A Concise Kreyl Grammar

a provisional version
Jacob Rabinowitz
Dedication:
Travay-sa-a, se pou on
Mist yo, M yo ak Marassa yo.
Ay bobo!

Introduction
There does not, to my knowledge, exist a good teaching grammar of the Kreyl
language. Albert Valdman produced an excellent English-Language introductory
textbook in 1988 (Ann Pale Kreyl), and there is an up-to date (2002) French language
equivalent by Robert Damoiseau (Japprends le Crole hatien) but these leave
unanswered a host of questions about more complex sentence structures.
This is a concise grammar, which means I assume a basic knowlege of grammar on the
part of the reader, and some small acquaintance with French. Ideally one would read this
after a book like Valdmans (which, for the Anglophone, is still the only game in town.)
I have not explicated matters which would be resolved by consulting a dictionary.
The dictionary is: Haitian-English Dictionary, Bryant Freeman, La Press
Evanglique, Port-au-Prince 2004. This is the only adequate dictionary that exists.
Published under the auspices of the U. Kansas, it is not actually printed or distributed by
them (this is what they told me on the phone.) I was able to purchase it only through
Schoenhofs in Boston
I was not able to consult all of the books out there on the subject of Kreyl grammar,
since these are extremely difficult of access. What I could find at the library
of Columbia University and in the NY Public Librarys Schomburg Center I did consult.
This was a pretty good sampling. Beyond this, I had only such information as I was able
to gain through informal enquiry in the small group of Kreyl linguists with whom I am
personally acquainted. If there is work out there which does what I have not, or makes a
better job of it than I have, I will be grateful for anyone who brings it to my attention by
sending me a sample of the superior treatement.
But Im not holding my breath. The works out there fell into two main categories:

treatments by linguistics specialists, and teach yourself textbooks. Im still not entirely
sure what Linguistics is concerned with. It used to be all about phonology, and then it
got very theoretical. I am not qualified to appreciate or criticise the concerns of this
discipline. I can however say with certainty that they have nothing in common with the
concerns of those who simply wish to read and speak a language.
As for the basic textbooks, they all suffer from the unconscious Jim-Crow assumption
that Kreyl is really just bad French. Thus the tense system is unfailingly presented in
terms of absolute time (past, present, future) rather than the relative time system one
finds in certain African languages. The failure to understand how the tenses work results
in a bizarre over-application of te, which makes ridiculous such well known printed texts
as the Bible translation into Kreyl.
Another very central structural aspect of Kreyl, one that has never been addressed, is
the phenomenon I call repetition to show subordination. Now Kreyl has no subjunctive,
and manages very well in most cases without one, either by using the indicative or the
infinitive. In this, Kreyl is just like English. But in cases where subordination must be
shown, that is, in complex sentences, Kreyl will repeat a word (often te but it could be
anything!) This phenomenon has been very oddly, and very completely, ignored.
This is the first in-depth grammar of Kreyl. Indeed, it is a provisional version of that.
Thus I will be extremely grateful to anyone who points out to me any errors in my book,
or suggests improvements I should make.
Note: phrases in Kreyl used in this book, that have not simply been made up gratia
exempli, have the source book and page number in parentheses. These references are:
Voodoo Song: my own forthcoming edition of Voodoo lyrics collected by Steve Deats
Valdman: Ann Pale Kreyl, 1988.
Hall: Robert Hall, (The American Anthropologist, vol. 55 no.2) Haitian Creole, 1953

Pronouns
I

mwen, m

we

nou, n

you
he, she, it

ou (w)
li, l

you (pl.)
they

nou, n
yo, y

The pronouns are given here in their regular forms, followed by their contracted forms.
These are the only forms for the pronouns which exist in Kreyl. They are used, whether
in full or contracted form, as subjects, as direct and indirect objects, and to show
possession. Examples:
Subject: Map kenbe. (Im managing).
Indirect Object: Ba m visit. (Pay me a visit).
Direct object: Koute m. (Listen to me).
Posession: Kay-mwen (my house); Se pou li. (Its his).
Note that nou or n is used both for the first and second persons plural.
The rules governing the contraction and alteration of pronouns are as follows:
Mwen
m may appear for mwen at any time:
M byen.
Im well.
Ayiti, se payi-m.

style="font-size: 10pt;"Haiti is my country.

