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DecimalWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Decimal
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Thisarticleaimstobeanaccessibleintroduction.
Forthemathematicaldefinition,seeDecimal
representation.
Thedecimalnumeralsystem(alsocalledbasetenor
occasionallydenary)hastenasitsbase.Itisthe
numericalbasemostwidelyusedbymodern
civilizations.[1][2]
Decimalnotationoftenreferstoabase10positional
notationsuchastheHinduArabicnumeralsystemor
rodcalculus[3]however,itcanalsobeusedmore
generallytorefertononpositionalsystemssuchas
RomanorChinesenumeralswhicharealsobasedon
powersoften.
Adecimalnumber,orjustdecimal,referstoany
numberwrittenindecimalnotation,althoughitismore
commonlyusedtorefertonumbersthathavea
fractionalpartseparatedfromtheintegerpartwitha
decimalseparator(e.g.11.25).
Theworld'searliestdecimalmultiplicationtable
Adecimalmaybeaterminatingdecimal,whichhasa
wasmadefrombambooslips,datingfrom305BC,
finitefractionalpart(e.g.15.600)arepeatingdecimal,
duringtheWarringStatesperiodinChina.
whichhasaninfinite(nonterminating)fractionalpart
madeupofarepeatingsequenceofdigits(e.g.5.8144)
oraninfinitedecimal,whichhasafractionalpartthatneitherterminatesnorhasaninfinitelyrepeating
pattern(e.g.3.14159265...).Decimalfractionshaveterminatingdecimalrepresentations,whereasirrational
numbershaveinfinitedecimalrepresentations.
Contents
1Decimalnotation
1.1Decimalfractions
1.2Otherrationalnumbers
1.3Realnumbers
1.4Nonuniquenessofdecimalrepresentation
2Decimalcomputation
3History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal
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3.1Historyofdecimalfractions
3.2Naturallanguages
3.3Otherbases
4Seealso
5References
6Externallinks
Decimalnotation
Decimalnotationisthewritingofnumbersinabase10numeralsystem.ExamplesareGreeknumerals,
Romannumerals,Brahminumerals,andChinesenumerals,aswellastheHinduArabicnumeralsusedby
speakersofmanyEuropeanlanguages.Romannumeralshavesymbolsforthedecimalpowers(1,10,100,
1000)andsecondarysymbolsforhalfthesevalues(5,50,500).Brahminumeralshavesymbolsforthenine
numbers19,theninedecades1090,plusasymbolfor100andanotherfor1000.Chinesenumeralshave
symbolsfor19,andadditionalsymbolsforpowersof10,whichinmodernusagereach1072.
However,whenpeoplewhouseHinduArabicnumeralsspeakofdecimalnotation,theyoftenmeannotjust
decimalnumeration,asabove,butalsodecimalfractions,allconveyedaspartofapositionalsystem.
Positionaldecimalsystemsincludeazeroandusesymbols(calleddigits)forthetenvalues(0,1,2,3,4,5,
6,7,8,and9)torepresentanynumber,nomatterhowlargeorhowsmall.Thesedigitsareoftenusedwith
adecimalseparatorwhichindicatesthestartofafractionalpart,andwithasymbolsuchastheplussign+
(forpositive)orminussign(fornegative)adjacenttothenumeraltoindicatewhetheritisgreaterorless
thanzero,respectively.
Positionalnotationusespositionsforeachpoweroften:units,tens,hundreds,thousands,etc.Theposition
ofeachdigitwithinanumberdenotesthemultiplier(poweroften)multipliedwiththatdigiteachposition
hasavaluetentimesthatofthepositiontoitsright.Therewereatleasttwopresumablyindependent
sourcesofpositionaldecimalsystemsinancientcivilization:theChinesecountingrodsystemandthe
HinduArabicnumeralsystem(thelatterdescendedfromBrahminumerals).
Tenisthenumberwhichisthecountoffingersandthumbsonboth
hands(ortoesonthefeet).TheEnglishworddigitaswellasits
translationinmanylanguagesisalsotheanatomicaltermforfingers
andtoes.InEnglish,decimal(decimus<Lat.)meanstenth,
decimatemeansreducebyatenth,anddenary(denarius<Lat.)
meanstheunitoften.
