ESP 2022 Handbook Jan15

ESP 2022
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES 2
AN INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL WRITING

What is Technical Writing?
It is called transactional writing which requires give-and-take, a dialogue, a follow up and/or
input. When you write a memo, you expect a reaction. Maybe you want a suggestion, a job
completed, or problems solved. If you write a letter you expect to make a sale to receive an
answer to an enquiry. When you write instructions, you know that someone will follow the
steps you've outlined.
The purpose of technical writing is to link you and your boss, you and clients, you and
vendors, and you and co-workers. Technical writing creates action. When you write successful
technical correspondence, someone on the other end responds.
PURPOSES
Technical writing can accomplish many purposes, and is often determined by audience, which
then affects the tone of the correspondence. Let's say that you're writing a memo, and your
purpose is to get action. Who is your audience and what tone is required? If it is for the
manager, the tone for a request or proposal is positive, and polite. If it is to a subordinate, the
tone might be more authoritative.
CLARITY
The ultimate goal of good technical writing is clarity. If you write a memo, letter, or report
which is unclear to your readers, which your readers can't understand, then what have you
accomplished? You've wasted time. First, your readers don't understand your point or can't
follow your train of thought. They must write to follow-up enquiry to determine your needs.
This wastes their time. Once you receive the inquiry, you must rewrite your correspondence,
trying to clarify your initial intentions. You've now written twice to accomplish the same goal.
This wastes your time.
To avoid these time-consuming endeavors, write for clarity. But how do you do this?
Provide Specific Detail
One way to achieve clarity is by supplying specific, quantified information. If you write using
vague, abstract adjectives or adverbs, such as some or recently, your readers will interpret
these words in different ways. The adverb recently will mean thirty minutes ago to one reader,
yesterday to another, and last week to a third reader. This adverb, therefore, is not clear. The
same applies to an adjective like some. You write, "I need some information about the
budget." Your readers can only guess at what you mean by some. Do you want the desired
Budget Increase for 1992, the budget expenditures for 1990, the allotted budget increase for
1
General Studies, Resources Development Centre
German Malaysian Institute
ESP 2022
1991, the guidelines for implementing a budget increase, the budgeted allotment for travel, or
the explanation for the budget decrease for training?
Look at the following example of vague writing caused by imprecise, unclear
adjectives. (Vague word usage is underlined. The flawed example is then followed by
improvements whereby the writing states specific dates and specifications.
ACTIVITY REPORT DRAFT
Our latest attempt at molding perform protectors has led to some positive result. We spent
several hours in Dept.15 trying different machine setting and techniques. Several good
parts were molded using two different sheet thicknesses. Here's a summary of the
findings.
First, we tried the thick sheet material. At 240F, this thickness worked well.
Next, we tried the thinner sheet material. The thinner material is less forgiving, but after a
few adjustments we were making good parts. Still, the thin material caused the most
handling problems.
The engineer who wrote this report realized that it was unclear. To solve the problem, she
rewrote the report, quantifying the vague adjectives.
ACTIVITY REPORT REVISION

During the week of 10/4/91, we spent approximately twelve hours in Dept.15 trying
different machine settings, techniques, and thicknesses to perform mold protectors. Here's
a report on our findings.
030' Thick Sheet
At 240F, this thickness worked well.
015" Thick Sheet
This material is less forgiving, but after decreasing the heat to 200F, we could produce
good parts. Still, material at .015" thickness causes handling problems.
Your goal as a technical writer is to communicate clearly. To do so, state your exact meaning
through specific, quantified word usage.
Use Easily Understandable Words
Another key to clarity is using words which your readers can understand easily. Avoid obscure
words, and be careful when you use acronyms, abbreviations and jargon.
Obscure Words
A good rule of thumb is to write to express, not to impress; write to communicate, not to
confuse. If your reader must use a dictionary, you're not writing clearly. Try to make sense of
the following examples of unclear writing (pg 3).
2
ESP 2022
The following rules are to be used when determining whether or not to duplicate
message:
Do not duplicate non-duplicatable messages.
A message is considered non-duplicatable if it has already been duplicated.
Your job duties will be to assure that distributed application modifications will execute
without abnormal termination through the creation of production JCL system testing.
It's hard to believe, but these examples were written by business people who were trying to
communicate something. However, the examples are filled with unintelligible, uptight, oldfashioned, long-winded, stiff, bureaucratic, obtuse, musty, cobwebbed words which no one
should use in this century. The words are too difficult to understand.
The following is a list of difficult, out-of-date terms and their modern alternatives.
Obscure words
aforementioned
initial
In lieu of
Accede
As per your request
issuance
This is to advise you
subsequent In
as much as
Ascertain
Pursuant to
forward
cognizant
Endeavor
remittance
disclose
Attached herewith
Pertain to
Supersede Obtain
Easy words
already discussed
first
instead of
agree
as you requested
Send
I'd like you to know
Later
Because
Find out
After
Mail
know
try
Pay
Show
Attached
About
Replace
get
3
ESP 2022
Impressive writing is correspondence we can understand easily. A modern thrust in technical

writing is to write the way you speak unless you speak poorly. Try to be casual, almost
conversational. As shown in the preceding chart, replace obscure words with easy words.
Abbreviations and Acronyms

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase that is used in place of the entire
word or phrase. "CPU" for central processing unit, "BTU" for British thermal unit, and "SGML"
for Standard Generalised Markup Language are examples of abbreviations. An acronym is an
easily pronounceable word formed from the initial letters or major parts of a compound term.
"GUI" for graphical user interface, "pixel" for picture element, and "ROM" for read-only memory
are common acronyms.
Basic Guidelines for Abbreviation and Acronyms
When using abbreviations or acronyms, follow these guidelines:
Do not use the Latin abbreviations e.g., i.e., vs., op. cit., viz., and etc.
In most cases, write out the full word or phrase and enclose its abbreviation or
acronym in parentheses the first time the word or phrase is used.
Then, continue using the abbreviation or acronym alone.
A local area network (LAN) consists of computer systems that can
communicate with another through connecting hardware and software. Your
company probably uses a LAN>
Do not spell out acronyms and abbreviations that are trademarked terms.
Avoid using acronyms and abbreviations in the plural form.
Acronyms and abbreviations in the plural form can potentially cause problems for
assistive technologies and for localization.
If you cite a term only once or twice in a document, show both the abbreviation or
acronym and the spelled-out version at each occurrence.
If an abbreviation or acronym is used often in a document, repeat the spelled-out
version at the first appearance in each chapter where the abbreviation or acronym
appears.
When writing out the full word or phrase, do not capitalize any letters unless the letters
are capitalized as part of a standard or begin a proper noun.
floating-point unit (FPU)
Internet Protocol (IP)
Do not shorten trademarked terms.
When using an acronym, ensure that its pronunciation is natural and obvious to a
reader.
The acronym "SCSI", for example, pronounced "skuzzy". A user who does not know
that "SCSI" is pronounceable might expect to see "an SCSI port", not a SCSI port". In
4
ESP 2022
such cases, provide a pronunciation key when you first use the acronym by itself, as in
this example.
A small computer system interface (SCSI, pronounced "skuzzy") cable
connects the disk drive to the SCSI port.
Punctuating Abbreviations and Acronyms
While you usually do not have to add punctuation to abbreviations and acronyms,
following list provides a few exceptions:
Use periods in abbreviations that look like words.
U.S. for United States
No. for number
Use punctuation marks other than a period in abbreviations or acronyms when
punctuation is standard form.
I/0 for input/output
3-D for three-dimensional
Add an "s" and no apostrophe to form the plural of abbreviations or acronyms
contain no periods.
PCs
ISVs
GUIs
Add an apostrophe and "s" to form the plural of abbreviations or acronyms that
internal periods.
M.S.'s
Ph.D.'s
the
that
that
use
Use Verbs in the active Voice versus the Passive Voice

It has been decided that Joan Smith will head our Metrology department.
The preceding sentence is written in the passive voice (the primary focus of the sentence,
John Smith, is acted on rather than initiating the action). Passive voice causes two problems.
1. Passive constructions are often unclear. After reading the preceding sentence, our
question is who decided that John Smith will head the department? To solve this
problem and to achieve clarity, replace the vague, indefinite pronoun 'it' with a precise
noun: "Mike Handle-decided that Joan Smith will head our Metrology Department."
2. Passive constructions are wordy. Passive sentences always require helping verbs
(has been). When we revise the sentence to read "mike Handler decided that Joan
Smith will head our Metrology Department," the helping verbs has been disappears.
The revision ("Mike Handler decided that Joan Smith will head our metrology Department") is
written in the active voice. When you use the active voice, your subject (Mike handle) initiates
the action.
5
ESP 2022
Another common problem with passive voice construction concerns prepositions, look at the
following example:
Overtime is favored by hourly workers. (6 words)
Passive voice
Again, this sentence, written in the passive voice, uses a helping verb (is), has the subject
(hourly workers) acted on rather than initiating the action, but also includes a preposition (by).
The sentences are wordy. The revised sentence read as follow:
Hourly workers favor overtime. (4 words)
Active voice
We have omitted the helping verb 'is', we have deleted the prepositions 'by', and the subject,
'hourly workers', whom initiates the action. The sentence is less wordy and clearer.
CONCISENESS
After clarity, your second major goal in technical writing is conciseness. Conciseness is
important for at least two reasons.
First, remember how time consuming technical writing may be in the work
environment? American workers spend approximately eight hours per week writing, and
additional time reading and revising others' writing. Conciseness in writing can help reduce
some of this time. If you write concisely, providing thorough detail in fewer words, you can
save yourself time and take up less of your readers' time.
Second, concise writing can aid comprehension. If you dump an enormous number of
words on your readers, they might give up before up before finishing your correspondence or
skip and skim so much that they miss a key concept. Wordy writing will lead your readers to
think. "Oh no! I'll never be able to finish that. Maybe I can skim through it. I'll probably get
enough information that way." Conciseness, on the other hand, makes your writing more
appealing to your reader, they'll think, "oh, that's not too bad: I can read it easily." If they can
read your correspondence easily, they will read it with greater interest and involvement. This,
of course, will aid their comprehension.
Let's look at some poor writing-writing which is wordy, time consuming to read, and not easily
comprehensible.
Please prepare to supply readout your findings and recommendations to the officer of
the Southwest Group at the completion of your study period. As we discussed, the
undertaking of this project implies no currently know incidences of impropriety in the
Southwest Group, nor is it designed specifically to find any. Rather it is assure
ourselves of sufficient caution, control, and impartiality when dealing with areas such
potential vulnerability. I am confident that we will be better served as a company as a
result of this effort.
6
ESP 2022
Is that paragraph (pg 6) easy to understand? No, it's not. Why? What gets in your way? Do
you have difficulty following it because you are an outsider and are not aware of the situation
that generated it? That's only one of the problems. The reason you have difficulty
understanding this paragraph is because it's poorly written. It causes difficulty for two reasons:
(a) the paragraph is too long, and (b) the words and sentences in the paragraphs are too long.
Limit Paragraph Length
The number of lines per paragraph compared to the number of words per paragraph is
arbitrary. Obviously, as the writer, you must decide what's best. Some paragraphs, due to the
complexity of the subjects matter, might require more development. Other paragraphs
requiring less development can be shorter.
Nonetheless, an excessively long paragraph is ineffective. In a long paragraph, you
force your reader to go through many words and digest large amounts of information. This
hinders comprehension. In contrast, short, manageable paragraphs invite reading and help
your reader understand your content.
As a rule of thumb, a paragraph in a memo, letter, or short report should consist of (a)
no more than seven-typed lines, and (b) no more than sixty words. Sometimes you can
accomplish these goals by cutting your paragraph in half: find a logical place to stop a
paragraph and then start a new one. Even the next difficult example can be improved in this
way.
Please prepare to supply readout to your findings and recommendations to the
officer to the Southwest Group at the completion of your study period. As we discussed
the undertaking of this project implies no currently know incidences of impropriety in the
Southwest Group nor is it designed specifically to find any.
Rather, it is to assure ourselves of sufficient caution, control, and impartiality
when dealing with an area laden with such potential vulnerability. I am confident that
we will be better served as a company as a result of this effort.
Limit Word and Sentence Length