Ou
Ou is pronounced like a w when the next word begins with a vowel. (Many persons
will write a w in place of ou in all cases. This usage should not be employed in formal
writing.)
Ou ap we! (pronounced w ap we!)
Youre going to see!

Li, Nou, Yo
We may find l for li when it is preceded or followed by a vowel:
L ale.
He went.
Sadrak renmen l.
Sadrak likes her (a nasalized vowel does not count as a consonant. See below.)

li becomes ni after the nasal consonants m, n and g.

Se machin-ni
Its his car.
Li vann ni
He sells it.

Nasalized Vowels
Li also becomes ni after nasal vowels These occur when there is an n which is not
pronounced, but is only used to add nazalization to the preceding vowel, in the manner
well-known from French. This is the case with words ending -an, -en and on. The n
in words ending -un and -in is a fully pronounced consonant. The nasalized vowels are
pronounced as follows:
for -an, the vowel is pronounced like the a in alms
for -en, the vowel is pronounced like the a in man
for -on, the vowel is pronounced like the o in dont).
M pran ni.
I take it.
Fk ou renmen ni.
Youve got to love him.

The other pronouns do not alter their consonants as li does.

We may find n for nou when it is preceded or followed by a vowel:
N ale.
They (or you-all) went.
Ba n nouvel-ou.
Tell us your news.

Y is used for yo only when it is followed by a vowel:

Y ale.
They went.

Hyphens
A hyphen is used to connect all possessive pronouns, demonstratives and definite
articles to a preceding noun. It is not used to connect an object prounoun Very often the
possessive pronoun is given in shortened form. Examples:
definite article (bagay-la, the thing,) pa li-a (hers, i.e., the thing that belongs to her);

demonstrative adjective (wou-sa-a, this wheel);

possessive pronoun (papa-m, my father).

Articles
The Definite Article
The singular definite article is la after a consonant (tab-la, the table) and a after a
vowel (msye-a, the gentleman.) In the plural the definite article is always yo.
The Indefinite Article
This is invariably yon. (Yon moun, a person.) There is no plural indefinite article. Gen
moun nan lakou, There are (some) people in the yard. However, when an ambiguity
might otherwise arise, one will find the definite plural article yo supplying the lack of an
indefinite plural.
The Nasalized N and the Definite Article
A nasalized final n (see above under Pronouns) effects the form of the singular
definite article which follows it. (The plural definite article, yo, is not affected). The
singular definite article, a,becomes an:
blan-an the foreigner
maten-an the morning
pantalon-an the trousers

This is also the case after a word ending in an i preceded by a nasalized consonant:
zouti-a the tool, but:
fanmi-an the family

After an -n that is not fully nazalized, -m, and -ng one uses lan or nan indifferently as
the singular definite article
machin-nan/-lan the car
plim-lan/-nan the pen

madanm-lan/-nan the lady

moun-lan/-nan the fellow

There is some possibilty for confusion beween the plural definite article and the third
person plural pronoun, since both prounous and definite articles take a hyphen. Eseye
wb-yo could mean try on the dresses or try on (some of ) their dresses. Try on
their (definite) dresses, which would theoretically be Eseye wb-yo-yo, does not seem
to exist in practice.
However, phrases like wb-ou-yo, your (definite) dresses are common.
Use of the Definite Articles
This is generally the same as in English. The article is frequently omitted before the
names of familiar places:
Mari pral nan mache.
Marie is going to market.

The article comes after the subject even when this is complex:
Ki jan piti ki pral nan mache ak Mari-a rele?
What is the name of the child who is going to market with Marie?
Anpil moun ki t envite pou demen (wit Fevrye) yo, yo vini . . .
The other people who had been invited for the next day, February 8, they came . . . (Hall 101)

Nouns and Adjectives

Genitive Construct
Kreyl uses a genitive contruct, like Hebrew or Arabic. This is probably best understood
as the French possessive de (le livre de Jean, Johns book) with the de omitted
Gen yon zwazo ki gros yon peyi.
There is a bird the size (of) a country. (Hall 122.)
Demonstrative Adjectives
These correspond to this and these in English. These are formed by
placing sa between the noun and the article:

Li achte chemiz-sa-a.
He buys this shirt.
Kote timoun-sa-yo?
Where are these children.

