Dilution Control in Southern African Mines

R J Butcher1
ABSTRACT
The economic viability of many Southern African massive mining
operations is threatened by excessive dilution. In many operations
currently in progress, some stopes are experiencing as much as 115 per
cent waste ingress reporting to drawpoints. This paper examines the
magnitude, causes and types of dilution and presents a set of general
principles for the control of dilution in massive stoping operations.

INTRODUCTION
All mining operations experience dilution at some time or
another and the elimination of all waste ingress in most cases is
impossible. However, experience has shown that dilution can be
controlled to acceptable levels by the implementation of correct
mining engineering principles (Butcher, 1997). This paper
examines the magnitudes, causes and classification of dilution
and proposes the reduction of excessive waste ingress through
the application of the define, design, draw principle. Based on
Canadian experience (Pakalnis et al, 1995), dilution greater than
20 per cent is defined as excessive dilution.

MAGNITUDES AND CAUSES OF DILUTION

A survey of massive mining operations in Southern African
(Butcher, 1999a) has provided the information on dilution
magnitudes and trends given in Table 1 and Figure 1.

1.

Senior Mining Engineer, SRK Consulting, 265 Oxford Road, Illovo,

Johannesburg, South Africa.

TABLE 1
Dilution magnitudes associated with different mining methods.
Mining method

Dilution %

Remarks

18 - 115

Unsupported

Sill and bench

5 - 48

Unsupported

Continuous undip retreat

stoping

27 - 48

Unsupported

Sub level open stoping

(SLOS)

Open benching

< 20

Unsupported

Fissure/vein mining

40

Unsupported

Creeping cone

< 10

Unsupported/
Artificially supported

Cut and fill (CAF)

5 - 15

Artificially supported

Vertical Crater retreat (VCR)

10 - 38

Artificially supported

From the data in the table and figure the following can be
concluded:

From Figure 1 the average dilution is in the region of 40 per

cent. If it is assumed that the average massive mine produces
500 000 tons per annum at a cost of $30/ton then the impact
of this 40 per cent dilution rate would be about $6 million per
annum. An approximate estimate of dilution costs per annum
for three commodities is given in Figure 2. The cost per ton

FIG 1 - Dilution variation with time.

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information used in these estimates is based on real data

obtained from international mining operations. This simple
calculation illustrates the potential cost savings that can be
made through the implementation of a dilution control
strategy.

Table 1 indicates that mining methods with unsupported

stopes have higher dilution rates than artificially supported
methods. This could be due to the lack of support afforded to
incompetent stope rockwalls. It could be concluded that more
orebodies should be extracted using mining methods
involving artificially supported stopes (assuming that dilution
control is the main design rationale).

The data from Figure 1 (Butcher, 1999a) indicate that

dilution levels vary with time. In this respect there could be
two possible explanations:
variable stope rock wall competencies resulting in variable
dilution levels;
poor mining practices due to:
- poor blasting, resulting in the overbreak of the stope
boundaries;
- dilution due to a regular stope boundary profile being
maintained when the orebody width fluctuates; and
- poor mining discipline associated with a lack of draw
control procedures.
In summary, the main causes of excessive dilution are:

incompetent ground conditions;

inappropriate mining methods;
poor mining practices.

THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF

DILUTION
In addition to the planned and unplanned types of dilution
described by Dominy et al (1998), dilution can be classified
according to its origin (Butcher, 1999a). Three types of dilution
tend to affect massive stoping operations (see Figure 3).

Top dilution
This can be defined as waste rock or ore which is of
uneconomical value. This type of dilution normally occurs when
crown pillars are wrecked or if sloughing of the back occurs
during stoping.

Internal dilution
This is the waste rock or low-grade ore that occurs within
defined economic orebodies at the stope boundary (for example,
shale floaters in a kimberlite orebody). This type of dilution can
be thought of in a similar manner to the internal waste between
reef bands. Internal dilution is the most difficult type of waste to
control due to its close proximity to the ore. In certain cases,
internal dilution can be as high as 40 per cent. This type of
dilution is sometimes referred to as planned dilution (Scoble and
Moss, 1994).

Side dilution

The first two points are important in understanding the origin

of dilution for the purpose of formulating a prevention strategy.
The last point focuses on the control and reduction of dilution.

This is the dilution that occurs due to the sloughing of the stope
hangingwall and/or footwall in a steeply inclined orebody (or
from the sidewalls in a massive deposit).