In addition to the length of the paragraph seen in the example given, the writing is flawed. The
paragraph is filled with excessively long words and sentences. This writer has created an
impenetrable wall of haze-the writing is foggy. In fact, we can determine how foggy this prose
is by assessing it according to Robert Gunning's Fog Index.
Fog Index
) Count the number of words in successive sentences. Once you reach approximately
one hundred words, divide these words by the number of sentences. This will give you
an average number of words per sentence.
7
ESP 2022
) Now count the number of long words within the sentences you've just reviewed. Long
words are those with three or more syllables. You can't count (a) proper names, like
Leonardo Da Vinci, Christopher Columbus, or Alexander DeToqueville: (b)long words
that are created by combining shorter words, such as chairperson or policeperson; or
(c) three-syllable verbs created by ed or es endings, such as united or arranges. ( a
good example of a multisyllabic word is the word mul-ti-syl-lab-ic-)
) Finally, to determine the fog quotient, add the number of words per sentences and the
number of long words. Then multiply your total by 0.4.
Given this system, let's see how the original difficult paragraph scores. The paragraph is
composed of ninety-two words in four sentences. Thus, the average number of words
sentence is twenty-three. The paragraph contains sixteen multisyllabic words
(recommendation, officer, completion, period, undertaking, currently, incidences,
impropriety, specifically, sufficient, impartiality, area, potential, vulnerability, confident, and
company.)
23 (words per sentence)
+ 16 (multisyllabic words)
39 (Total)
39 (Total)
X .4 (fog factor)
15.6 (fog index level)
What does 15.6 mean? Look at the following fog index reading level:
Fog index Reading Level
Danger line
Fog Index
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
Fog Index
17
16
15
14
13
By Grade
college graduate
College senior
College junior
College sophomore
College freshman
By Grade
High school senior
High school junior
High school sophomore
High school freshman
Eighth grade
Seventh grade
Sixth grade
By Magazine
No popular magazine
Score this high.
By Magazine
Atlantic monthly
Time and Newsweek
Reader's Digest
Saturday Evening Post
Ladies' home journal
Modern romances
Comics
8
ESP 2022
The paragraph is written at a level midway between college junior and senior, definitely above
the danger line.
Why is this level of writing considered dangerous? A fog index of 15.6 enters the
danger zone for two reasons:
) Approximately eighteen percent of Americans graduate from college. Thus if you're
writing at a college level, you're alienating approximately eighty-two percent of your
audience.
) Studies show that college graduates read at approximately a tenth grade level. Thus,
even if you are writing to college graduates, you can't assume their reading skills are
proficient.
Given these facts, many businesses ask their employees to write at a sixth-to-eight-grade
level. To accomplish this, you would have to strive for an average of approximately fifteen
words per sentence and no more than five multisyllabic words per one hundred.
15
+5
20
(words per sentence)

(multisyllabic words)
(Total)
20
x.4
8.0
(Total)
(fog factor)
(fog index level)
You can't always avoid multisyllabic words. Scientists would find it impossible to write
if they could never use words like electromagnetism, nitroglyc-erine, telemetry, or
trinitrotolulene. The purpose of a fog index is to make you aware that long words and
sentence create reading problems. Therefore, although you can't always avoid long words,
you should be careful when using them.
Here are ways to lower a potentially high fog index.
Use the Meat Cleaver Theory of Revision

One way to limit the number of words per sentence is to cut it into thirds. The following
sentence, which contains forty-four words, is too long:
Version 1
To maintain proper stock balance of respirators and canister elements and to
ensure the identification of physical which may negate an individual's previous fit-test,
a GBC- 16 Respirator Request and Issue Record will need to be submitted for each
requested for use.
9
ESP 2022
If we use the meat cleaver approach, we can make this sentence more concise and easier to
understand.
Version 2
Please submit a GBC-16 Respirator Request and Issue Record for each
requester respirator. We then can maintain proper respirator and canister element
stock balances. We also can identify physical limitations which may negate an
individual's previous fit-test.
This sentence, now cut into a third, is more digestible. Because we have less to swallow
whole, we can understand the content more easily.
Avoid Shun Words
In the preceding examples, the original sentence contains forty-four words: the revised version
is composed of three sentences, totaling thirty-eight words.
Where did those missing six words go?
One way to write more concisely is to shun words ending in-tion or-sion- words ending
in a shun sound. For example, the original sentence reads "to ensure the identification of
physical limitations." To revise this, we simply wrote "identify physical limitations. "That's three
words versus six in the original version. Deleting three words in this case reduces wordiness
by fifty percent. Shun words are almost always unnecessarily wordy.
Let's try another example. Instead of writing "I want you to take into consideration the
following," you could write "consider the following." That's nine words versus three, a 66.6%
savings toward conciseness.
Look at the following shun words and their concise versions:
Shun Word
Came to the conclusion
With the exception of
Make revisions
Investigation of the
Consider implementation
Utilization of
Concise Version
Concluded (or decided)
Except for
Revise
Investigate
Implement
Use
Avoid Camouflaged Words

Camouflaged words are similar to shun words. In both instances, a key word is buried in the
middle of surrounding words (usually helping verbs or unneeded prepositions). For example,
in the phrase with the exception, the key word expect is Camouflaged behind the unneeded
with, the, -tion, and of. Once we prune away these unneeded words, the key word expect is
left, making the sentence less wordy.
10
ESP 2022
Camouflaged words are common. Here are some examples and their concise
versions:
Camouflaged Word
Make an amendment to
Make an adjustment of
Have a meeting
Thanking you in advance
For the purpose of discussing
Arrive at an agreement
At a later moment
Concise Version
Amend
Adjust
Meet
Thank you
Discuss
Agree
Later
Avoid the Expletive Pattern

Another way to write more concisely is to avoid the following expletives:
There is, are, was, were, will be
It is, was
There are three reasons why the procedure will save money.
This sentence can be revised to read, "The procedure will save money for three reasons," the
original sentence contains ten words: the revision has eight. We've omitted two words by
deleting the expletive there. Your response to this revision could be "so what, big deal, who
cares? What's the point of deleting two words?" Deleting two words doesn't seem like much.
However, the omission equals a twenty-percent savings toward conciseness. In one sentence,
that might be a minimal achievement, but if you can delete two words from every sentence,
the benefits will add up.
The expletive 'it' creates similar wordiness, as in the following sentence:
It has been decided that ten engineers will be hired.
If we delete the expletive it, the sentence reads, "Ten engineers will be hired." The original
sentence contained ten words: the revision has five. We've achieved a fifty-percent saving
toward conciseness
Omit Redundancies
Redundancies are words which say the same thing. Conciseness is achieved by saying
something once rather than twice. For example, in each of the following instances, the
boldface words are redundant:
During the year of 1991
(1991 is obviously a year; the words the year of are redundant.)
11
ESP 2022
In the month of December

(As in the preceding example, the month of is redundant; what else is
December?)
Needless to say
(If it's needless to say, why say. It?)
The computer will cost the sum of $1,000.
(One thousand dollars is a sum)
The result so far achieved prove
(A result, by definition, is something which has been achieved.)
Our regular monthly status reports require
(Monthly status reports must every month; regularity is a prerequisite.)
We collaborate together on the project.
(One can't collaborate alone!)
The other alternative is to
(Every alternative presumes that some other option exists.)
This is a new innovation.
(As opposed to an old innovation?!)
The consensus of opinion is to
(The word consensus implies opinion.)
Here are examples of wordy phrases and their concise revisions:
Wordy Phrase
In order to purchase
At a rapid rate
It is evident that
With regard to
In the first place
A great number of times
Despite the fact that
I of the opinion that
Due to the fact that
Am in receipt or
Enclosed please find
As soon as possible
In accordance with
In the near future
At this present writing
In the likely event that
Rendered completely inoperative
Concise Revision
To purchase
Rapidly (or state the exact speed)
Evidently
Regarding
First
Often (or state the number of times)
Although
Thinks
Because
Received
Enclosed is
By 11:30 A.M.
According to
Soon
Now
If
Broken
12
ESP 2022
ACCESSIBILITY
Another primary objective of effective technical writing is accessibility-placing data on the
page in such a way that your readers can easily absorb it. If you give your readers
excessively long paragraphs, pages full of wall-to-wall words, your readers either will give up
before they've begun or be unable to remember what they've read. In either instance, you fail
to communicate technical information effectively.
For example, look at the inaccessible presentation of the meeting minutes in Figure 1.
These minutes are neither concise nor clear. You are given so much data in such an
unappealing format that your first response upon seeing the correspondence probably is to
say, "Ughh! That's ugly. I don't want to read that."
Good technical writing doesn't just string together sentences. It presents information in a
manner that is accessible and that invites the reader into the correspondence-it is reader
friendly.
MINUTES
The meeting at the Carriage Club was attended by thirty members and guests. After the
dinner, Ray Clemmons introduced the guest speaker, university chancellor George Smith, and
noted his accomplishments and experience prior to education-U.S. Navy commander, Oak
Ridge Laboratory researcher, and politician.
Dr. Smith's topic, Industry and Education
Collaboration, was very interesting and included a history of special projects enjoyed by both
academics and corporate heads. Dr. Smith suggested that we engineers could work with
education to (1) to provide training seminars, (2) help in urban development, and (3) provide
intern opportunities.
Recent industry/education collaboration includes training seminars in
computers fiber optics, and human resource options. The chancellor's primary thrust was a
request for financial aid from industry for urban development. He said money had already
been donated by a large realty firm. Our support would take him over the top. Finally, the
chancellor also noted that industry could help itself, as well as the community, by providing
intern programs for university undergraduate majors. These internships could be half-or fullday "shadowing" sessions where students worked with engineers to get a feel for their future
job responsibilities. The chancellor stated that these internships not only would add to the
students' theoretical knowledge would make them better engineers when we hired them.
Everyone would benefit.
After the speech, our VP introduced new business, calling for
nominations for next year's officers, gave us the agenda for our next meeting, and adjourned
the meeting.
FIGURE 1: Inaccessible Meeting Minutes
13
ESP 2022
How can you make these minutes more inviting? How can you break up the wall-towall words and make key points jump off the page? To achieve accessibility, you need to
reformat using any of the following highlighting techniques:
1. White space: Achieved by indenting or double/triple spacing between lines, words,
or even letters within words.
2. Numbering: Enumeration creates itemized lists which can show sequence or
importance and which allow for future easy reference. The first item listed is either
the first in a sequence or the most important point in a list.
3. *Bullets: Bullets are created by using asterisks, dashes, a lowercase o, degree sign,
open boxes, etc.
4. Alphabetization: This is another way to create itemized lists. The only negative
aspect is that you'll run out at twenty-six. If you have twenty-seven points, then what
do you do?
5. Boldface: Created on a computer or typewriter by double striking.
6. All caps: this is the low-tech answer to boldfacing. Whereas you need computer
technology to boldface, you can highlight with all caps even if you're using an antique
typewriter.
7. Underlining: underlining and all caps are similar in that you must use both carefully.
If you underline too frequently or place frequently or place too much information in all
caps, none of your information will be emphatics. You must choose carefully what you
want to emphasize.
8. Italics: italics and underlining are similar highlighting techniques.
9. Heading: heading are an excellent way to break up the monotony of wall-to-wall
words and to achieve clarity. When you use heading (one to three words, preferable
underlined, set in boldface, and/or set apart from the text to create white space), you
tell the reader in just a few words what is to come in the subsequent paragraph(s).
This gives the reader a running start and helps clarify your intent.
10. Windowing: if you indent your key points and enclose them in a box, you're
windowing. Here's an example:
Note: be sure to hand-tighten the nuts at this point. Once you've completed
the installation, then go back and securely tighten all nuts.
Windowing draws your reader's attentions to an idea, thus making it more emphatic.
You can also use underlining and boldface in the box, as we have in the preceding
example.
11. Emphatics words: in the preceding window, we preface our comments with the
emphatics word Note. Other such emphatics words are caution, danger, and warning.
12. Color: another way to make emphatic words leap off the page is to color them.
Danger would be red, for instance, caution yellow, and warning orange. You can
emphasize key ideas within a memo or letter by using a highlighter.
14
ESP 2022
13. Punctuation: though not quite as emphatic as other highlighting techniques,

Punctuation marks such as brackets (), parentheses (), quotation marks " ", or
exclamation marks '!' can draw a reader's attention to a key idea.
14. Graphics: to have clearer view of the message.
Highlighting is not an irrelevant aspect of effective writing. If your goal is to communicate
effectively, highlighting is mandatory. With this in mind, let's reformat the previously
reviewed meeting minutes (figure 2).
Once we reformat the text, using number, underlining, headings, bullets, and white
space, the minutes not only are more appealing visually but also they are easier to
access. At a glance, readers can see that three main topics were discussed in the speech,
and they can easily refer to the [point in which they are most interested.
MINUTES
The meeting at the Carriage club was attended by thirty members and guests. After
the dinner, Ray Clemmons introduced the guest speaker, University chancellor
George Smith, and noted his accomplishment and experience prior to education:
o U.S Navy commander
o Oak Ridge Laboratory researcher
o Politician
Dr. Smith's topic, Industry and Education Collaboration, was very interesting and
included a history of special projects enjoyed by both academics and corporate
heads. Dr.Smith suggested that we engineers could work with education in the
following three ways:
1. Provide training seminars: recent industry/education training collaborations
include sessions on computers, fiber optics, and human resource options.
2. Provide intern opportunities: industry could help itself and the community
through internship for university students. This internship could be half or full*Bullet points and enumerated lists
day "shadowing" where student's worker with engineers to acquire hand-on
experience to balance their theoretical knowledge gained in college. This
would make the students better engineers when we hired them.
3. Help with urban development: this was Dr. Smith's primary thrust. He needed
financial aid from industry. A large donation had already been received from a
realty firm. Our support would push him over the top.
After the speech, our VP introduces new business, calling for nominations for next
year's officers, gave us the agenda for our next meeting, and adjourned the meeting.
FIGURE 2: Accessible Meeting Minutes
*Bullet points and enumerated lists