Thatand those are expressed simply by adding the word la (there).

Timoun-sa-yo la.
Those children.

Interrogative Adjectives
Ki is the invariable interrogative adjective. Its meaning is which or what.
(It does not mean the interrogative who? Who? is expressed by
combining ki with moun, giving Ki moun? (= who?). Similarly Ki sa? is What?, Ki
l is When?, and so on.)
A few examples of ki showing the confusion that may arise with the relative pronouns:
Ki ti bebe ki malade?
Which (is) the baby who is ill? (Valdman 105)

The first ki is the interrogative adjective applied to ti bebe. The verb to

be which follows it is not expressed (see Existence below.) The second ki is the
relative subject pronoun (see The Relative Clause below.)
Ki chanm ou pito?
Which (is) the room (which) you prefer? (Valdman 105)

The ki is the interrogative adjective. The verb to be which follows it is not

expressed (see Existence below.) The direct object relative which is not expressed
(see The Relative Clause below.) The English translation Which room do you prefer
is quite correct, and precisely mirrors the very streamlined Kreyl phrase.
Fronted Adjectives
Though adjectives are typically placed after the noun they modify, these six adjectives
always go in front of the noun:
gran big
ti small
bl beautiful,
bon good
vye old

gwo big
Skin and Hair
This is a matter of great interest to the Haitian, and the specific terms are well worth
mastering:
blan, moun wouj white or foreign
milat light skinned with straight silky hair and Caucasian features
grimo light skinned with curly hair
marabou dark skinned with straight silky hair and Caucasian features
grenn kinky haired
kwt kinkyhaired; with uncombed, unkempt hair
gridap kinkyhaired; with short kinky hair (on a woman).

Existence
Contemporary
In contrast to English, no linking verb is used for a present-tense predicate consisting of
an adjective, a preposition of place, or an adverbial phrase.
Li Bon.
Hes good.
Yo nan lakou-a.
The are in the yard.
Li siz nan maten.
Its six in the morning.

This holds true even in complex sentences:

Bouki, ma mete ou deyo, men se pou ou promt mwen ou kit st . . .
Bouki, Ill let you out, but you have to promise me youll stop (sc. being a) fool . . . (Hall 123)

Se
Se, (he/she/it is, the French cest) is employed at the head of a sentence to mean it
is or they are.
Se yon kabrit; se Kabrit.
Its a goat; theyre goats.

It is also used when the predicate is a noun or an adjective that acts as a noun.
Li se (yon) Ayisyen/ (yon) jounalis/ (yon) gason/ (yon) grimo
Hes a Haitian/ a journalist/ a boy/ a light-skinned-curly-haired-boy.

Note that when the predicate is a nationality, a religion, or some other qualification that
is particular to humans, the use of the indefinite article becomes optional. One is equally
likely to hear the phrase hes a priest rendered by li se yon p and li se p.
Se, like any other Kreyl verb, indicates contemporaneity, not tense. In conversation it
will usually be rendered by an English present, and in narrative by a past.
Malis menm tonbe nan kache, men se pij li tan Nonk Bouki.

style="font-size: 10pt;"Malis went into hiding, but he set a trap for Uncle Bouki. (Hall 116)
Se is combined with te to show anterior existence (see Te below).
Neg-sa-a, se te yon mon moun.
That fellow was a good man. (Valdman 97)

Ye
Ye appears when the subject has been moved to, or is repeated at, the end of the
sentence. Shifting the place of the subject is particularly common in questions, for in
Kreyl as in English, a question ordinarily entails reversing the word order.
Kote ou ye?
Where are you?
Ki jan li ye?
How is she?