Thesymbolsforthedigitsincommonusearoundtheglobetoday
Tenfingersontwohands,the
arecalledArabicnumeralsbyEuropeansandIndiannumeralsby
possiblestartingpointofthedecimal
Arabs,thetwogroups'termsbothreferringtotheculturefrom
counting.
whichtheylearnedthesystem.However,thesymbolsusedin
differentareasarenotidenticalforinstance,WesternArabic
numerals(fromwhichtheEuropeannumeralsarederived)differfromtheformsusedbyotherArab
cultures.
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Decimalfractions
Adecimalfractionisafractionthedenominatorofwhichisapoweroften.[4]
Decimalfractionsarecommonlyexpressedindecimalnotationratherthanfractionnotationbydiscarding
thedenominatorandinsertingthedecimalseparatorintothenumeratoratthepositionfromtheright
correspondingtothepoweroftenofthedenominatorandfillingthegapwithleadingzerosifneeded,e.g.
decimalfractions8/10,1489/100,24/100000,and58900/10000areexpressedindecimalnotationas0.8,
14.89,0.00024,5.8900respectively.InEnglishspeaking,someLatinAmericanandmanyAsiancountries,
aperiod(.)orraisedperiod()isusedasthedecimalseparatorinmanyothercountries,particularlyin
Europe,acomma(,)isused.
Theintegerpart,orintegralpartofadecimalnumberistheparttotheleftofthedecimalseparator.(See
alsotruncation.)Thepartfromthedecimalseparatortotherightisthefractionalpart.Itisusualfora
decimalnumberthatconsistsonlyofafractionalpart(mathematically,aproperfraction)tohavealeading
zeroinitsnotation(itsnumeral).Thishelpsdisambiguationbetweenadecimalsignandotherpunctuation,
andespeciallywhenthenegativenumbersignisindicated,ithelpsvisualizethesignofthenumeralasa
whole.
Trailingzerosafterthedecimalpointarenotnecessary,althoughinscience,engineeringandstatisticsthey
canberetainedtoindicatearequiredprecisionortoshowalevelofconfidenceintheaccuracyofthe
number:Although0.080and0.08arenumericallyequal,inengineering0.080suggestsameasurementwith
anerrorofuptoonepartintwothousand(0.0005),while0.08suggestsameasurementwithanerrorofup
tooneintwohundred(seesignificantfigures).
Otherrationalnumbers
Anyrationalnumberwithadenominatorwhoseonlyprimefactorsare2and/or5maybeprecisely
expressedasadecimalfractionandhasafinitedecimalexpansion.[5]
1/2=0.5
1/20=0.05
1/5=0.2
1/50=0.02
1/4=0.25
1/40=0.025
1/25=0.04
1/8=0.125
1/125=0.008
1/10=0.1
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Iftherationalnumber'sdenominatorhasanyprimefactorsotherthan2or5,itcannotbeexpressedasa
finitedecimalfraction,[5]andhasauniqueeventuallyrepeatinginfinitedecimalexpansion.
1/3=0.333333(with3repeating)
1/9=0.111111(with1repeating)
1001=99=911:
1/11=0.090909
10001=9111=2737:
1/27=0.037037037
1/37=0.027027027
1/111=0.009009009
also:
1/81=0.012345679012(with012345679repeating)
Thatarationalnumbermusthaveafiniteorrecurringdecimalexpansioncanbeseentobeaconsequence
ofthelongdivisionalgorithm,inthatthereareatmostq1possiblenonzeroremaindersondivisionbyq,so
thattherecurringpatternwillhaveaperiodlessthanq.Forinstance,tofind3/7bylongdivision:
0.4285714...
7)3.00000000
2830/7=4witharemainderof2
20
60
40
50
10
30
20
etc.
Theconversetothisobservationisthateveryrecurringdecimalrepresentsarationalnumberp/q.Thisisa
consequenceofthefactthattherecurringpartofadecimalrepresentationis,infact,aninfinitegeometric
serieswhichwillsumtoarationalnumber.Forinstance,
Realnumbers
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Everyrealnumberhasa(possiblyinfinite)decimalrepresentationi.e.,itcanbewrittenas
where
sign
,whichisrelatedtothesignfunction,
Zisthesetofallintegers(positive,negative,andzero),and
ai{0,1,,9}foralliZareitsdecimaldigits,equaltozeroforalligreaterthansomenumber
(thatnumberbeingthecommonlogarithmof|x|).