If the sentences in a paragraph need to be written in sequence, then this suggests that there
is something that relates them and they form some kind of a list. The idea that relates them
15
ESP 2022
should be used to introduce the list. For example, the following paragraph is a mess because
the writer is trying to make what is clearly a list into one paragraph:
Getting to university on time for a 9.00am lecture involves following a number of
steps. First of all, you have to set your alarm - you will need to do this before
you go to bed the previous night. When the alarm goes off you will need to get
out of bed. You should next take a shower and then get yourself dressed. After
getting dressed you should have some breakfast. After breakfast you have to
walk to the tube station, and then buy a ticket when you get there. Once you
have your ticket you can catch the next train to Stepney Green. When the train
arrives at Stepney Green you should get off and then finally walk to the
University.
The following is much simpler and clearer:
To get to university for a 9.00am lecture:
1. Set alarm before going to bed the previous night
2. Get out of bed when the alarm goes off
3. Take a shower
4. Get dressed
5. Have some breakfast
6. Walk to the tube station
7. Buy ticket
8. Catch next train to Stepney Green
9. Get out at Stepney Green
10. Walk to the University
The simple rule of thumb is: if what you are describing is a list, then you should always display
it as a list.
The above is an example of an enumerated list. The items need to be shown in numbered
order. If there is no specific ordering of the items in the list, then you should use bullet points
instead. For example, consider the following paragraph:
Good software engineering is based on a number of key principles. One such
principle is getting a good understanding of the customer requirements
(possibly by prototyping). It is also important to deliver in regular increments,
involving the customer/user as much as possible. Another principle is that it is
necessary to do testing throughout, with unit testing being especially crucial. In
addition to the previous principles, you need to be able to maintain good
communication within the project team (and also with the customer).
The paragraph is much better when rewritten using bullet points:
16
ESP 2022
Good software engineering is based on the following key principles:

Get a good understanding of the customer requirements, possibly by
prototyping.
Deliver in regular increments, involving the customer/user as much as possible.
Do testing throughout (unit testing is especially crucial).
Maintain good communication within the project team (and also with the
customer).
ACCURACY
Clarity, conciseness, and accessibility are primary objectives of technical writing.
However, if your writing is clear, concise, and accessible but incorrect-grammatically or
textually-then you've wasted your time and destroyed your credibility. To be effective, your
technical writing must be accurate.
Accuracy in technical writing requires that you proofread your text. The examples of
inaccurate technical writing on page 17 are caused by poor proof-reading (we've underlined
the errors to highlight them).
First City Federal Saving and Loan
1223 Main
Oak Park, Montana
October 12, 1991
Mr, and Mrs David Harper
2447N. Purdom
Oak Park, Montana
Note that the First City Federal Savings and Loan incorrectly put the customer's street as the
last name.
17
ESP 2022
National Bank
1800 Commerce Street
Houston,TX
September 9, 1991
Adler's Dog and Oat Shop
8893 Southside
Bellaire, TX
Dear Sr:
In response to your request, your account with us has been close out.
We are summated a check in the amount of $468.72 (your existing balance). If
you have any questions, please fill free to contact us.
In additional to all the other errors, it should be "Dog and Cat Shop," of course. All the errors
make the writer look incompetent.
To ensure accurate writing, use the following proofreading tips:
1.
Let someone else read it. We miss errors in our own writing for two reasons. First, we
make the error because we don't know any better. Second, we read what we think we
wrote, not what we actually wrote. Another reader might help you catch errors.
2.
Use the gestation approaches. Let your correspondence sit for a while. Then, when you
read it, you'll be more objective.
3.
Read backwards. You should only read backwards to slow yourself down and to focus
on one word at a time to catch typographical errors.
4.
Read one line at a time. Use a ruler or scroll down your PC to isolate one line of text.
Again, this slows you down for proofing.
5.
Read long words syllable by syllable. Do you see that the word responsibility is
misspelled? You can catch this error if you read it one syllable at a time (re-spon-si-bi-lity)
6.
Use technology. Computer spell checks are useful for catching more errors. They might
miss proper names, homonyms (their, they're, or there) or incorrectly used words such
as device to mean devise.
18
ESP 2022
7.
Check figures, scientific and technical equations, and abbreviations. If you mean
$400,000, don't write $ 40,000. Double check any numbers or calculations. If you mean
to may say HCI (hydrochloric acid), don't write HC (a hydro-carbon).
8.
Read it out loud. Sometimes we can hear errors that we can't see. For example, we
know that an outline is incorrect. It just sounds wrong. An out-line sounds better and is
correct.
9.
Try scattershot proofing. Let your eyes roam around the page at random. Sometimes
errors look wrong at a glance. If you wander around the page randomly reading, you
often can isolate an error just by stumbling upon it.
10.
Use a dictionary. If you're uncertain. Look it up. If you commit errors in your technical
writing, your readers will think one of two things about you and your company: (a) They'll
either conclude that you are stupid, or (b) you're lazy, in either situation, you lose. Errors
create a negative impression at best; at worst, a typographical error relaying false
figures, calculations, amounts, equations, or scientific/medical data can be disastrous.
19
ESP 2022
MECHANICS OF REPORT CONSTRUCTION

Strategies for improving sentence clarity by using:
1. Active Voice
2. Parallel Structure
3. Transitions
4. Word Choice
5. Non-sexist Language
1. ACTIVE VOICE
Sentence in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because
active-voice constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In
addition, changing from passive voice to active often results in a more concise sentence.
Excessive use of the passive voice only makes writing more tedious to read.
A. Indirect vs. Direct
Passive (indirect)
Active (direct)
The entrance exam was failed by over

one-third of the applicants to the
school.
Over one-third of the applicants to the

school failed the entrance exam.
The brakes were slammed on her as

the car sped downhill.
She slammed on the brakes as the

car sped downhill.
Your bicycle has been damaged.
I have damaged your bicycle.
B. Wordy vs. Concise
Passive (more wordy)
Active (more concise)
Action on the bill is being

considered by the committee.
The committee is considering action on the

bill.
By then, the soundtrack will have

been completely remixed by the
sound engineers.
By then, the sound engineers will have

completely remixed the soundtrack.
20
ESP 2022
C. Unclear vs. Clear
PASSIVE (unclear)
ACTIVE (clear)
To save time, the paper was written on a

computer. (who was saving time?)
To save time, Daisy wrote the paper on a

computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking Seeking to lay off workers without taking
the blame, consultants were hired to break the blame, the CEO hired consultants to
the bad news. (who was seeking to lay off break the bad news.
workers?)
2. PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Parallel structure is the presentation of related information in a sentence in a consistent,
balanced manner, thereby contributing to writing clarity.
Parallel structure is particularly
important in sentences containing conjunctions, such as and, but, or, eitheror,
neithernor, not onlybut also.
Balancing Items in a Series
NOT PARALLEL
Don enjoys swimming, tennis, and to work
in his garden.
PARALLEL
Don enjoys swimming, tennis, and
working in his garden OR
Don enjoys swimming, tennis, and
gardening.
The parallel sentences are clearer than the non-parallel one because the items in the
series are balanced grammatically; that is, they are all NOUNS.
Jason had to vacuum the carpets, to wash Jason has to vacuum the carpets, to wash
the
windows,
and
emptying
the the windows, and to empty the wastepaper
wastepaper baskets before he leaves work baskets before he goes home.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because the items in the
series all begin with an infinitive phrase. (An infinitive phrase is 'to' followed by a verb;
this combination forms a noun)
21
ESP 2022
Balancing Similar Information

NOT PARALLEL
My sister's dog is frisky but obeys well.
PARALLEL
My sister's dog is frisky but obedient.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because the related
information has been balanced grammatically; that is frisky and obedient are both
adjectives.
Howard promised to attend the party and
he would bring refreshments.
Howard promised to attend the party and

to bring refreshments. OR
Howard promised that he would attend
the party and that he would bring
refreshments..
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because of their grammatical
consistency, that is through infinitive phrases (the first parallel sentence) and dependent
clauses (the second parallel sentence).
Balancing Contrasting Information

NOT PARALLEL
PARALLEL
Lindsay likes small discussion classes Lindsay likes small discussion classes
better.
better than huge lecture courses.
The parallel sentences are clearer than the non-parallel one because it indicates what is
being contrasted with small discussion classes.
Not only is Dr. Libby a fine dentist but also
an outstanding guitarist.
Dr. Libby is not only a fine dentist but also

an outstanding guitarist.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because the information
following the correlative conjunctions (not only, but also) is balanced grammatically, that
is, by two adjectives and one noun.
22
ESP 2022
Parallelism
How do you write parallel subheading?
Headings and subheadings that set off specific sections of your report also need to be
parallel. For example, if you use a two-word adjective/noun combination to introduce one
section of your report (i.e. Program Advantages), then use the same grammatical structure to
introduce the next section (i.e. Anticipated Problems).
Look at the following example outlines:
WRONG
BUT
I. Modifying a Graph
A. Data selection updating
B. To add or delete columns
C. How to change colors
D. Titles and legends
I. Modifying a Graph
A. Changing the data
B. Adding or deleting columns
C. Changing the colors
D. Adding titles and legends
I. Three stages of the process

A. The specimen is dried
B. Removing all pollutants
C. Atomization
I. Three stages of the process

A. The specimen is dried
B. The pollutants are removed
C. The specimen is atomized
I.
II.
III.
The Overall View

To Understand the Terminal Phase
About the Constant-Bearing
Concept
I.
II.
III.
The Overall View

The Terminal Phase
The Constant-Bearing Concept
It is not necessary for all your headings to be parallel with all your subheadings, but headings
should be parallel with each other and subheadings should be parallel with each other.
23
ESP 2022
3. TRANSITIONAL DEVICES (Connecting Words)

Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one
idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases. And finally,
transitional devices link your sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are
no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.
Look at the right column of the table for examples of words or phrases that express this logical
relationship.
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP
Similarity
Exception I Contrast
Sequence I Order
Time
Example
Emphasis
Place I Position
Cause and effect
Additional support or
evidence
Conclusion I Summary
TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Also, in the same way, just as.so too, likewise,
similarly
But, however, in spite of, on the one hand.on the
other hand, nevertheless, notwithstanding, in contrast,
on the contrary, still, yet
First, second, third,.next, then, finally
After, afterward, at last, before, currently, during,
earlier, immediately, later, meanwhile, now, recently,
simultaneously, subsequently, then
For example, for instance, namely, specifically, to
illustrate
Even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
Above, adjacent, below beyond, here, in front, nearby,
there
Accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus
Additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally
important, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover,
then
finally, in a word, in brief, in conclusion, in the end, in
the final analysis, on the whole, thus, to conclude, to
summarize, in sum, in summary
4. WORD CHOICE (Words which are often confused)

What is the difference between the two words?
Moral
Unique
Roll
Its
Cite
Morale
Unusual
Role
It's
Sight
24
ESP 2022
Residence
Stationary
Effect
Among
Principals
Implied
Oral
Personnel
Accept
Different
Complement
Contributed
respectively
Residents
Stationery
Affect
Between
Principles
Inferred
Verbal
Personal
Except
Difference
Compliment
Attributed
respectfully
5. STANDARDS FOR THE USE OF NUMBER IN REPORTS

Quantities may either be spelled out or expressed in numerical form.
No.
1
Rule
Spell out numbers nine and
under; use figures for higher
numbers.
Spell out the numbers that begin

a sentence.
Keep all numbers in
comparisons in the same form.
When two series are in a

sentence, use words for one
and numerals for the other.
Use figures for days of the
month when the month
precedes the day.
Example
The auditor found 13 discrepancies in the stock
records.
The auditor found nine discrepancies in the stock
records.
Seventy-three bonds and six boxes were destroyed.
Three boys were drowned in that river.
We managed to salvage three lathes, one drill, and
thirteen welding machines.
Sales increases over last year were 9 percent on
automotive parts, 14 percent on hardware, and 23
percent on appliances.
Three salespersons exceeded $1,500, fourteen
exceeded $1,000, and thirty-one exceeded $500.
July 3, 2004
I shall be there on the 13th.
Ms Mimi signed the contract on the seventh of July.
Sales have declined since the 14th of August.
25
ESP 2022
6. NON-SEXIST LANGUAGE
These are techniques for shifting from sexist to nonsexist language. However, not all
strategies suit all writing styles. So, only use the ones that work best for the writing.
Technique 1 : Avoid Personal Pronouns Altogether
One easy way to avoid sexist language is to delete or replace unnecessary pronouns.
Example:
Sexist language
During his first day on the job, any new
employee in the toxic-waste laboratory
must report to the company doctor for his
employment physical.
Nonsexist language
During the first day on the job, each new
employee in the toxic-waste laboratory
must report to the company doctor for a
physical.
Technique 2 : Use Plural Pronouns Instead of Singular

In most contexts you can shift from singular to plural pronouns without altering meaning.
The plural usage avoids the problem of using masculine pronouns.
Example :
Sexist language
1) Each geologist should submit his
time sheet by noon on the Thursday
before checks are issued.
2) Each nurse should make every effort
to complete her rounds each hour.
Nonsexist language
1) All geologists should submit their time
sheets on the Thursday before checks are
issued.
2) Nurses should make every effort to
complete their rounds each hour.
Technique 3 : Use Forms Like "He or She", "Hers or His", and "Him or Her"
This solution requires the writer to include pronouns for both genders. However, this stylist
language may bother some readers because they tend to feel the structure "her or his" is
wordy and awkward. Many readers are bothered even more by the slash formations
"he/she", "his/her" and "her/him". Avoid this usage.
Example :
Sexist language
The president made it clear that each
McDuff
branch
manager
will be
responsible for the balance sheet of his
respective office.
Nonsexist language
The president made it clear that each
McDuff
branch
manager
will
be
responsible for the balance sheet of his or
her respective office.
26
ESP 2022
Technique 4 : Shift to Second-Person Pronouns