Ye also appears after the subject when the subject is reiterated, which may be done either
for clarity or to achieve a stylistic effect:
Mari, se nan lakou-a li ye.
Marie, shes in the courtyard.
. . . yon ban ti moun anpipt te gentan al fwape pt kote ttu-a ye a.
. . . a group of naughty children had already gone to knock on the door (of the room) where the tortoise was. (Hall 165)

In this last sentence note that the a after the ye is the definite article for pt.
When anterior existence must be shown, ye is combined with te:
La Plenn du nord m te ye . . .
I was in Plaine du Nord . . . (Voodoo song,)

We note here that Kreyl has no future form of the verb to be. Therefore one must
create a future by adding ava or ap to another verb and making the point of future
existence obliquely.
Anterior Existence: Te
Te acts as the verb to be for the anterior tense. Unlike se, it is expressed for every sort
of predicate.
Li te malad.
He was sick.
Li te mt lekl.
He was a school teacher.
Yo te lavil.
They were in town.

The Contemporaneous Verb

The bare verb in Kreyl does not indicate a specific tense: rather it indicates that one
action is contemporaneous with another action or a suggested context. We may render
the contemporaneous verb into English with the simple present, the gnomic
present, or the simple past.
The simple present will tend to be the preferred translation for conversation, the
gnomic present for proverbs and general statements, and the simple past for narration.
Only context will tell which rendering is to be preferred.
The simple present: Yo pentire kay-yo, means They paint their house. (The ongoing
present, they are painting their house, requires the marker ap: Yap pentire kay-yo. See
Ap below).
The gnomic present: Gabi vann rad nan mache-a. Gabi sells clothing in the market
place. Used for statements which are generally or proverbially true. Fimen move pou
sante-ou. Smoking is bad for your health.
The Simple Past: Li plante pwa. He planted beans. Simple, completed action in the
past.
The contemporaneous verb is identical in form, but not in use or meaning with the past
participle, the imperative, and thethe infinitive.

The Past Participle: Mayi-a plante. The corn is planted. This is a past participle
(planted) modifying the subject(corn) with the verb to be (is) left (as is typical)
unexpressed. The construction is clearly derived from the French pass compos.
Imperative: Pran zouti-ou! Take your tools! Note that the Kreyl imperative does
not express its subject with a pronoun.
(A more polite form for commands is the formula se pou ou + infinitive (you ought
to)
The imperative of the verb to be is always left unexpressed: necessarily, for there
is none.
Fr-mwen, byen ave m, non!
My brother, wont you be on good terms with me? (Hall 117-118)

Infinitive: Ou bezwen ale nan dispanse-a? Do you need to go to the clinic?

Negation
In every case the negative particle pa is placed immediately before the verb or before the
particle which modifies its tense:
Li pa vle.
He doesnt want to.
Li pa te vle.
He didnt want to.
Li pap vle.
He isnt wanting to.

The Past Marker Te

Combined with a verb, te simply indicates that one action is anterior to some other
action or circumstance. In English one will render this sometimes by the perfect (did),
sometimes by the pluperfect (had done), and sometimes by adding the word
already. The choice depends purely on context.
M te rive lakay l li rele-m.
I had arrived at the house when he called me. (Valdman 97)
M te benyen y aprmidi.
I already bathed yesterday afternoon. (Valdman 97)

Se sa m tal w, you ba m yon ti kout pye, you voye m isit . .

Thats what Id gone to see, they gave me a kick and sent me here. (Hall 118)

We may find, at the beginning of a narration, a number of sentences using the particle te.
This is to set place the story as a whole in the past. After the initial paragraph, the author
will use the contemporaneous verb with the readers understanding that it is meant as a
simple past. The most glaring blemish in translations made by non-Kreyl speakers is
the overuse of te, in imitation of the tense system of European languages.

Te does not make an anterior tense when combined with ap. There it makes an
imperfect: see Ap below.
Te is used alone as the simple past of the verb se (to be.)
Mwen tonnbe kire, di: Manman, li pran ti plat mwen. Epi li menm te pli piti pase mwen, li di: Se pitit kouzen-ou, lite
l ale vek ti plat . . .
I began to cry and said: Mama, he took my little dish. Since he himself was younger than me, she said: Its your little
cousin. Let him go with the little dish. . . (Hall 75)

Te is also combined with verbs to indicate potentiality, thus supplying the want of a
subjunctive mood in Kreyl that would show possibility or volition. This is
particularly the case withava (see below).