Suchasumconvergesasmoreandmorenegativevaluesofiareincluded,evenifthereareinfinitelymany
nonzeroai.
Rationalnumbers(e.g.,p/q)withprimefactorsinthedenominatorotherthan2and5(whenreducedto
simplestterms)haveauniquerecurringdecimalrepresentation.
Nonuniquenessofdecimalrepresentation
Considerthoserationalnumberswhichhaveonlythefactors2and5inthedenominator,i.e.,whichcanbe
writtenasp/(2a5b).Inthiscasethereisaterminatingdecimalrepresentation.Forinstance,1/1=1,
1/2=0.5,3/5=0.6,3/25=0.12and1306/1250=1.0448.Suchnumbersaretheonlyrealnumberswhich
donothaveauniquedecimalrepresentation,astheycanalsobewrittenasarepresentationthathasa
recurring9,forinstance1=0.99999,1/2=0.499999,etc.Thenumber0=0/1isspecialinthatithas
norepresentationwithrecurring9.
Thisleavestheirrationalnumbers.Theyalsohaveuniqueinfinitedecimalrepresentations,andcanbe
characterisedasthenumberswhosedecimalrepresentationsneitherterminatenorrecur.
Soingeneralthedecimalrepresentationisunique,ifoneexcludesrepresentationsthatendinarecurring9.
Thesametrichotomyholdsforotherbasenpositionalnumeralsystems:
Terminatingrepresentation:rationalwherethedenominatordividessomenk
Recurringrepresentation:otherrational
Nonterminating,nonrecurringrepresentation:irrational
Aversionofthisevenholdsforirrationalbasenumerationsystems,suchasgoldenmeanbase
representation.
Decimalcomputation
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Decimalcomputationwascarriedoutinancienttimesinmanyways,typicallyinrodcalculus,withdecimal
multiplicationtableusedinancientChinaandwithsandtablesinIndiaandMiddleEastorwithavarietyof
abaci.
Moderncomputerhardwareandsoftwaresystems
commonlyuseabinaryrepresentationinternally
(althoughmanyearlycomputers,suchastheENIACor
theIBM650,useddecimalrepresentationinternally).[6]
Forexternalusebycomputerspecialists,thisbinary
representationissometimespresentedintherelated
octalorhexadecimalsystems.
Diagramoftheworld'searliestdecimal
multiplicationtable(c.305BC)fromtheWarring
Statesperiod
Formostpurposes,however,binaryvaluesare
convertedtoorfromtheequivalentdecimalvaluesfor
presentationtoorinputfromhumanscomputer
programsexpressliteralsindecimalbydefault.(123.1,forexample,iswrittenassuchinacomputer
program,eventhoughmanycomputerlanguagesareunabletoencodethatnumberprecisely.)