Consider shifting to the use of "you" and "your", words without any sexual bias. This
technique is effective only with documents in which it is appropriate to use an instructionsrelated "command" tone associated with the use of "you".
Example :
Sexist language
After selecting her insurance option in
the benefit plan, each new nurse should
submit her paperwork to the Human
Resources Department.
Nonsexist language
Submit your paperwork to the Human
Resources Department after selecting
your insurance option in the benefit
plan.
Technique 5 : Be Especially Careful of Titles and Letter Salutations

When you do not know how a woman you are writing to prefers to be addressed, use
"Ms.". Even better, call the person's employer and ask if the recipient goes by "Miss",
"Mrs.", "Ms." Or some other title.
When you do not know who will read your letter, never use "Dear Sir" or "Gentlemen"
as a generic greeting. Such mistake may offend women reading the letter and may even
cost you some business. "Dear Sir or Madam" is also inappropriate. It shows you do not
your audience. Instead, call the organization for the name of a particular person to whom
you can direct your letter. If you must write to a group of people, replace the generic
greeting with an "Attention" line that denotes the name of the group.
Example:
Sexist language
Nonsexist language
1) Dear Miss Finnegan: (to a single 1) Dear Ms. Finnegan:
woman for whom you can determine no
title preference)
2) Attention: Admissions Committee
2) Dear Sir: or Gentlemen:
27
ESP 2022
THE TECHNICAL WRITING PROCESS

Good writers recognize that writing is a process or a cycle of tasks. Following are the
interrelated stages or tasks in the process:
Prewriting
Drafting
Revising
Editing and proofreading
Publishing
Prewriting
The prewriting stage is the part of the writing process dedicated to planning. This stage
is based on your analysis and it may include researching and collecting data, organising
your information, and outlining your communication.
Organising Your Message
Before starting any writing, you must decide on the sequence, or order, in which to present
your information. Some common patterns of organization are as follows:
Chronological
Spatial
Comparison-and-contrast
Most-important-to-least-important
Cause-and-effect
Chronological organization means that your information is organised according to time

or according to when an event occurred. Usually events are described from the earliest to
the latest, or in ascending order. The reverse, moving from the latest to the earliest, is
called descending order. The following example shows chronological organization for the
history of photography. In this example, the events are in ascending order.
Example of Chronological Organization

1.
2.
3.
4.
Joseph Niepce, 1826, pinhole camera

Louis Daguerre, 1837, highly detailed picture
William Fox Talbot, 1839, light-sensitive paper negatives
George Eastman, 1888, celluloid roll film
28
ESP 2022
Spatial organization means that ideas area arranged according to placement or

geography. For example, a piece of equipment might be described as being composed of
a number of parts; a description would explain how each part works in relation to the other,
going from front to rear, top to bottom, or left to right. As another example, sales figures
might be presented according to geographic region. Consider the following example
featuring spatial organization.
Example of Spatial Organization

If the copy machine jams, first check the paper-feed tray on the left side of the machine to
be sure all papers are aligned properly. Directly above the paper intake are the paperfeed rollers. Remove any paper stuck inside these rollers.
In spatial organization, transitions, or bridge words, are used to help the reader
locate various parts. Example of transitional words include below, next to, overhead,
behind, adjacent to, and above. Visuals are particularly helpful when you're using a spatial
organization; they can help your audience see the physical relationships between parts.
Comparison-and-contrast order arranges information according to similarities and

differences. When you talk about the advantages and disadvantages of something, you
are using comparison-and-contrast
order. When you describe the ways objects,
processes, or policies are similar, you are comparing. When you explain how items are
different, you are contrasting. Investigative reports that discuss two or more items often
use the comparison-and-contrast arrangement.
Example of Comparison-and-Contrast Order
Cars that run on steam are fast and easy to start. However, the water tank has to
be refilled every 50 miles, and you have to wait 20 minutes after lighting the boiler
before you can drive. Cars that run on electricity are quiet and clean. They require
little servicing, and the motor starts easily. However, an electric car has a limited
driving range and is slower than other types of car.
29
ESP 2022
A most-important-to-least-important order is simply a listing of points. This arrangement

is used in reports that examine an issue and reach a conclusion or recommendation, such
as determining the location of a new factory or selecting a vending machine service for the
employee lounge. When more than one point is given, the most important idea is
presented first and the consecutive points are listed in descending order of importance.
Example of Most-Important-to-Least-Important Order

After studying several presentation graphics software packages, I recommend that our
company purchase Show-Off for the following reasons:
1. The clip art library is the most extensive of any currently available.
2. The help and tutorial programs provide excellent assistance to the novice.
3. The user can define the color palette.
4. The program automatically creates legends.
5. The program provides a simple checker.
When information is arranged according to the factors and the results of those factors, a
cause-and-effect order is used. Many scientific reports use this type of organization. The
scientist begins by collecting data to support an unproven hypothesis. After the data is
organized and studied, the scientist reaches a conclusion. Common transition words used
in a cause-and-effect order are therefore, consequently, based on, because of, due to, as
a result, and ifthen.
Example of Cause-and-Effect Order

Eggs, beef, lamb, and poultry were cooked at different temperatures to determine
the lowest internal temperature that protects against food-borne illness. Cooking
food to an internal temperature of 160 degrees was found sufficient to prevent most
illness. Because some foods are most tasty when cooked to a higher degree of
doneness, lamb, pork, and beef should be cooked to 170 degrees. Due to a new
resistant strain of salmonella, which still lives at temperatures of 170 degrees,
poultry should be cooked to an internal temperature of 180 degrees.
Outlining
Outlining is a key part of your prewriting process. In order for your audience to grasp
your meaning, your thoughts must be organized and your understanding of what you want
30
ESP 2022
to convey must be absolutely clear. A well-organized outline can help you achieve this
goal.
Numbering systems.
A formal multilevel outline takes the form of a series of
headings of different levels. These headings are called level heads. Two level-head
numbering systems, the alphanumeric system and the decimal system, are shown in
Figure 1.1 below. In the alphanumeric system, the level 2, level 3, and level 4 heads may
use parentheses, as shown in the figure, or they may use periods after the introductory
letter or number.
31
ESP 2022
Organizing Data for an Outline. : Imagine that you need to report your day's
activities and that the list of activities in Figure 1.2 below is the data you have compiled.
How you translate the data into useful information for a report will depend on the answers
to the content, message, audience, purpose, product (CMAPP) questions you devise.
Drafting an Outline.
Assume that your CMAPP analysis reveals that your
marketing instructor has asked you for an update on your project. You decide that your
product will be a memo and that you will concentrate on three main topics:
Marketing project itself
Other courses that have a bearing on the project
Related activities
32
ESP 2022
You conclude that many of the items in Figure 1.2 might be relevant. The others will not
translate into useful information, so you ignore them. Your next step is to organize under
appropriate headings the data elements you have kept, along with the introductory information
your instructor will expect to see in the memo. This stage is often complicated by the fact that
some data items may appear to fit under more than one topic, so you have to make content
decisions as well. Completion of these tasks will result in a first draft of a formal multilevel
outline similar to the one shown in Figure 1.3 below
Finalizing an outline.
After you organize the data elements under appropriate
headings, you should refine your outline. This stage in the process of translating data into
useful information is a painstaking one, particularly if you are working with an outline for a
longer, more complex document. Three principles - subordination, division, and
parallelism - are central in revising and finalizing your outline.
33
ESP 2022
1. Subordination. The principle of subordination says that every item that appears under
a particular level head must logically be a part of the subject matter of that level head.
Conversely, the item must not deal with a different issue and must not be equivalent or
greater importance or scope.
Your CMAPP analysis will allow you to determine what is appropriate in your
circumstance. When you find an entry that violates the principle of subordination, you may
decide to change the sequence of items, to create another separate level head, or to
change the wording of a level head so that it reflects what you really mean.
2. Division. The principle of division states that you cannot subdivide the content of any
level head into fewer than two parts. For example, if you have a 'I.A' head, you must have
at least a 'I.B' head.
How you fix a division problem also depends on the results of your CMAPP analysis.
You might decide to remove an item, to add an item (taking care not to contradict the
principle of subordination), or to make the item a higher level head. What you do depends
on what you decide you really mean.
3. Parallelism.
The principle of parallelism requires that all level 1 heads exhibit the
same grammatical structure, that all level 2 heads exhibit the same grammatical structure,
and so on. Note that the structure of level 1 heads may be different from the structure of
level 2 heads, which may be different from the structure of level 3 heads, and so on.
The solution to a parallelism problem is to reword items until each of the same-level
heads exhibits the same grammatical structure. When applying the principle of parallelism,
you may find the easiest grammatical structure to work with is a noun or noun phrase.
The principle of parallelism applies not only to outlines, but also to bulleted and
numbered lists in a document. Each item in a list must have the same grammatical
structure.
Figure 1.4 offers a possible completed outline that is finalized from the initial multilevel
outline shown in Figure 1.3. There is no single correct version because you may have
several possible ways to fix any subordination, division, or parallelism problems. The final
version of your outline should always be based on your CMAPP analysis.
34
ESP 2022
Drafting
After you have finalized your outline, you can begin to develop your ideas. As you write your
draft, remember to use words that promote goodwill and encourage your receiver to accept
your message.
It is best to try to write your draft in one sitting. Keep your outline and pre writing notes
nearby. If you find that you need more information, don't stop to do research. Instead, write
yourself a note and move on to the next idea in your message. The whole point of drafting
is to develop your ideas. You are not yet concerned with typographical errors, grammar, or
spelling. You do, however, want to achieve the appropriate tone, or voice, for the
message.
35
ESP 2022
While you can always change things later, include as many specific details in your
draft as possible. Chose your words carefully because the words you use help shape the
tone and style in your message. However, try not to spend a lot of time at any particular
word or phrase. Make a note to go back and check a thesaurus or dictionary later.
Revising
To revise is to make changes. Many writers spend as much or more time revising as they
do creating their first draft. It is in the revision stage that a writer makes sure the message
says exactly what it should.
Before you revise a draft, put it aside for at least a few hours, if possible. You'll come
back to the document with a fresh perspective. To begin the revision process, read your
draft all the way through, focusing on your original CMAPP analysis. Try to step back and
put yourself in the place of the receiver. Is the message focused? Do you see gaps in
logic? Do the paragraphs flow well? Have you included all the vital information? Did you
stray from your point? Reorganize sentences or paragraphs as needed and read the draft
again.
The ABC
As you revise your message, keep the ABCs of communication - accuracy, brevity, and
clarity - in mind. These elements are always essential parts of your CMAPP analysis.
Accuracy.
When composing and revising your message, ask yourself the following
questions:
Have I chosen the right facts for this situation? In other words, are all my facts
pertinent to my context, my audience, and my purpose?
Is all my data correct? (Have I checked?)
Remember that your audience "needs" your information. But your audience does not
need data that will muddy the issue. Recall as well that your message represents you to
your audience, and thus your reputation hangs on it. Imagine the consequences if your
audience were to find an error in your information: Your message would lose credibility, as
would you, the "messenger" . Once lost, your credibility with the audience may be hard to
regain.
36
ESP 2022
Brevity.
A practical definition of brevity might be "Say what you need to say and
then stop." If you include material in your document or presentation that is not relevant to
your context, message, audience, and purpose, your audience may be confused, irritated,
and/or bored - and all your efforts will have been wasted. Consider the following
examples:
Poor
Better
During the month of June, employees During June, employees can read the
can preview the full and complete complete 20-Annual Report before it is
Annual Report for the year 20-before it distributed
is distributed to stockholders
When you present complex information,
you need to ask yourself if a graphic
illustration would make it easier to
understand.
Use a graphic illustration to make complex

information easier to understand.
To cut down on wordiness, use the active voice rather than the passive voice. When
you write in the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb.
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. Consider the following example:
Passive: The best idea was submitted by Vernon.
Active:
Vernon submitted the best idea.
Clarity
Clarity is a function of the words and grammatical structures you use, the organization of
your information, the logic and cohesion of your arguments, and the way you present your
message to your audience. When examining your message for clarity, ask yourself the
following questions:
Is everything as clear as I can make it?
Can I safely assume that my message will be as understandable to my audiences as it
is to me?
Consider the following example:

Poor:
For the majority of people who compromise our society, money is perceived in
but two states of tangible matter, either as currency or as coins.
Better:
Most people think money is currency and coins.
37
ESP 2022
Bias-Free Words
In today's diverse workplace, it is particularly important that you do not offend your audience
by showing biases. Bias-free words are free of prejudice, or unfair assumptions, and do not
influence the audience in any particular or unfair direction. Courteous communications are
sensitive to stereotypes and biases that involve gender, race, age, and disability.
Gender Bias. In today's workplace, women work as pilots, air traffic controllers, police
officers, and construction workers. Men work as nurses, administrative assistants, and
kindergarten teachers. The words used for today's workers should be free of gender bias to
reflect these realities. Note the difference between the gender-biased words and the neutral
words in the following list.
Gender-Biased Words
Foreman
Waiter/waitress
Stewardess
Salesman
Policeman
Fireman
Manmade
Executives and their wives
Neutral Words
Foreperson, supervisor
Server
Flight attendant
Salesperson
Police officer
Fire fighter
Manufactured
Executives and their spouses
Race and Age Bias. A simple way to avoid biases of race and age is to avoid
mentioning these factors at all unless they are essential to your meaning. The following
sentences are examples of avoiding race and age bias
Biased Words
We hired an Asian lawyer.
Have you met the little old man?
Disability Bias.
Unbiased Words
We hired a lawyer.
Have you met the man?
Avoid disability bias by avoiding reference to a disabling condition. If
you must mention the condition, use unbiased words, as shown in the following examples.
Biased Words
Unbiased Words
Afflicted with, suffering from
Has
Crippling defect, disease
Condition
38
ESP 2022
Editing and Proofreading