FIG 2 - Cost of dilution for three commodities based on an average mine production capacity of 500 000 tons per annum.

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DILUTION CONTROL IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN MINES

FIG 3 - Classification of dilution.

DILUTION REDUCTION AND

CONTROL STRATEGIES
The magnitudes, causes and classes of dilution which affect
Southern African massive stopes have been discussed above. The
focus now changes to the prevention or control of the dilution
using the define, design, draw principle. This principle enhances

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existing knowledge of dilution control for Southern African

conditions. The method is currently being implemented at Rosh
Pinah Mine, Namibia as part of the mine re-engineering process
(Butcher, 1999b). There are two cornerstones to this principle:

prevent dilution rather than control it, and

if dilution cannot be prevented, then control it.

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In essence. the define and design aspects act as the prevention

component, and the draw aspect is the control portion of the
principle. It may be considered that the control aspect is
irrelevant since all mining methods should be designed to
eliminate dilution. However, in many cases, the most dilution
friendly mining methods do not fulfil the necessary tonnage
requirements for operational viability. In these cases experience
has shown that dilution can be reduced to tolerable levels by
implementing a draw control strategy.

Dilution reduction using the define principle

A major component in the prevention of stope dilution is good
geological and geotechnical definition of the orebody and the
surrounding country rock. The geological definition is important
so that the amount of internal dilution can be determined and that
the boundaries of stopes can correspond with the limits of the
orebody. A common pitfall is to reduce or underestimate the
amount of diamond drilling required for orebody definition. In
the case of an irregular orebody, it may be necessary that drilling
is conducted at intervals of less than 10 m. A study conducted in
Canada (Puhakka, 1990) has shown that planned dilution
decreased by ten per cent when the drilling definition interval
was reduced from 25 m to 7.5 m.
The geotechnical definition of the orebody and the country
rock is important to:

define weak country rock zones which could lead to dilution

influx;

define stable stope dimensions to prevent the failure of the

rockmass surrounding the orebody; and

determine the in situ rock mass strength, so that rib pillars

can be correctly designed and stope spans limited, thus
preventing dilution.
Geotechnical definition can be accomplished with the use of a
rock mass classification system incorporating the effects of
blasting (Laubscher, 1990). It is important that geotechnical
classification is not only carried out in the project planning
stages, but also on an on-going basis during the mining stages,
with the compilation of geotechnical plans being an essential part
of the program.
A useful exercise is the back analysis of dilution levels from
old stopes and correlation with the classification values (Butcher,
1997). The purpose of this exercise is to identify high dilution
geotechnical areas. Cavity monitoring systems can also aid this
purpose (Gilbertson, 1995).

(1994) deals with the dilution associated with different types of

mining methods. Taking cognizance of Elbronds observations
and experience in Southern Africa (Butcher, 1997 and 1999a),
the most suitable mining methods for dilution reduction are
summarised in Table 2.
The table indicates that cut and fill mining is the most dilution
friendly mining method. However, this method tends to have the
highest dollars per ton mining cost and the lowest production
capacities. Figure 4 shows the potential cost-savings associated
with changing the mining method from unsupported to
artificially supported methods.
With regard to the choice of mining method there is a dilemma
in that a high tonnage/low mining cost method may be required
due to the grade of the orebody, but in order to control dilution
the preferred method may have the opposite characteristics. A
compromise can be attained by using smaller open stope
dimensions or a shrinkage method such as a creeping cone
(Aplin, 1997). In these cases dilution can be reduced further by
accurately setting out the stope boundary to the orebody contact.
The non mining of the ore blocks with extremely complex and
weak geologies can also assist. These measures will reduce the
quantities of side and internal dilution (Butcher, 1997). The
levels of side dilution can further be reduced by the
implementation of good drilling and blasting practices (Dominy
et al, 1998).
One of the most common causes of dilution is poor drilling
and blasting. The problem is essentially a design issue, although
there are also control issues associated with it. Correction of the
problem is difficult and time consuming. From experience with
blasting projects on Zimbabwean mines in the late-1990s, a
drilling and blasting improvement programme normally takes at
least 24 months to show substantial results (Butcher, 1997).
Although drilling and blasting aspects are beyond the scope of
this paper, the following factors should be considered during the
project design stage:

the design of blasting rings/fans with blast hole lengths not

exceeding 15 m, thus reducing potential blast hole deflection
and stope rockwall damage;

the design of stope fans/rings with small blast hole diameters

rather than large diameters, hence reducing the charge per
delay and the blasting damage;

the determination of the correct powder factor;

the initiation of fans/rings using Nonel or Electrodet systems
instead of detonating cord;

the design of stope fans/rings using computer models to

determine the effects of different charge lengths and timing
systems;