AP, the marker of ongoing action

Here again we note that the Kreyl marker does not indicate tense. Ap informs us us
that an action is ongoing: from this primary meaning we derive the notion of something
taking place in the present and extending into the immediate future. Thus Map pran can
be translated Im taking, or Im going to take.
A special form is used when ap is combined with al (to go.) The marker and the verb
to go produce the form pral.
Kan bk-a we l nan prizon, li mete nan tt li li pral mori . . .
When the sorcerer saw he was in prison, he took it into his head he was going to die. . . (Hall 140)

Ap may be combined with te to create an imperfect (was doing) tense:

Vwala yon jou, Nonk Bouki tap f faksyon, li tande chan . . .
Now one day Uncle Bouki was keeping watch (when) he heard singing. (Hall p 120)

A, Ava, Va the Marker of will

These are three forms of the same time marker. It is a matter of preference which one is used.

In all its forms ava suggests intention and certainty, like the English will in the
phrase I will not be defeated!
Ap will be used for an action that is simply going to happen, naturally and of itself, if
things go on as they are in the present. Ava, on the other hand, implies an act of will or
volition.
Nonk Bouki di li ba li ke li, la kenbe l epi lava sti nan trou-a.
Uncle Bouki told him to give him his tail, that he would grab it and hed get out of the hole. (Hall p. 116).

The ava above was translated with the English would rather than will because the
whole sentence was set in the past.
Ta: should, would, could
This usage is a classic example of how the lack of a subjunctive to show will or
possibility is remedied.
Ta is nothing but ava preceded by te. Ta translates as should, would and
could, depending on context. English shows precisely the same want of precision,
using the three translation terms almost interchangeably. The most common categories
of usage are:

potential could, would

Li pase tout nwit-la ap we si lit ta plen panye-a.
He passed the whole night seeing if he could fill that basket. (Hall 131)
. . . li w yon grenn soulye ki sanblel ta bon pou li.
. . . she saw a single shoe which seemed (like) it would be good for her. (Hall 150)

It is not uncommon to place potential ta before pral (ap added to al), producing an
idiom I call a future-intentional.
Li ta pral arete ti batiman Lapt ta komande-a
He was meaning to (lit. would be going to) sieze the little boat (which) LaPorte commanded (Ti Koze 40)
. . . fi rwa-a devine sa you ta pral di.
. . . the kings daughter guessed what they were planning to (lit. would be going to) say. (Hall 174)

the should of obligation

Enben nou ta pwete kk ti zl . . .
OK, you should lend me some small wings . . . (Hall p. 164)

This however may simply be a careless use. The word dwa (ought to) or the
expression se pou li (see Other Subordinate Clauses below) would be the ordinary
way of expressing this.
conditional sentence
ta . . . ta is the standard form for a should/would conditional sentence, that is, a
sentence which says that if one thing should happen, something else would
result; i.e., if X, then Y . . .
. . . li di Lando ke si li ta vle f yon babako, li tava f l yon pakt bagay . . .
. . . he said to Lando that if she should wish to make a barbecue, he would do a lot of things for her . . . (Hall 114)
Men m ta pi bon si ou ta kite m pase brid-mwen nan kou-ou . . .
But I would (be) better if you should let me pass my bridle over your neck . . . (Hall 110)

Note the correct omission of the verb to be in the then part of this last sentence.
Often one finds a conditional in a sentence where one or both halves are not a
conditional ta, but something more definite, such as an unmodified ava. An if/then
conditional sentence may be made with any tense of mood of verb. Ta is only required
in the ones we translate with should or would.

A, ma kontrarie anpil, mwen pa ta vle kontre konpe chen isit-la menm.