To edit is to alter or refine a written message to improve it. When you edit, you are fine-tuning
your message with an eye on sentences, phrases, and words. Editing tools to keep on hand
or to reference online include the following:
A language handbook or style guide.
A dictionary
A thesaurus
The Grammar and Style Handbook can help you answer specific grammar and mechanics
questions. An editing checklist is another useful tool. Consider the points in the Checklist
whenever you edit your work.
Proofreading is the process of reviewing and correcting the final draft of your message. As
you proofread your document, look for general content errors as well as mechanical errors,
such as incorrect spacing, misspelled words, incorrect capitalization or incorrect punctuation.
Nearly all word-processing software programs include a spell checker and a grammar
checker. These programs are helpful, but do not assume that they will replace the editing and
proofreading process. Spell checkers will not help you with most proper nouns or with word
substitutions. Your spell checker won't know that you meant to key in 'being' instead of 'begin'.
Only careful proofreading can detect errors like this one.
Checklist
Effective Editing
Read your document aloud and listen for awkward sentences. If you stumble over a
phrase, chances are it needs editing.
Check sentence types and lengths. Are all your sentences about the same length? If
so, create some variety. Are any sentences long or complicated? Consider splitting
them into two sentences.
Look at sentence beginnings. If many sentences start with the same word, add some
variety. Avoid starting sentences with I, my, it is, and there is.
Use language appropriate for your audience. Avoid the slang, jargon, and informal
language commonly used in everyday speech.
39
ESP 2022
Watch for overused words. Be original. Replace overused words and phrases with
fresh, vivid language.
Check for clarity, completeness and tone. Look at your message from your
receiver's viewpoint. Is the message clear? Will the receiver know exactly what to do
or how to respond? Does the tone promote goodwill?
The following list describes six effective proofreading methods.
1. Scroll the screen. Move the cursor down the screen of the computer as you proofread
each line.
2. Read aloud. Read aloud to slow down and examine words more carefully.
3. Compare drafts. Check the final draft against the previous edited copy.
4. Proofread the hard copy. Proofread the printed document even if you've already
edited it on the screen.
5. Proofread backwards.
Read each line from the right to left, or start at the end of the
document and read the entire message backwards.
6. Use two proofreaders. One proof reader reads aloud from the previous edited copy,
while the other proof reader checks the final copy.
Publishing
When your proofreading process is complete, you're ready to prepare and publish the final
document. To publish your message is to deliver it to the receiver or make it available to
the public. Before publishing, evaluate your message from a visual viewpoint. Your
finished product should not only sound good when your receiver reads it, it should look
good too. Effective visual presentation of material in your technical communication is
critical to your success.
40
ESP 2022
TYPES OF REPORTS
At one time or another, you'll be asked to write a report.
Reports can vary in length.
Generally, a shorter report (approximately one to five pages) will be formatted differently than
a longer report (more than five pages long). Your report will satisfy one or all of the following
needs :
Supply a record of work accomplished
Record and clarify complex information for future reference
Present information to a large number of people
Record problems encountered
Document schedules, timetables and milestones
Recommend future action
Document current status
Record procedures
The most common types of reports include the following:

Accident/Incident
reports
What happened, how did it happen, when did it happen, why did
it happen, who was involved
Feasibility reports
Can we do it, should we do it?

Options for the recycling/re-use of waste materials in a
paper-production plant
Potential applications of a small industrial robot system
Inventory reports
What is in storage, what has been sold, what needs to be

ordered?
Staff utilization reports
Is labor sufficient and efficiently used?
Progress
reports What is our status? What have been accomplished and what
(weekly,
monthly, needs to be done?
quarterly, annually)
Construction of an urban storm-water drainage system
Installation of an industrial heating and air-conditioning
system
41
ESP 2022
Travel reports
Where did I go, what did I learn, who did I meet?
Lab reports
How did we do it?
Performance
reports
appraisal
Incident reports
How is an employee doing on the job?
A document that records what happened in a particular

situation. Also assumes that the incident is not likely to be
repeated.
A report from a safety officer on an accident in a
large
industrial operation
A report on the installation of a new telephone
exchange
Proposal reports
How to convince readers to adopt an/a idea/product/service?

A proposal to reduce energy consumption in a woolprocessing plant
An improved layout for a school chemistry laboratory
Inspection reports
The act of considering or examining something in order to judge

its value, quality, importance, extent, or condition.
Is the condition up to the expected standard? What can be
improvised?
Critical examination of something aimed at forming
judgement or evaluation
An evaluation of the machinery/tools/vehicles/office
supplies/computer software or hardware
42
ESP 2022
CRITERIA FOR WRITING SHORT REPORTS
All reports share certain generic similarities in format, development and style.
FORMAT
Every report should contain four basic units: heading, introduction, discussion, and
conclusion/recommendations.
1) Heading
The heading includes the date on which the report is written, the name(s) of the people to
whom the report is written, the name(s) of the people from whom the report is sent, and the
subject of the report (subject line should contain a topic and a focus).
DATE
TO
FROM
SUBJECT
:
:
:
:
August 21, 2003

Shelley Stine
Julie Jones
REPORT ON TRIP TO SOUTHWEST REGIONAL
CONFERENCE ON ENGLISH (FORT WORTH,TX)
2) Introduction
The introduction supplies an overview of the report. It can include three optional subdivisions :
Purpose - a topic sentence (s) explaining why you are submitting the report (rationale,
justification, objectives) and exactly what the report's subject matter is.
Personnel - names of others involved in reporting activity.
Dates - what period of time the report covers.
Sample Report Introduction
Some business people omit the introductory comments in writing reports and begin
with the discussion.
They believe that introductions are unnecessary because the readers
know why the reports are written and who is involved.
These assumptions are false for several reasons. First, it is false to assume that readers will
know why you're writing the report, when the activities occurred, and who was involved.
Perhaps if you are writing only to your immediate supervisor, there's no reason for introductory
overviews. However, even in this situation you might have an unanticipated reader because:
43
ESP 2022
Immediate supervisors change - they are promoted, fired, retired, or go to work for
another company.
Immediate supervisors aren't always available - they are sick for the day, on vacation,
or off site for some reason.
Second, avoiding introductory overviews assumes that your readers will remember the
report's subject matter. This is false because reports are written not just for the present, when
the topic is current, but for the future, when the topic is past history. Reports go on file - and
return at a later date. At that later date,
You won't remember the particulars of the reported subject matter.
Your colleagues, many of whom weren't present when the report was originally written,
won't be familiar with the subject.
You might have outside; lay readers who need additional detail to understand the
report.
An introduction - which seemingly states the obvious - is needed to satisfy multiple readers,
readers other than those initially familiar with the subject matter, and future readers who are
unaware of the original report.
3) Discussion
The discussion of the report summarizes your activities and the problems you encountered.
This is the largest section of the report and involves development, organization, and style.
4) Conclusions/Recommendations
The conclusion allows you to sum up, to relate what you've learnt, or to state what decisions
you have made regarding the activities reported. The recommendations allow you to suggest
future action, to state what you believe you and/or your company should do next.
CONCLUSIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS:
The conference was beneficial. It not only taught me how the computer can save us time
and money, but also I received hands-on training. Because the computer can assist our
billing and inventory control, let's buy and install three terminals in bookkeeping before our
next quarter.
44
ESP 2022
DEVELOPMENT
Now that you know what subdivisions are traditional in reports, your next question is,
"What do I say in each section? How do I develop my ideas ?"
First, answer the reporters' questions.

1. Who did you meet or contact, who was your liaison, who was involved in the accident,
who comprised your technical team?
2. When did the activities documented occur (dates of travel, milestones, incidents)?
3. Why are you writing the report and/or why were you involved in the activity (rationale,
justification, objectives)? Or, for a lab report, for example, why did the electrode,
compound, equipment, or material act as it did?
4. Where did the activity take place?
5. What were the steps in the procedure, what conclusions have you reached, or what are
your recommendations?
Second, when providing the foregoing information, quantify! Don't hedge or be vague or
imprecise. Specify to the best of your abilities with photographic detail.
The following justification is an example of vague, imprecise writing.
Installation of the machinery is needed to replace a piece of equipment
deemed unsatisfactory by an Equipment Engineering Review.
Which machine are we purchasing? Which piece of equipment will it replace? Why is the
equipment unsatisfactory (too old, too expensive, too slow)? When does it need to be
installed? Why is the installation important?
A department supervisor will not be happy with the preceding report.
Instead,
supervisors need information quantified, as follows :

The exposure table needs to be installed by 9/91 so that we can manufacture printed wiring
products with fine line paths and spacing (down to .0005 inches). The table will replace the
outdated printer in Dept.76. Failure to install the table will slow the production schedule by
27%.
Note that the underlined words and phrases provide detail by quantifying.
45
ESP 2022
STYLE
Style includes conciseness, simplicity, and highlighting techniques. As already discussed,
you achieve conciseness by eliminating wordy phrases. Say consider rather than take into
consideration; say now rather than at this present time. You achieve simplicity by avoiding
old-fashioned words : utilize becomes use, initiate becomes begin, supersedes
becomes
replaces.
Besides highlighting and headings, graphics can also be used to help communicate
content, as evident in the following example. A recent demographic study of Kansas City
predicted growth patterns for Johnson Country (a large county south of Kansas City):
Johnson County is expected to add 157,605 persons to its 1980 population of 270, 269 by the
year 2010.
That population jump would be accompanied by a near doubling of the 96,925
households the county had in 1980. The addition of 131,026 jobs also is forecast for Johnson
County by 2010, more than doubling its employment opportunity.
TABLE 10.1
Johnson County Predicted Growth by 2010

Population
Households
Employment
1980
270 269
96 925
127 836
2010
427 874
192 123
258 862
% change
+ 58.3 %
+ 98.2 %
+ 102%
This report is difficult to access readily. We are overloaded with too much data. Luckily, the
report provided a table (Table 10.1) for easier access to the data.
Through highlighting techniques (tables, white space, headings), the demographic

forecast is made accessible at a glance.
46
ESP 2022
SHORT REPORTS CRITERIA CHECKLIST
Use the following short-report criteria checklist to help you in writing your short report.
Does your subject line contain a topic and a focus? If you only write:
Subject : Trip Report or
Subject : Feasibility Report
then, you have not communicated thoroughly to your reader.
Such a subject line
merely presents the focus of your correspondence. But what's the topic? To provide
both topic and focus, you need to write :
Subject: Trip Report on Solvent Training Course, Arco Corporation - 15/3/2005
Subject: Feasibility Report on Company Expansion to Bolker Blvd
Does the introduction explain the purpose of the report, document the
personnel involved, and/or state when and where the activities occurred?
When you write the discussion section of the report, do you quantify what
occurred? In this section, you must clarify precisely. Supply accurate dates, times,
calculations, and problems encountered.
Is the discussion accessible?
To create reader-friendly ease of access, use
highlighting techniques, such as headings, boldface, underlining and itemization.

You also might also want to use graphics, such as pie charts, bar charts, or tables.
Have you selected an appropriate method organization in your discussion?
You can use chronology, importance, comparison/contrast, and/or problem/solution
to document your findings.
Does your conclusion present a value judgement regarding the findings
presented in the discussion?
The discussion states the facts; the conclusion
decides what these facts mean.

In your recommendations, do you tell your reader(s) what to do next or what
you consider to be the appropriate course of action?
Have you maintained a low fog index for readability?
Have you effectively recognized your audience's level of understanding (high
tech, low tech, lay, management,
subordinate,
colleague)
and written
accordingly?
Is your report accurate? Correct grammar and calculations make a difference. If
you've made errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, or mathematics, you will look
unprofessional.
47
ESP 2022
HOW TO CONDUCT FEASIBILITY STUDIES?

Feasibility reports are written by different people such as engineers, scientists, managers as
well as students to communicate the findings of a research or an experiment. A feasibility
report is an orderly and objective communication of factual information that serves some
purposes which can be directed to internal and external audience of an organization. It is also
a proof of your research activity.
The relationship between doing feasibility and writing a feasibility report is shown in the
figure below:
CONDUCTING A FEASIBILITY
STUDY
WRITING A FEASIBILITY REPORT
CONDUCTING A RESEARCH
Identify problem, purpose, hypotheses

and objectives of study
Review Literature
Collect data, conduct experiment
Analyze data
Draw conclusion
Write the Introduction
Write the Literature Review Section
Write data collection method section
Write the Result and Discussion

section
Write the Conclusion and

Recommendations section
HOW TO CONDUCT FEASIBILITY STUDIES?

1.
What is the issue or problem that you would like to study?
2.
Why are you conducting the study?
3.
Where will you collect the data?
4.
Who will be your respondents?
5.
How will you collect the data?
6.
What is the timeframe for you to conduct the research?
48
ESP 2022
Identifying the Issue or Problem

a.
Need to understand and define the issue or problem clearly
b.
Do some reading about the topic to give you a bigger picture of the whole
situation
c.
Identify the issues to be investigated or possible solutions to the main problem
d.
Write the problem statement
Issue:
Smoking campaign in German Malaysian Institute
What do I want to know?

