

for

The authors
conducting

Alexander

wish to express their thanks to Mr. D. R. Asher

the experimental
program and to Miss A. L.

for her assistance

in that program.

CONCLUSION
A practical and relatively accurate technique
has been presented for analyzing heat transfer from heat sinks which have
vertical,
rectangular
fins mounted
normal to a vertical, rectangular,
constant
thickness base plate. This method is applicable to heat sinks having
ranging from zero to infinity,

REFERENCES
111
[21

fin length to fin spacing ratios

and allows for piecewise-varying

base plate temperatures.

[31

The parametric
extremes have not been investigated
completely
to define the limits of applicability
of the method.
However,
some general limitations
can be stated. The Nusselt

[41

I number
ature
that

was developed

channel,
only

temperature
the source
sink tested
increasing
should

for laminar

flow

.in a constant

so the heat sink must be short enough

laminar

flow

is encountered.

A partial

temperto insure

correction

for

variations
in the vertical direction
is provided by
factor, at least through the maximum
height heat
(IO inches).
height

apply

The consistent

(see Fig.

to significantly

5)

accuracy

implies

higher

that

observed
this

heat sinks,

when

the derivation
of the source factor itself does not hold (when
D>>C).
The mathematical
model has been. written
into a users
computer

program

by the authors

which

includes

[61

with

correction

except

[51

the use of

[71
Bl
I91
[lOI

heat transfer,
Physical
Design of
Fritsch,
C. A., Radiative
Electronic
Systems, Vol. I, Prentice Hall, 1970, pp. 248-254 and
pp. 282-285.
investigaStarner, K. E., and McManus,
H. N., An experimental
tion of free convection
heat transfer from rectangular
fin arrays,
Journal
of Heat Transfer,
Trans. A.S.M.E.,
Vol. 85, pp. 273-8,
1963.
C. B., Free
convection
heat
Welling,
J. R., and Wooldridge,
transfer
coefficients
from rectangular
vertical
fins, Journal
of
Heat Transfer, Trans. A.S.M.E.,
Vol. 87, pp. 439-44. 1965.
Izume, K., and Nakamura,
H., Heat transfer by convection
on
the Heated Surface with Parallel Fins, Jap. Sot. Me&
Eng., 34
(261). pp. 909-14, 1968.
Donovan,
R. C., and Rohrer, W. M., Radiative
and convective
conducting
fins on a plane wall, including
mutual
irradiation,
Journal
of Heat Transfer,
Trans. A.S.M.E.,
Vol. 93, pp 41-46,
1971.
Van de Pol, D. W., and Tierney,
J. K,, Free convection
Nusselt
number for vertical
U-shaped channels,
Journal of Heat Transfer, Trans. A.S.M.E.,
Vol. 95, pp. 542-43, 1973.
of extended
surfaces,
Journal
of
Gardner,
K. A., Efficiency
Heat Transfer, Trans. A.S.M.E.,
Vol. 67, pp. 621-31, 1945.
Kreith,
F., Radiation
Heat Transfer. fbr Spacecraft
and Solar
Power P/ant Design, Internationa!
Textbook
Co., p. 211, Configuration
19, 1962.
McAdams,
W. H., Heat Transmission,
McGraw-Hill,
1954, p. 172.
Electronic
Industries
Association,
2001 Eve St. N. W., Washington, Cl. C. 20006.