Bothcomputerhardwareandsoftwarealsouseinternalrepresentationswhichareeffectivelydecimalfor
storingdecimalvaluesanddoingarithmetic.Oftenthisarithmeticisdoneondatawhichareencodedusing
somevariantofbinarycodeddecimal,[7]especiallyindatabaseimplementations,butthereareother
decimalrepresentationsinuse(suchasinthenewIEEE754StandardforFloatingPointArithmetic).[8]
Decimalarithmeticisusedincomputerssothatdecimalfractionalresultscanbecomputedexactly,which
isnotpossibleusingabinaryfractionalrepresentation.Thisisoftenimportantforfinancialandother
calculations.[9]
History
Manyancientculturescalculatedwithnumeralsbasedonten:Egyptianhieroglyphs,inevidencesince
around3000BC,usedapurelydecimalsystem,[10][11]justastheCretanhieroglyphs(ca.16251500BC)of
theMinoanswhosenumeralsarecloselybasedontheEgyptianmodel.[12][13]Thedecimalsystemwas
handeddowntotheconsecutiveBronzeAgeculturesofGreece,includingLinearA(ca.18thcenturyBC
1450BC)andLinearB(ca.13751200BC)thenumbersystemofclassicalGreecealsousedpowers
often,including,liketheRomannumeralsdid,anintermediatebaseof5.[14]Notably,thepolymath
Archimedes(c.287212BC)inventedadecimalpositionalsysteminhisSandReckonerwhichwasbased
on108[14]andlaterledtheGermanmathematicianCarlFriedrichGausstolamentwhatheightsscience
wouldhavealreadyreachedinhisdaysifArchimedeshadfullyrealizedthepotentialofhisingenious
discovery.[15]TheHittiteshieroglyphs(since15thcenturyBC),justliketheEgyptianandearlynumeralsin
Greece,wasstrictlydecimal.[16]
TheEgyptianhieraticnumerals,theGreekalphabetnumerals,theRomannumerals,theChinesenumerals
andearlyIndianBrahminumeralsareallnonpositionaldecimalsystems,andrequiredlargenumbersof
symbols.Forinstance,Egyptiannumeralsuseddifferentsymbolsfor10,20,to90,100,200,to900,1000,
2000,3000,4000,to10,000.[17]Theworld'searliestpositionaldecimalsystemwastheChineserod
calculus[18]
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Historyofdecimalfractions
AccordingtoJosephNeedhamandLamLayYong,
decimalfractionswerefirstdevelopedandusedbythe
Chineseinthe1stcenturyBC,andthenspreadtothe
MiddleEastandfromtheretoEurope.[18][19]Thewritten
Chinesedecimalfractionswerenonpositional.[19]
However,countingrodfractionswerepositional.[18]
QinJiushaoinhisbookMathematicalTreatiseinNine
Sections(1247)denoted0.96644by
Theworld'searliestpositionaldecimalsystem
Upperrowverticalform
Lowerrowhorizontalform
,meaning
096644
countingroddecimal
fraction1/7
[20]
TheJewishmathematicianImmanuelBonfilsinventeddecimalfractionsaround1350,anticipatingSimon
Stevin,butdidnotdevelopanynotationtorepresentthem.[21]
ThePersianmathematicianJamshdalKshclaimedtohavediscovereddecimalfractionshimselfinthe
15thcentury,thoughJ.LennartBerggrennotesthatpositionaldecimalfractionswereusedfivecenturies
beforehimbyArabmathematicianAbu'lHasanalUqlidisiasearlyasthe10thcentury.[22]AlKhwarizmi
introducedfractiontoIslamiccountriesintheearly9thcentury,hisfractionpresentationwasanexactcopy
oftraditionalChinesemathematicalfractionfromTheMathematicalClassicofSunzi.[18]Thisformof
fractionwithnumeratorontopanddenominatoratbottomwithoutahorizontalbarwasalsousedby10th
centuryAbu'lHasanalUqlidisiand15thcenturyJamshdalKsh'swork"ArithmeticKey".[18][23]
Aforerunnerof
modernEuropean
decimalnotationwas
introducedbySimon
Stevininthe16th
century.[24]
Naturallanguages
Telugulanguageusesastraightforwarddecimalsystem.OtherDravidianlanguagessuchasTamiland
Malayalamhavereplacedthenumberninetonduwith'onpattu'("onetoten")duringtheearlyMiddleAges,
whileTelugupreservedthenumbernineastommidi.
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TheHungarianlanguagealsousesastraightforwarddecimalsystem.Allnumbersbetween10and20are
formedregularly(e.g.11isexpressedas"tzenegy"literally"oneonten"),aswiththosebetween20100
(23as"huszonhrom"="threeontwenty").
Astraightforwarddecimalranksystemwithawordforeachorder10,100,1000,10000,andin
which11isexpressedastenoneand23astwotenthree,and89345isexpressedas8(tenthousands)9
(thousand)3(hundred)4(tens)5isfoundinChineselanguages,andinVietnamesewithafew
irregularities.Japanese,Korean,andThaihaveimportedtheChinesedecimalsystem.Manyother
languageswithadecimalsystemhavespecialwordsforthenumbersbetween10and20,anddecades.For
exampleinEnglish11is"eleven"not"tenone"or"oneteen".