The effectiveness of the non-smoking campaign
Who are involved: Staff and students?
Where: German Malaysian Institute
Why: To evaluate the campaign
Other relevant matters:
1. Declaration of non-smoking environment, fine, warning, campaign, posters, talks, etc.
2. Many still smoke and many new smokers among students.
3. Environmental problem.
Problem Statement
The number of staff and students who smoke on campus is increasing. Different
measures and actions taken to reduce the number of smokers on campus have failed.
For example, there was a campaign to declare the campus a smoke-free area. To stop
them from smoking is difficult because they cannot kick the habit, while some smokers
claimed that they look macho and would like to join their peers. What are the opinions of
the staff and students about the campaign? What are the effects of smoking on the
environment?
2.
Determine the Purpose

a. What exactly do you want to do here?
b. Do you want to know about:
Once you have determined the purpose of the research, you are ready to write a statement of
purpose. Use action verbs to convey your ideas in your statement of purpose, for example to
evaluate, to decide, to investigate, to compare, to assess, to describe, to determine, and
so on.
49
ESP 2022
c. Ways of writing a Statement of Purpose:
The statement of purpose can be written in point form
The statement of purpose can also be written in paragraph form
Example of statement of purpose in point form

The research has the following objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
to evaluate the effectiveness of the non-smoking campaign

to analyze the opinions and feelings of the staff and students towards the nonsmoking campaign on campus
to compare the opinions of smokers and non-smokers
to recommend ways to deal with the continuing smoking problem
Example of statement of purpose in paragraph form

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of the non-smoking
campaign in German Malaysian Institute. In addition, it intends to analyze the opinion
and feelings of staff towards the non-smoking campaign on campus. Furthermore, the
research will compare the opinions of smokers and non-smokers. It will also investigate
how to deal with the continuing smoking problem on campus. The study is limited to the
staff and students of German Malaysian Institute.
3. Drawing a Plan or Strategy

Once you are clear of the issue or problem to be investigated, you are now ready to come up
with the proposal of your research. You need to:
a. consider who, where and what are going to be involved in the study
b. consider ways to collect data to investigate the issue
c. prepare a plan or schedule indicating the deadlines for specific tasks to be completed
4.
Searching and Collecting Data
Since the purpose of doing the feasibility studies and writing proposal is to investigate and
recommend solutions to a problem the most important process in conducting a research is
searching and collecting data. Without the data, there will be no proposal. You will need to
50
ESP 2022
identify the kinds of date required to support your investigation such as stated below:
a. Primary data
obtained from own investigation
b. Secondary data or Library Research
obtained from reading books, magazines, journals etc.
Once you know what you want for the research, you are ready to think about the instruments
or tools to be used to collect the relevant data.
5.
Analyzing Data
After you have collected data for your research, you must try to sort and make sense out of
them. The data collected can be in the form of:
Primary data
interview transcripts
statistics from questionnaire result
observation checklists
b. Secondary data or Library research
notes from reading
Unprocessed data will not become meaningful unless you process them through:
examining
sorting
categorizing
analyzing
interpreting
drawing conclusion
You will also need to examine each item by itself as well as making connections with other
data. Your focus is on meanings, relationships and answers to the questions you have asked.
All data must be:
recorded
analyzed
interpreted
51
ESP 2022
COMPONENTS OF FEASIBILITY STUDY

1.
Name of Product/System
2.
Background information/Problem (in relations to the present situation)
3.
Statement of Problem
4.
Purpose/Objective of Study
52
ESP 2022
5.
Significance of Study
6.
Scope of Study
7.
Methodology of Study (for data collection)
To be confirmed after the Feasibility Study is carried out:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Findings/Result
Analysis of Findings/Results
Problems Encountered and Countermeasures
Conclusion and Recommendations
53
ESP 2022
WHAT IS DATA COLLECTION?
Data collection is a process of collecting data from different sources.
Data are valuable
pieces of information collected in a study. Data may be divided in two categories: Primary
and Secondary Data. Below are examples of different sources of secondary data:
Books
Journals
Periodicals
Newspapers
Non-confidential government documents
Electronic resources
e-journal
internet
websites
online materials
CD-rom databases
DVDs
CD-books
Microfiche/microfilms
How to Use Secondary Data in your Research

When using secondary data, remember that the ideas and the works are not yours. Direct
quotation is used when you feel that an author's exact language and word choice will have an
impact on the readers. On the other hand, paraphrasing is stating the ideas in your own
words.
Sampling
Ideally in collecting the data for a feasibility study, one would like to include the whole
population to complete the survey. However, this will take tremendous amount of time and
resources. Alternatively, researchers would resort to selecting a small group of individuals to
obtain the data.
54
ESP 2022
What is a 'Sample'?
A sample is a group of individuals who are involved as respondents who provide the
information, facts or opinions in a research.
What is a 'Population'?
A population, on the other hand, is the bigger target group of the study to which the results of
the research are applicable. Refer to Figure 3.1 below
Types of Sampling
There are 2 categories of sampling techniques:
1.
Random sampling
The process of selecting sample that would be representative of the population of
interest. In this case, every member of the population has an equal probability to
be chosen to participate in the research.
2.
Non-random sampling
The respondents are selected based on certain criteria. In contrast, non-random
sampling does not provide an equal chance for every member of the population to
be selected.
55
ESP 2022
Collecting Primary Data
Primary data can be collected through several methods as stated below:

Questionnaire
Observation
Interview
Experiment
What is a 'Questionnaire'?
It is systematic compilation of questions that are distributed to an identified group of people

(sampling of population) from which information is needed. The people who answer your
questions are known as respondents. The use of this method is very convenient and can
cover a wide population.
Questionnaires can be administered in a number of ways such as:

survey
telephone
mail
internet
56
ESP 2022
Tips on How to Prepare a Questionnaire

Write the purpose and benefits of the study on the front cover
Provide clear instructions
Ask only relevant questions
Avoid leading questions
Avoid ambiguous questions
Avoid asking two things in one question
NOTE: After preparing the questionnaire, do not forget to pilot it!!
Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
There are 2 categories of questions that can be included in questionnaires:

1.
Open-ended
2.
Closed-ended
1.
Open-ended questions
Open-ended questions expect the respondents to give opinions, ideas, suggestions
and comments.
57
ESP 2022
2.
Closed-ended questions
Closed-ended questions require the respondents to provide opinions, ideas or
comments based on the options provided in the same questionnaire.
Below are
examples of different types of closed-ended questions:

a.
Scale questions
d.
Ranking questions
b.
Listing/choice questions
e.
Category questions
c.
Yes/No questions
a. Scale Questions
The most commonly used scale question is the Likert-scale questions.
Likert-scale
questions may use quantifiers such as Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.
b. Listing/Choice Questions
Listing or choice questions provide items or choices for the respondents to choose. Listing
questions will assist the respondents to choose the answer.
58
ESP 2022
c. Yes/No Questions
Yes/No questions require the respondents to tick the appropriate box either Yes or No. This is
the simplest form of closed-ended questions.
d.
Ranking Questions
Ranking questions provide degree of preference or choice.
e.
Category Questions
Category questions ask respondents to identify the response provide in different categories,
for example, age range, monthly income, etc.
59
ESP 2022
Sample Questionnaire
A sample questionnaire
60
ESP 2022
What is an 'Interview'?
An interview is a two-way communication which permits an exchange of ideas and
information. It has some advantages compared to methods such as:
The interviewer can ..
identify and ask only the information that he want
further elaborate or rephrase the question whenever the interviewee misinterprets or does
not understand the question
assess whether the interviewee is sincere in his or her response
Types of Interviews
Interviews are divided into three types:

Structured
-
They are rigidly standardized and follow a list of previously prepared questions.
Semi-structured
-
They are more impromptu. The interviewers ask some previously prepared questions as
well as unprepared questions based on the answers of the interviewees.

Unstructured
-
They are more flexible.
The interviewers and interviewees have more freedom to
express themselves which is more like a conversation.
Conducts during Interview
As an interviewer, you are the one who initiate the interview. Therefore, you need to pay
special attention to the conduct during the interview.
establish rapport with the interviewee.
At the interview, first you need to
Start with a discussion of the general topic. Then,
bring the discussions closer to the topic of your research. At the beginning of the interview, it
is important that you explain the need to ask various questions about the topic. Phrase your
questions clearly and friendly. Do not demand the answer, as well as argue your point of
view. Your purpose is to ask and get the response from the interviewees, not to project your
ideas.
It is very important that you observe the time.
The interviewees have their own
schedule and responsibilities. Before you end, as a courtesy for the time they have given you,
end the interview politely and graciously with thank you.
61
ESP 2022
The Interviewing Process
The Interviewing Process
62
ESP 2022
Observation
If you want to use observation as your primary data collection technique, you must prepare an
observation guide sheet (refer to the sample below).
In this guide sheet, you identify
specifically what you hope to observe and the duration of the observation. In addition, you
must take not of everything you observe within the observation period.
An Observation Guide Sheet on Students' Visit to Sports Complex
Experimentation
In using experiments in your research, the following items need to be discussed in detail:
What is the design of the experiment?
On what subject or materials in the experiment performed?
How will the subjects be selected?
What machinery and equipment are used in the experiment?
What sequence of events will you follow?
63
ESP 2022
DATA ANALYSIS
The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain usable and useful information. The analysis,
irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or quantitative, may:
describe and summarize the data
identify relationships between variables
compare variables
identify the difference between variables
forecast outcomes
Before we look at the various ways of analyzing, presenting and discussing data, we need to
clarify the differences between qualitative research, quantitative research, qualitative data
and quantitative data. They are both the PRIMARY SOURCES.
Earlier, we distinguished
between qualitative research and quantitative research. It is highly unlikely that your research
will be purely one or the other - it will probably be a mixture of the two approaches. For
instance, you may have taken a small sample (normally associated with qualitative research)
but then conducted a structured interview or used a questionnaire (normally associated with
quantitative research) to determine people's attitudes to a particular phenomenon (qualitative
research). It is therefore likely that your 'mixed' approach will take a qualitative approach
some of the time and a quantitative approach at others. It depends on where you are in the
research process.
MISCONCEPTIONS
1.
It is believed that qualitative research generates just qualitative data (text, words,
opinions, etc) and that quantitative research generates just quantitative data
(numbers). Sometimes this is the case, but both types of data can be generated by
each approach. For instance, a postal questionnaire or structured 'interview
(quantitative research) will often gather factual information, for example, age, salary,
length of service (quantitative data) - but may also seek opinions and attitudes
(qualitative data).
64
ESP 2022
2.
It is believed that statistical techniques are only applicable for quantitative data. Once
again, this is not so. There are many statistical techniques that can be applied to
qualitative data, such as ratings scales, that has been generated by a quantitative
research approach.
3.
It is believed that qualitative data analysis is easy. There are many ways of conducting
qualitative research and thus many ways of analyzing the resulting (qualitative) data.
For example, having conducted an interview, transcription and organization of data are
the first stages of analysis. This would then be continued by systematically analyzing
the transcripts, grouping together comments on similar themes and attempting to
interpret them and draw conclusions.
QUALITATIVE DATA vs. QUANTITATIVE DATA (PRIMARY SOURCES)
Qualitative data is:

subjective
rich
presented in the form of words
difficult to analyze
Quantitative data is:
measurable
associated with variables
more structured
Collecting and organizing data (Interview)
The means of collecting and recording data through interviews, it is essential that you have a
complete and accurate record of what was said.
1. Do not rely on your memory. (it can be very selective!)
2. Use a tape recorder to record conversation (preferably) or take notes.
3. Write them up straight after the interview (if taking down notes) so that you can
elaborate and clarify.
4. Transcribe the exact words onto paper (if using tape recorder) even with grammatical
errors and so on.
65
ESP 2022
Example
Interview transcript
Respondent:
Margaret Smith
Date:
19.7.00
Place:
Jakkes Travel Agents, Peckham.
(The interview commenced with a general discussion about the

industry, the weather and how the business is doing. The
interviewer outlined the approach and format of the interview.
The interview then began).
SC:
Can you explain to me how your organization

approaches the development of effective working
teams?
MS:
In our business we place a great deal of importance on

how our staff work together. We believe that if the staff
work well as a team, then this helps us to offer a better
service to our customers and this, in turn, helps us to
meet our business objectives.
SC:
So how do you develop effective teams?
MS:
We believe that it is the responsibility of each unit

manager to encourage a team spirit. We include
training on this for all of our unit managers when they
join the company and also have a refresher course if
we feel there is a problem in this area. The manager is
trained on things like motivation, incentives, types of
groups, roles within groups, conflict handling and so
on. This is all very different to when...
(At this point the respondent reminisced about past work

experiences which, while interesting, had nothing to do with
the topic in hand).
SC:
Can you tell me a bit more about the training in team

development that your managers undergo?
And so on.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Analysis of qualitative data is not simple, and although it does not require complicated
statistical techniques of quantitative analysis, it is nonetheless difficult to handle the usually
66
ESP 2022
large amounts of data in a thorough, systematic and relevant manner. Marshall and Rossman
offer this graphic description:
"Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected
data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time-consuming, creative, and fascinating process. It does not
proceed in a linear fashion; it is not neat. Qualitative data analysis is a search for general
statements about relationships among categories of data."
Marshall and Rossman, 1990:111
How do you analyze the contents?
1. Read and re-read the transcripts
2. Look for similarities and differences
3. Find themes and develop categories
Coding paragraphs - This is where you mark each paragraph with a topic/theme/category
with an appropriate word in the margin.
Example
The following is part of the transcript. The topic of the interview "The barriers to women
progressing in management".
Sickness,
childcare,
promotion,
vertical
segregation,
pay
SC: I find that the really irritating thing is