Dilution reduction using the design principle

The next stage in the dilution prevention strategy is the selection
of the most dilution friendly mining method (taking cognizance
of stable stope spans and pillar rockmass competencies). Elbrond

the setting of realistic drilling and blasting targets, thus

ensuring quality blasting;

TABLE 2
Dilution associated with different mining methods (modified after Brady and Brown, 1993).
Orebody geometry

Rockmass competency

Dilution hazard

Massive/regular

Good

Little to none

All methods

Massive/regular

Poor/medium

Considerable

CAF/creeping cone, SLOS

(with small stopes and post fill), VCR

Irregular changes from massive to narrow (eg

vein) for example, over small strike distances

Good/medium

Internal and side dilution

(due to stope boundary)

CAF, creeping cone, VCR

Irregular changes from massive to narrow, for

example over short strike distances

Poor

Considerable side, internal and

top dilution

CAF

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Mining method

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DILUTION CONTROL IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN MINES

FIG 4 - Cost of dilution attributed to mining method.

the provision for blast hole redrilling in the production

planning stages, to avoid the charging of rings/fans with
closed holes. This will eliminate overburdening and reduce
rockwall damage.

Dilution control using the draw principle (draw

control)
The use of a draw control system in a stoping scenario differs
from that which is used in block caving, the main focus being on
grade control through the reduction of waste mining. The
essential part of the draw management program is the
establishment of drawpoint tonnage calls and acceptable dilution
levels. In many mines these have not been determined and as a
result it is difficult to ascertain the dilution level at which a
drawpoint should be closed. The determination of drawpoint
tonnage calls can be achieved with geological orebody modelling
packages and production benchmarking exercises.
The implementation of a dilution control program focuses on
the prevention of excessive waste draw. In this, it is essential to
have a draw control officer who regularly inspects the
drawpoints, passes and tips for waste. The selection of the draw
control officer is of the utmost importance and experience has
shown that a very competent shiftboss is usually the most
suitable person for this position. Such a person has sound
knowledge of the production process. In addition, a draw control
clerk is required to assist the draw control officer in compiling
the relevant draw control statistics and preparing the monthly
drawpoint calls.
The setting of realistic monthly production tonnage calls is
vital to prevent waste drawing. Experience has shown that if calls
are set too high, underground production crews will draw waste
to attain call. Unrealistic calls normally occur when
over-optimistic forecasts of the production capability of
particular mining methods are made, or when the mineral prices
fall to such an extent that excessive production is required for
mine viability.

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One of the main causes of excessive dilution is ignorance, and

it is surprising that very few mines have dilution awareness
campaigns which highlight the dangers of dilution on mine
viability. An awareness program could be implemented at little
cost and would involve posters at waiting places, lectures and
regular reminders.
A need which is sometimes overlooked is the requirement for
dilution monitoring in mines which do not have excessive
dilution. The main reasons for this are:

to determine the correct level of dilution;

to ascertain whether dilution levels increase with the mining
of different geotechnical areas.
Even in mines which only suffer from a minor dilution
problem, some form of draw monitoring is normally required to
validate grades (Butcher, 1999a). Mines in this category
normally overestimate the dilution level and lower stope grades
accordingly. The correct mine dilution level can be controlled by
a mine geologist conducting a dilution drawpoint audit on a
quarterly basis.
Figure 5 shows the potential cost-savings associated with
dilution control.

CONCLUSIONS
Excessive dilution can threaten the viability of most mining
operations. In this respect it has been estimated that dilution
could be costing some Southern African massive mining
operations in the region of $6 million per year. However, with the
correct definition of the orebody and the geotechnical
environment, the most dilution friendly mining method can be
selected. The implementation of a draw control system is
fundamental to exercising effective control over the drawing of
waste from stopes. These aspects can be summarised as the
define, design, draw principle of dilution control. The application
of these principles can result in major cost-savings at little cost to
mining operations.

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FIG 5 - Potential cost saving associated with dilution control for mines with different capacity.

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