IncanlanguagessuchasQuechuaandAymarahaveanalmoststraightforwarddecimalsystem,inwhich11
isexpressedastenwithoneand23astwotenwiththree.
SomepsychologistssuggestirregularitiesoftheEnglishnamesofnumeralsmayhinderchildren'scounting
ability.[25]
Otherbases
Someculturesdo,ordid,useotherbasesofnumbers.
PreColumbianMesoamericanculturessuchastheMayausedabase20system(presumablyusing
alltwentyfingersandtoes).
TheYukilanguageinCaliforniaandthePameanlanguages[26]inMexicohaveoctal(base8)systems
becausethespeakerscountusingthespacesbetweentheirfingersratherthanthefingers
themselves.[27]
TheexistenceofanondecimalbaseintheearliesttracesoftheGermaniclanguages,isattestedby
thepresenceofwordsandglossesmeaningthatthecountisindecimal(cognatestotencountor
tentywise),suchwouldbeexpectedifnormalcountingisnotdecimal,andunusualifitwere.Where
thiscountingsystemisknown,itisbasedonthelonghundredof120innumber,andalongthousand
of1200innumber.Thedescriptionslike'long'onlyappearafterthesmallhundredof100innumber
appearedwiththeChristians.Gordon'sIntroductiontoOldNorse
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/49127454/IntroductiontoOldNorsebyEVGordon)p293,gives
numbernamesthatbelongtothissystem.Anexpressioncognateto'onehundredandeighty'is
translatedto200,andthecognateto'twohundred'istranslatedat240.Goodare
(http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch3521/dissemination/pdf/vol_123/123_395_418.pdf)
detailstheuseofthelonghundredinScotlandintheMiddleAges,givingexamples,calculations
wherethecarryimpliesiC(i.e.onehundred)as120,etc.Thatthegeneralpopulationwerenot
alarmedtoencountersuchnumberssuggestscommonenoughuse.Itisalsopossibletoavoid
hundredlikenumbersbyusingintermediateunits,suchasstonesandpounds,ratherthanalong
countofpounds.Goodaregivesexamplesofnumberslikeviiscore,whereoneavoidsthehundredby
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usingextendedscores.ThereisalsoapaperbyW.H.Stevenson,on'LongHundredanditsusesin
England'.
ManyoralloftheChumashanlanguagesoriginallyusedabase4countingsystem,inwhichthe
namesfornumberswerestructuredaccordingtomultiplesof4and16.[28]
Manylanguages[29]usequinary(base5)numbersystems,includingGumatj,Nunggubuyu,[30]Kuurn
KopanNoot[31]andSaraveca.Ofthese,Gumatjistheonlytrue525languageknown,inwhich25is
thehighergroupof5.
SomeNigeriansuseaduodecimal(base12)systems.[32]SodidsomesmallcommunitiesinIndiaand
Nepal,asindicatedbytheirlanguages.[33]
TheHulilanguageofPapuaNewGuineaisreportedtohavebase15numbers.[34]Nguimeans15,
nguikimeans152=30,andnguinguimeans1515=225.
UmbuUngu,alsoknownasKakoli,isreportedtohavebase24numbers.[35]Tokapumeans24,
tokaputalumeans242=48,andtokaputokapumeans2424=576.
Ngitiisreportedtohaveabase32numbersystemwithbase4cycles.[29]
TheNdomlanguageofPapuaNewGuineaisreportedtohavebase6numerals.[36]Mermeans6,mer
anthefmeans62=12,nifmeans36,andnifthefmeans362=72.
Seealso
0.999...
10(number)
Algorism
Binarycodeddecimal
Decimalcomputer
Decimalrepresentation
Decimalseparator
DeweyDecimalSystem
Duodecimal
HinduArabicnumeralsystem
Numeralsystem
Octal
Scientificnotation
SIprefix
References
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pp.218f.(TheHittitehieroglyphicsystem)
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p38,KurtVogelnotation
19. JosephNeedham(1959)."DecimalSystem".ScienceandCivilisationinChina,VolumeIII,Mathematicsandthe
SciencesoftheHeavensandtheEarth.CambridgeUniversityPress.