when everyone, and by that I really
mean men, (laughter) always
assume that if you are a women
you will have lots of time off sick
and always have to take time off to
deal with sick children and child
minding problems. And the way that
they will often consider a man for
promotion before a woman. It's
really difficult to pinpoint anything at
an individual level but something is
going on because there are far
fewer women general managers
and women manager's get paid
less.
Partner's
contribution
JB: Yes, they never seem to make the

connections that they, as men,
because they don't, you know,
67
ESP 2022
because they don't help their wives,

that they contribute to the problem!
Sickness
AD: Yeah, but that makes it sound as if

you agree that women do have
more time off but just that it's men's
fault. I don't think we do - I think it's
just a fallacy.
Childcare
provision,
partner's
contribution
FG: If workplaces had more in the way

of childcare facilities for working
men and women then both could
take responsibility for the children
and no one would need to have
time off. This would benefit the kids
because their parents would be
nearby, the parents wouldn't worry
and the employers wouldn't have
so much absenteeism.
Childcare
provision
SC: Absolutely.
Employers
giving
childcare vouchers is all very well
but what we really want is our
children nearby so that if there's a
problem it can be quickly sorted
out.
Partner's
contribution,
career/home
conflict
AD: But is it realistic to expect our

partners to help with the childcare?
We've been trying for years, and
although a minority do help out, the
majority don't and this means that
we always have to put our careers
second.
Partner's
contribution
FG: Well my husband has always been

really great about the kids, but most
of my friends and colleagues aren't
so lucky.
Highlighting paragraphs/sentences/phrases
Use highlighter pens of different colors or different colored pens to mark bits about the
different themes. Using the example above, you could mark the bits relating to childcare and
those relating to pay in a different color, and so on.
68
ESP 2022
Do not analyze the data on a question-by-question basis. You should

summarize the key themes that emerge from the data and may give
selected quotes if these are particularly appropriate.
Example
Let's think back to the last transcript - about problems facing women in management. It is
likely that you would write up under various headings such as childcare, pay, promotion etc.
Let's take childcare and do a brief section on how you might write up the views expressed and
how you could illustrate the text with quotes. (Obviously the transcript would be much longer
in a real situation and imagine also that there was a focus group of partners and one of
employers as well.)
Childcare and childcare provision

This is an issue that created heated debates in the focus groups. It
was obviously a matter of great concern affecting the women, their
children, their partners and the employers.
1. There seemed an undoubted consensus that workplace
childcare provision was virtually non-existent and certainly
inadequate, and, that although some employers provided
support in the form of childcare vouchers, that this could
never be as effective as having the childcare facilities on
the premises.
2. The women's partners generally had a lot of sympathy with
the point of view expressed by the women in that they (the
men) did not take an equal role in childcare. Their view
was that this was probably true but that they (the men)
found it much harder to get time off and work flexible hours
as their employers, who had little sympathy for women and
their childcare problems, had even less sympathy for the
men who needed time off. Geoff, a car parts salesman,
captured this:
"I would really love to contribute more to looking after my kids, but my
employer expects me to drop everything at a moment's notice and fly
off to Spain. With that sort of job, I can't be relied on to be there for my
kids. I have asked for time off on occasion but I know he doesn't like
it."
69
ESP 2022
3. The employers, on the other hand, had mixed views. Most

agreed that less working time would be lost if childcare
facilities were on the premises but very few were prepared
to set up such schemes, believing that the costs would
outweigh the benefits. It would seem apparent that there is
a long way to go in convincing employers of this even
though one of the women managers, Faye, summed this
up nicely:
"If workplaces had more in the way of childcare facilities for working
men and women then both could take responsibility for the children
and no-one would need to have time off. This would benefit the kids
because their parents would be nearby, the parents wouldn't worry and
the employers wouldn't have so much absenteeism."
And so on...
Note how a point is made and then illustrated with an appropriate quote. The quotes make the
whole text much more interesting and enjoyable to read but be wary of including too many.
Collecting and Organizing data ( Survey )
Once you have collected the raw data, you need to organize it. This is a two-stage process:
1. Tabulate all the responses to each question for each respondent in a data sheet using
the coded values. It is advisable to construct this on a spreadsheet.
EXAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1.
Are you
Male ( )
2.
Female ( ) 2
Would you rate your manager as:

Good
Average
Poor
3.
(
(
(
)
)
)
1
2
3
Would you describe the work you do as:

Interesting
1
OK
2
Boring
3
70
ESP 2022
4.
What is your basic annual salary?
Less than RM 8,000
RM 8000 but < than RM 12,000
RM 12,000 but < than Rm 16,000
RM 16,000 but < than RM 20,000
RM 20,000 but < than RM 24,000
RM 24,000 and above
5. Please state you age (in years)
The data sheet for the questionnaire on restaurant staff attitude is given below.
Respondent Question
1
Question
2
Question
3
Question
4
Question
5
22
28
39
23
32
24
20
30
21
10
18
11
43
12
26
13
31
14
27
71
ESP 2022
15
20
16
41
17
29
18
37
19
30
20
25
21
28
22
33
23
36
24
22
25
35
26
24
27
38
28
28
29
38
30
19
31
29
32
31
33
34
34
30
35
35
36
32
37
28
38
26
39
29
40
27
72
ESP 2022
HOW IS THIS INTERPRETED?

There were 40 respondents
Respondent 1 supplied the following data:
Question 1 (gender)
Response: 2 = female.
Question 2 (rating of manager)
Response: 2 = average.
Question 3 (attitude to work)
Response: 3 = OK.
Question 4 (salary)
Response: 2 = 8,000 - 12,000

pa.
Question 5 (age)
Response: 22 = 22 years of age.
2. Construct a summary sheet.

This summary sheet contains the followings:
a brief overview of the data collection process, including:
data collection method
sample size and sampling method
number of responses
geographical coverage
time frame for data collection
a count for each response alongside each question
the percentage equivalents.
To illustrate a summary sheet, a partially completed summary questionnaire is given below
and refers to the questionnaire on restaurant staff attitudes and the data on the data sheet.
Summary Questionnaire
Attitudes of Restaurant Workers
Based on 40 questionnaires returned from a random sample of 100 workers in
14 restaurants in the London Borough of Ealing in February, 1999.
1. Are you:
Male
19
47.5%
Female
21
52.5%
73
ESP 2022
2. Would you rate your manager as:

Good
11
27.5%
Average
14
35.0%
Poor
15
37.5%
At the top of this sheet, there is a statement that tells us how many
questionnaires were returned, how many were issued, the sampling
method, when the data was collected and the geographical area that was
surveyed.
A count has been made of the responses for Questions 1 and 2 and
written opposite each response, together with the percentage equivalents.
The advantages of the summary sheet are that it shows:

a summary statement of the data collection process
the exact wording of the questions
the order in which the questions were asked or presented
the number, and percentage, responding to each element of each question
3. Present the summarized data in a form of a table, graph or pie chart..
74
ESP 2022
TYPES OF PROPOSAL
There are 2 types pf proposals:

1.
Internal or external
a. Internal (informal)
written to someone within your organization (a government unit/agency, a

business, a private office etc.)
Example:
A training officer proposes to the Human Resource Department of company the need
to do need analysis for the staff to decide the kind of training needed.
b. external (formal)
written by one separate, independent organization or individual for another such

party or organization
Example:
An independent consultant proposes the latest computer processing system for
another firm.
2.
Solicited or unsolicited
a. Solicited
designed based on a request made by the recipient of the proposals
Example:
A firm request for proposals through the mail or publish in the media.
b. Unsolicited
designed not based on any request by the recipient but to convince the recipient
that there is a problem to be addressed
Example:
A party proposes a new computerized system to replace an old manually operated
one being used by a company.
75
ESP 2022
CRITERIA FOR LONG REPORTS AND PROPOSAL
Short reports merely require that you use headings such as "introduction," "Discussion," and
"Conclusion/Recommendation" to guide your readers through the correspondence. Long
reports, however, place a greater demand on readers. Your audience will be overwhelmed
with numerous pages of information. A few headings won't be enough to help your readers
wade through the data. To guide your readers through a proposal, you'll need to provide the
following:
Cover letter
Title page
Table of contents
List of illustrations
Abstract (or executive summary)
Introduction
Discussion ( the body of the long report)
Conclusion/Recommendation)
Glossary
Works cited page (if you're documenting research)
Appendix
COVER LETTER
Your cover letter prefaces the long report and provides the reader an overview of what is to
follow. It tells the reader.
Why you are writing

What you are writing about (the subject of this report)
What exactly of importance is within the report
What you plan to do next as a follow-up
When the action should occur
Why that date is important.
76
ESP 2022
TITLE PAGE
The title page serves several purposes. A title page acts as a dust cover or jacket keeping the
report clean and neat. It should include the following:
Title of your report (thereby providing clarity if intent)
Name of the company, writer, or writers submitting the report
Date on which the report was completed.
For external proposal - include on the title page the audience to whom the report is
addressed.
For internal proposal - include a routing list of individuals who must sign off and or approve the
report. (Figure 1 - Sample to title page)
PROPOSED CABLE TRANSMISSION NETWORK
FROM CHEYENNE, WY
TO HARTFORD, CT
Prepared by:
-----------------------
Date:
Pete Niosi
Network Planner
Prepared by:
-----------------------
Date:
Leah Workman
Manager, Capital Planning
Recommended by:
-----------------------
Date:
Gerg Foss
Manager, Facilities
Recommended by:
-----------------------
Date:
Shirley Chandley
Director, Implementation Planning
Approved by:
-----------------------
Date:
Ralph Houston
Vice President, Network Planning
Figure 1
77
ESP 2022
PROPOSAL TO MAINTAIN COMPUTER MAINFRAME EQUIPMENT
For
Acme Products, Inc.
2121 New Tech Avenue
Bangor, ME
Submitted by Thomas
Brasher Engineering
Technician
August 13, 1991

Figure 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A table of contents is designed to help readers find the sections of the report which interest
them. It should be a complete and accurate listing of the main and minor topics covered in the
repost. The following table of contents is organized poorly.
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
List of illustrations ...............................

Abstract ....................................
Introduction ..................................
Proposal ....................................
Conclusion ..................................
Appendix ....................................
Glossary ...................................
iv
v
1
3
10
11
15
Figure 3
78
ESP 2022
By providing a through table of contents, you'll save your readers time and help them find the
information they want and need. Figure 4 is an example of a successful table of content.
Table of Contents
1
List of illustrations.............................
iv
Abstract................................
Introduction................................ 1
A. Purpose ................................ 1
B. Problem................................
i.Profit Loss..............................
ii.Fuel Cost...............................
iii.Repair Cost..............................
iv.Indirect Cost............................
A. Proposal ...............................
i.Fuel - Saving Gear System....................
ii.Main shaft Gear Description.....................
iii.Fuel-saving On-Board Computer......................
iv.Computer Operations Instruction.....................
B. Management..............................
10
i.Personnel Requirements..........................
11
ii.Method of Delivery..........................
11
iii.Schedule for Delivery.........................
12
C. Cost..................................
12
i.Cost Analysis.............................
12
ii.Payment Schedules..........................
13
iii.Payback Analysis...........................
13
Conclusion................................
14
A. Major Concerns...........................
14
B. Credentials............................
14
Recommendations...........................
15
Glossary.................................
16
Figure 4
79
ESP 2022
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A list illustration is needed when a report contains several tables and/or figures. This list can
be included below your table of contents, if there is room on the page, or on a separate page.
Like the table of contents, your list of illustrations must be clear and informative. Don't waste
your time and especially your reader's time by providing a poor list of illustrations like the
following:
Fig.l.................................
Fig.2.................................
Fig.3..................................
Fig.4..................................
Fig.5...................................
2
4
5
5
9
Table l................................
Table 2................................
3
6
FIGURE 5 : Poor list of illustration
Figurel
Figure.2
Figure.3
Figure.4
Figure.5
Revenue Compared to Expenses..............