Ah, I shall be quite put out, I wouldnt like to meet friend dog here at all. (Hall 126)

The following interesting example uses the pou li obligation idiom (considered below
under Other Subordinate Clauses.) The if half of the sentence is a simple past
indicative, while the then half is an expression of obligation (pou) given an
emphatically future character by the use of a.
Si nou ouvri pt-la, pou mwen a chante.
If you opened the door, I would have to sing. (Hall 165)

Noun Clauses and Indirect Statement

Note: Subordinate clauses in Kreyl are not usually signalized by anything more than
using a subordinating introductory word and not always even that. Where
subordination does need to be marked, Kreyl will reiterate a word. This latter
phenomenon we will call Reiteration to show subordination (RSS). RSS will be dealt
with in detail in the final section of this essay.
The Noun Clause
Sometimes called an object clause, this is a complete clause with its own subject that
is taken as a direct object by a verb, e.g. She made me do it.
A noun clause is very like indirect statement: the only important difference is that a
noun clause is not the object of a verb of speaking or thinking.
Yon lt jou tonton Jan kite bezwen kenbe ti volay yo, li fe yo gennen yon pakt pwa . . .
On another day, uncle John left his business to catch the little birds, he made them scatter a packet of beans . . . (Hall
164)
Nonk, si li pa vle ou pran ke-a, pran yon pye.
Uncle, if he doesnt want you to take the tail, take a foot. (Hall 117)

Indirect Statement
It is worth streesing: in Kreyl, the subordinate clauses of indirect statement are simply
placed after the verb of speaking or thinking: no change is necessary in the clause that is
subordinated, no introductory word (such as that) is required.
. . . class="GramE"kan bk-a we l nan prizon, li mete nan tt-li li pral mori.
. . . when the sorcerer saw he was in prison, he took it into his head he was going to die. (Hall 140)

. . . epi li voye ti moun al di papa li mete manje sou tab pou li.
. . . then she sent a child to tell father shed put food on the table for him. (Hall 79.
Li kalkile Franse te sanble yo te ofri plis garanti pou ansyen esklav-yo.
He reckoned that France had seemed to offer more security for their former slaves. (Valdman 241)

In this last example we have indirect statement introduced by past kalkile. Sanble is
preceded by a te to show that Toussaint is considering a matter anterior to his present act
of reflection. Te sanble in turn introduces a further indirect statement, te ofri. In
the te in te ofri is a sign of Reiteration to Show Subordination (RSS) not the
anterior te. This is an optional, not a necessary feature, for a subordinate clause.
Occasionally a ke (from the French que) will be placed before the indirect statement.
This is a borrowing from the French, and introduces a note of formality (or
pretentiousness) to the utterance.
Diskite diskite, li w vwe ke se byen f mal rekompanse . . .
Afte much discussion, he saw truly that it was a good deed ill-repaid. . . (Hall 116-117)

Relative Clauses
Relative clauses in Kreyl are fairly easy, since there is no agreement of the relative
pronoun with its antecedent. The relative prounoun ki does however disappear to when
it is the object and not the subject of the relative clause.
The relative subject-clause is introduced by ki:
Li mete wou, ki bon an, nan machin ni.
He put the wheel, the one which (was) good, on his car.
Rat konnen sa li f lanwit ki f li kache lajounen.
The rat knows what he did at night which causes him to hid in daytime. (Hall p. 199.)

Relative Clause of Characteristic

The relative subject clause may become a relative clause of characteristic. While a
relative clause simply states some fact about its antecedent (e.g. The bear, which is an
animal,) a relative clause of characteristic expresses a quality or characteristic of its
antecedent: it tells what its antecedent is of the sort to do (e.g. The bear, which is an
animal that may attack people.)
In the relative clause of characteristic, the subject takes the infinitive which is
prefaced by pou. We might mirror the structure of the Kreyl by translating the ki pou +
infinitive clause by a phrase such as who is the type to . . .

. . . se manzl Lanj sl selon ms fanmi-a ki pou di ou wi ou byen non.