20. JeanClaudeMartzloff,AHistoryofChineseMathematics,Springer1997ISBN3540337822
21. Gandz,S.:TheinventionofthedecimalfractionsandtheapplicationoftheexponentialcalculusbyImmanuel
BonlsofTarascon(c.1350),Isis25(1936),1645.
22. Berggren,J.Lennart(2007)."MathematicsinMedievalIslam".TheMathematicsofEgypt,Mesopotamia,China,
India,andIslam:ASourcebook.PrincetonUniversityPress.p.518.ISBN9780691114859.
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24. B.L.vanderWaerden(1985).AHistoryofAlgebra.FromKhwarizmitoEmmyNoether.Berlin:Springer
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(http://web.archive.org/web/20071021015527/http://www.apa.org/monitor/apr99/english.html).American
PsychologyAssociationMonitor30(4).Archivedfromtheoriginal
(http://www.apa.org/monitor/apr99/english.html)on20071021.
26. Avelino,Heriberto(2006)."ThetypologyofPamenumbersystemsandthelimitsofMesoamericaasalinguistic
area"(http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~avelino/Avelino_2006.pdf).LinguisticTypology10(1):4160.
doi:10.1515/LINGTY.2006.002(https://dx.doi.org/10.1515%2FLINGTY.2006.002).
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CollegeMathematicsJournal.Retrieved20070413.
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1819."ChumashanNumerals"byMadisonS.Beeler,inNativeAmericanMathematics,editedbyMichaelP.
Closs(1986),ISBN0292755317.
29. Hammarstrm,Harald(17May2007)."RaritiesinNumeralSystems".InWohlgemuth,JanCysouw,Michael.
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(https://web.archive.org/web/20070819214057/http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~harald2/rarapaper.pdf)(PDF).
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30. Harris,John(1982).Hargrave,Susanne,ed.Factsandfallaciesofaboriginalnumbersystems
(http://www1.aiatsis.gov.au/exhibitions/e_access/serial/m0029743_v_a.pdf).WorkPapersofSILAABSeriesB
8.pp.153181.
31. Dawson,J."AustralianAborigines:TheLanguagesandCustomsofSeveralTribesofAboriginesintheWestern
DistrictofVictoria(http://books.google.com/books?id=OdEDAAAAMAAJ)(1881),p.xcviii.
32. Matsushita,Shuji(1998).Decimalvs.Duodecimal:Aninteractionbetweentwosystemsofnumeration
(http://web.archive.org/web/20081005230737/http://www3.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~P_aflang/TEXTS/oct98/decimal.html).
2ndMeetingoftheAFLANG,October1998,Tokyo.Archivedfromtheoriginal
(http://www3.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~P_aflang/TEXTS/oct98/decimal.html)on20081005.Retrieved20110529.
33. Mazaudon,Martine(2002)."Lesprincipesdeconstructiondunombredansleslanguestibtobirmanes".In
Franois,Jacques.LaPluralit(http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/documents/publi/num_WEB.pdf).Leuven:Peeters.
pp.91119.ISBN9042912952
34. Cheetham,Brian(1978).(http://www.uog.ac.pg/PUB08Oct03/cheetham.htm)deadlink]"CountingandNumber
inHuli".PapuaNewGuineaJournalofEducation14:1635.
35. Bowers,NancyLepi,Pundia(1975)."KaugelValleysystemsofreckoning"
(http://www.ethnomath.org/resources/bowerslepi1975.pdf).JournalofthePolynesianSociety84(3):309324.
36. Owens,Kay(2001),"TheWorkofGlendonLeanontheCountingSystemsofPapuaNewGuineaandOceania"
(http://www.uog.ac.pg/glec/Key/Kay/owens131.htm),MathematicsEducationResearchJournal13(1):4771,
doi:10.1007/BF03217098(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03217098)
Externallinks
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DecimalarithmeticFAQ(http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decifaq.html)
CulturalAspectsofYoungChildren'sMathematicsKnowledge
(http://spot.colorado.edu/~gubermas/NCTM_pap.htm)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decimal&oldid=653893920"
Categories: Elementaryarithmetic Fractions(mathematics) Positionalnumeralsystems
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