Average Diesel Fuel Prices Since l978...........
Main shaft Gear Outside Face...............
Main shaft Gear inside Face...............
Acme Personnel Organization Chart.............
2
4
5
5
9
Table l
Table 2
Mechanism Specifications.................
Cost: Expenditures, Saving, Profit..............
3
6
FIGURE 6: SUCCESSFUL List of Illustration
80
ESP 2022
ABSTRACT (or Executive Summary)

The purpose of the abstract is to provide a brief overview of the report's key points toward a
low-tech reader of different interest. Limit your abstract to approximately three to ten
sentences. These sentences can be presented as one paragraph or as smaller units of
information separated by headings.
Abstract should focus on the following:

The problem necessitating your proposal
Your suggested solution
The benefits derives when your proposal suggestions are implemented
In conclusion, your abstract is to provide your readers with an easy-to-understand summary of

the entire report's focus. The following is an example of a brief and low-tech abstract from an
internal proposal.
ABSTRACT
Due to deregulation and the recent economic recession, we must reduce our force by12%.
Our plan for doing so involves
Freezing new hires
Promoting early retirement
Reassigning second-shift supervisors to our Desoto plant
Temporarily laying off third-shift line technicians
Achieving the above will allow us to maintain production during the current economic
difficulties.
FIGURE 7 : A brief and low-tech abstract - internal proposal
81
ESP 2022
INTRODUCTION
Your introduction should include two primary sections:
a) Purpose
b) Problem
Purpose
In one or two sentences, tell your readers exactly the purpose of your long report. This
purpose statement informs your readers why you are writing and/or what you hope to
achieve. This statement repeats your abstract to a certain extent. However, it's not redundant;
it's reiteration.
The purpose statement is another way to ensure that your readers understand your intent.
Your purpose statement is similar to a paragraph's topic sentence or the introductory
paragraph in your short report. The following is an effective purpose statement.
Purpose: The purpose of this report is to propose the immediate installation of the
102473
Numerical Control Optical Scanner. These installations ensure continued
quality checks and allow us to meet agency specifications.
Problem
Your discussion of the problem must be much more detailed. Your introduction's focus on the
problem is important for two reasons:
1. It highlights the importance of your long report and it also emphasizes for your readers
the report's priority. In this problem section, you persuade your readers that a problem
truly exists and needs immediate attention.
2. it reveals your knowledge of the situation. Your audience will be able to recognize the
severity of the problem and trust you to solve it after reading the introduction section.
82
ESP 2022
DISCUSSION
The discussion section of your proposal constitutes its body. It represents the major portion of
the proposal, perhaps 85% of the text. There's no strict format of what to be include in this
section, but it can contain any or all of the following:
) Analyses
Existing situation
Solutions
Benefits
) Technical descriptions of mechanisms, tools, facilities, and/or products
) Technical instructions
) Options
Approaches/methodologies
Purchase option
) Managerial chains of command (organizational chart)
) Biographical sketches of personnel
) Corporate and/or employee credentials
Years in business
Satisfied clients
Certifications
Previous accomplishments
) Schedules
Implementation schedules
Reporting intervals
Maintenance schedules
Delivery schedules
Completion dates
Payment schedules
Projects milestone (forecasts)
) Cost chart
In addition, you should also enhance your discussion with figures and table for clarity,
conciseness, and cosmetic appeal.
83
ESP 2022
CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION
As with short reports, you must sum up your proposal, providing your readers with a sense
of closure. The conclusion can restate the problem, your solutions, and the benefits to be
derived. In doing so, remember to quantify. Be specific - state percentages and
amounts.
Your recommendation will suggest the next course of action. Specify when this action
will or should occur and why that date is important. This section can be made accessible
through
highlighting
techniques,
including
headings,
subheadings,
underlining,
boldface, itemization, and white space.

Your conclusion/recommendation, like your abstract, will be read primarily by executives.
Thus, write to a low-tech reader.
I.
INTRODUCTION
A. Purpose
This is a proposal for a storm sewer survey for Yakima, WA. First the survey will identify
storm sewers Needing repair and renovation. Then the survey will recommend public
works projects that would control Residential basement flooding in Yakima.
B. Problem
1) Increased flooding
Residential basement flooding in Yakima, WA, has been increasing. Fourteen

basements were reported flooded in 1976, while 83 residents reported flooded
basement in 1989.
2) Property Damage
Basement flooding in Yakima, WA, result in thousands of dollars in property damage.

The following are commonly reported as damaged property:
a. Washers
84
ESP 2022
b. Dryers
c. Freezers
d. Furniture's
e. Furnaces
Major appliances cannot be repaired after water damage. Flooding can also result in
expensive foundation repair.
3) Indirect costs
Flooding in Yakima is receiving increased publicity. Flood areas, including areas,

including Yakima, have been identified in Newspapers and on local newscasts. Until
flooding problems have been corrected, potential residents and Businesses may be
reluctant to locate in Yakima.
4) Special-interest Groups
Citizens over 55 years old represent 40% of the Yakima, WA, population. In city
council; meetings, senior citizens with limited incomes expressed their distress over
property damage. Residents are unable to obtain federal flood insurances and must
bear the financial burden of replacing flood-damaged personal and real property.
Senior citizens (and other Yakima residents) look to city officials to resolve this
financial dilemma.
C. Benefits
Storm sewer surveys are the most cost-effective approach to sewer repairs. You will
have an accurate assessment of damages. You will know the extent of damages. A
survey will allow you to repair the most critical areas first. City officials can plan other
repairs based on priority and budget considerations.
85
ESP 2022
GLOSSARY
glossary
is
an
alphabetized
list
of
high-tech
terminology
placed
after
your
conclusion/recommendation. When your first high-tech, unfamiliar abbreviation, acronym, or

term is used, follow it used, follow it with an asterisk (*). Then, at the bottom of the page, in a
footnote, write
*This and subsequent terms followed by an asterisk are defined on page - of the
glossary.
Subsequent high-tech term should be followed by an asterisk, but you don't have to place the
footnote at the bottom of each page.
GLOSSARY
BSCE:
Drainage Studies:
Gb:
Interface:
POP:
Smoke Test:
Video Scanner:
Water Parting:
Watershed Area:
Bachelor of Science, Civil Engineering

The study of moving surface or surplus water
Gigabyte
Communication with other agencies, entities, and system to
discuss subjects of common interest
Place of purchase
Test using underground smoke bombs to give visual, aboveground signs of sewer pipe leaks
A portable video camera which examines the inside surface of
sewer pipe
A boundary line separating the drainage districts of two streams.
An area bounded by a water parting and draining into particular
water-course.
Figure 9 : Glossary
WORKS CITED
If you've used research to write your proposal, you will need to include a works cited page.
This page documents the sources (books, periodicals, interview, computer software, etc.)
you've researched and quoted or paraphrased.
86
ESP 2022
APPENDIX
Appendices allow you to include any additional information (survey result, tables,
figures, previous report findings, relevant letter and/or memos, etc. which you have not
built into your proposal's main text.
The contents of your appendix should not be of primary importance. Any truly important
information should be incorporated within the report's main text. Valuable data (poof,
substantiation, or information which clarifies a point) should appear in the text where it is
easily accessible. Information provided within an appendix is buried, simple because of its
placement at the end of the report. You don't want to bury key ideas.
An appendix is a perfect place to file data which is not essential but which provides
documentation for future reference.
87
ESP 2022
PROPOSAL
1. Front Matter
a. Letter of Transmittal
This one page document identifies the proposal, given highlights and general
overview, expresses interest in doing the work and refers to the circumstances that
gave rise to the proposal.
b. Title Page
Provide an identification of the proposal which includes the following:
i.
Title of the proposal
Full Name, Title and Address of the person or organization for whom the
ii.
proposal is written
Date of Submission
iii.
Name, Title and Address of the person organization submitting the
iv.
proposal
c. Abstract or Summary of the Proposal
This should be a short paragraph summarizing the main contents of the report. It
should include a short statement of the main task, the methods used,
conclusions reached and recommendations, if any. The abstract or summary
should be concise, informative and independent of the report. Write this section
last after you have written the whole report. It should be written in only a
paragraph or two - usually not longer than a page.
88
ESP 2022
d. Table of Contents (If the proposal is more than five pages)

Provide an outline of topic, sub topics and sub-sub topics together with the
page number.
89
ESP 2022
e. List of Table/Figure/Illustration
If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in the report, these should be listed
separately together with the page numbers on which they appear.
2. Body
1.0
Introduction
This section gives your readers to preview of the problem at hand. It provides
necessary information to the readers so that they will be able to understand the
discussion of the findings related to the problem in the body of the report. As
such, the introduction section varies from report to report focuses on a specific
problem.
1.1
Project Background
A brief introduction to the history of the problem will help your readers
understand your report. Project background should include:
90
ESP 2022
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
1.2
What or who initiated you to do the project?

Where did this idea originated from?
How can this project benefit you?
Were there any history related to this project?
Problem Statement
Short summary of the research problem you have identified. The most
important aspect is the clarity of the problem statement itself. You
should choose a topic which can be investigated through appropriate
and valid methods and for which research material is available.
1.3
Proposed Product (Solution)

Brief summary of what are the solutions for your problem statement
above. Proposed product should run concurrently with the problem
statement. It should be brief, achievable and logic.
1.4
Objectives (Proposal & Product)

It is important to tell your readers the purpose of your report or what are
you trying to achieve through your investigation. The purpose of the
report is also called the aim, goal or mission of the report. If you have
91
ESP 2022
many objectives in your investigation, then you must state all of them.
The objectives of your report can be written in one of the following
ways:
i.
ii.
2.0
In an infinitive phrase
In the form of question.
METHODOLOGY
In this section, you should state the how and where you obtained the
information that your report contains.
2.1
Feasibility Study
You should let them know the methods that you use to obtain data, e.g
via survey, interview, experiment or observation. By explaining how you
gathered information or date, you also need to mention the sources
from where you obtained the information.
2.1.1
Types of Sources
This is the sections where you determine the methods of your
investigation. Bear in mind, to have a good proposal, you need
to obtain data from primary and secondary sources.
In primary sources, you can collect data or information through
survey, interview, experiment or observation. Information gained
92
ESP 2022
directly is better than information gained from secondary

sources such as records, documents or printed matter. You
need to present this information in logically and concisely.
2.1.2
Findings and Result

Present your findings in as simple as possible. The more
complicated the information looks, the more difficult it will be to
interpret. Results can be obtained in a number of ways:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Table
Graphs
Charts
Diagrams
There should be a justification for each of the above as you

need to reason out why your graphs looked as such.
93
ESP 2022
2.2
3.0
Schedule
Provide a schedule, timeline or list of the project milestone. You should
use Gantt chart (Microsoft Project) to determine your project
management.
2.2.1
Task Distribution
You need to clarify the position and also the responsibility of
your group members in this section. This will help to determine
the roles of your group members.
2.2.2
Gantt Chart
Gantt chart from Microsoft Project should be used so that you
can utilize the Gantt chart to make your timeline clearer.
Discussion
You can analyze and interpret your results drawing from the information which
you have collected, explaining its significance.
3.1
Product Design/Layout
The product drawing and the reasons why the product is designed in
such way is highlighted in section.
94
ESP 2022
3.2
Project Costing
Calculate quantity and tabulate the cost of the entire project. This
includes material components, instruments and equipment used in the
construction of the project.
3.3
Advantages
Discuss the benefits of doing the project.
95
ESP 2022
4.0
3.
Conclusion and Recommendation.

The section of the report draws together the main issues. Conclusions evaluate
facts and discussed in the earlier section. These evaluations are drawn by
inference from the facts and discussions. It should be expressed clearly and
should not present any new information. You may wish to list your
recommendations in a separate section or include them with the conclusions.
End Matter
a. References
This is also known as bibliography and/or works cited. Please refer to the
American Psychological Association (APA) style of writing. Details should include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Author's name and initials

Date of publication
Title of the book, paper or journal
Publisher
Place of publication
96
ESP 2022
b. Appendices
An appendix contains additional informational information related to the report but
which is not essential to the main findings. You should include details of the
interview questions, copy of the questionnaire used, statistical data, a glossary of
terms or other information which may be useful for the reader.
97

ESP 2022 Handbook Jan15

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

ESP 2022 Handbook Jan15

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

ESP 2022

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES 2

AN INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL WRITING

ACTIVITY REPORT REVISION

Impressive writing is correspondence we can understand easily. A modern thrust in technical

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Use Verbs in the active Voice versus the Passive Voice

Limit Word and Sentence Length

(words per sentence)

Use the Meat Cleaver Theory of Revision

Avoid Camouflaged Words

Avoid the Expletive Pattern

In the month of December

13. Punctuation: though not quite as emphatic as other highlighting techniques,

*Bullet points and enumerated lists

Good software engineering is based on the following key principles:

MECHANICS OF REPORT CONSTRUCTION

The entrance exam was failed by over

Over one-third of the applicants to the

The brakes were slammed on her as

She slammed on the brakes as the

Your bicycle has been damaged.

I have damaged your bicycle.

B. Wordy vs. Concise

Passive (more wordy)

Active (more concise)

Action on the bill is being

The committee is considering action on the

By then, the soundtrack will have

By then, the sound engineers will have

C. Unclear vs. Clear

To save time, the paper was written on a

To save time, Daisy wrote the paper on a

Balancing Similar Information

Howard promised to attend the party and

Balancing Contrasting Information

Dr. Libby is not only a fine dentist but also

I. Three stages of the process

I. Three stages of the process

The Overall View

The Overall View

3. TRANSITIONAL DEVICES (Connecting Words)

4. WORD CHOICE (Words which are often confused)

5. STANDARDS FOR THE USE OF NUMBER IN REPORTS

Spell out the numbers that begin

When two series are in a

Technique 2 : Use Plural Pronouns Instead of Singular

Technique 4 : Shift to Second-Person Pronouns

Technique 5 : Be Especially Careful of Titles and Letter Salutations

THE TECHNICAL WRITING PROCESS

Chronological organization means that your information is organised according to time

Example of Chronological Organization

Joseph Niepce, 1826, pinhole camera

Spatial organization means that ideas area arranged according to placement or

Example of Spatial Organization

Comparison-and-contrast order arranges information according to similarities and

order. When you describe the ways objects,

Example of Comparison-and-Contrast Order

A most-important-to-least-important order is simply a listing of points. This arrangement

Example of Most-Important-to-Least-Important Order

Example of Cause-and-Effect Order

A formal multilevel outline takes the form of a series of

Assume that your CMAPP analysis reveals that your

After you organize the data elements under appropriate