. . . it was Mlle. Lange alone, according to the custom of the family, who would say (lit. who was for to say) yes or else
no (to a suggestion). (Hall 154)
Ou kapab di yon bagay ki pa vre dy yon moun, men l tou de kontre, nan pwen manti ki pou bay ank.
You can say a thing that isnt true behind a persons back, but when both meet theres no lie that is of a sort to hold up.
(Hall 190)

The relative clause of characteristic may be given an pointedly subjunctive quality by

adding te. This is an idiomatic development of the ki pou + infinitive construction, and
should be translated with who ought to have.
. . . ou sonje ane pase? L konsa, se pa ti lapli, non, li te gentan f.
W, monch! Epi chak kout zkl ak loray, se bagay ki pou te f nenpt moun p.
. . . do you remember last year? At that time it wasnt a small rain, no, that had already fallen.
Yes, my friend! And every lightning flash and thunderclap, it was a thing that ought to have frightened
anyone. (Valdman p. 171.)
Sa ou w yon moun genyen, li te pou genyen ni.
What you see a man has, he ought to have had it (i.e., was fated to have it). (Hall 194)

Relative Object Clause

In a relative object-clause, the direct object relative pronoun is not expressed.
Moun yo kontre pale panyl.
The people (whom) they met spoke Spanish.
. . . on manm nan dezym komite gouvneman revolisyon-a te voye pou met ld nan Sendomeng . . .
. . . a member of the second committee (which) the revolutionary government had sent to restore order
in style="font-size:

10pt;"Santo Domingo . . . (Valdman, p. 241).

If the direct object relative pronoun is expressed, this is a Gallicism: all such
constructions are to be avoided.
. . . ti s ke li mete nan syl tout pou li kapab okipe manman-li.
. . . his little sister, whom he put in the sky just so she could look after his mother. (Hall 120)

Relative Clauses as Noun-like Subjects

The relative object-clause may act like a noun subject and take the definite article:
Tonton-an part kon li te di a.
The old man appeared in accordance with (what) he had said. (Hall 148)

The same is true of the relative subject clause

Li mete wou, ki bon an, nan machin ni.
He put the wheel, the one which (was) good, on his car.

Purpose clauses
As in English, a purpose clause may be expressed by an infinitive:
Yon lt jou tonton Jan kite bezwen kenbe ti volay yo; li fe yo gennen yon pakt pwa . . .
On another day, uncle John left his business to catch the little birds, he made them scatter a packet of beans . . . (Hall,
p. 164)

Again as in English, a purpose clause may also have an expressed subject. In this case
Kreyl requires that it be preceded by pou. (English will not always allow us to express
the subject in translation.)
Se chen yap leve pou yo kouche.
They lift up the dog in order for them to lie down. (Idiom for: Theyre in bad financial circumstances.)
(source uncertain)
. . . se pa tout l Magrit ale nan mache pou l pote bel siro.
. . . its not every day that Magrit goes to market in order for her to bring back some nice syrup. (Hall 199)
Alkil, class="GramE"Malis prske bare, piske li pa kab mande Nonk pou li di bagay sa-a . . .
At this point style="font-size:
say this . . . (Hall p. 114)

10pt;"Malis almost stopped, because he couldnt demand of Uncle for him to

Pou l te
Te may be added to a purpose clause to give it a potential and possible mood, that is, to
act as a subjunctive. Usually this use of te in this particular construction is reserved for
modal verbs that suggest ability.
. . . li f sa poul te kapab tante Ti-Zo.
. . . she did this so that she might be able to tempt Ti-Zo. (Hall 180).
Granpapa gen yon bann pitit, men you te radi; pou l te sa pini yo, li dekouvri kay-li . . .
Grandfather had a bunch of children, but they were insolent; in order that he might be able to punish them, he
uncovered his house . . . (Hall 205).

In the second example, since there is a te in the main sentence, there is a legitimate
question whether the second te isnt RSS. Ones sense of the speakers style and intent
will have to decide in such cases.

Less Common Uses and Variants

We find this example of a purpose clause used where English requires a gerund:
Mwen pa kap w yon zwazo devan ne mwen pou m pa manje li.
I cant see a bird before my nose without eating it (lit., in order for me not to eat it.)

This may however be a slangy usage rather than a legitimate employment of the purpose
clause.
In this sentence jouk (conj. as far as, until) has been added after the pou with no
apparent difference in meaning:
Li monte yon gon, yon panti, pou jouk li fini.
He sets up a hinge, a hook, in order to finish. (Hall 205)

Other Subordinate Clauses

Though these expressions will be translated into English with a subjunctive, the
subjunctive meaning lies in the intorductory word, not in the verb, which keeps its
standard contemporaneous form.
Ann: Lets
Placing an ann before the verb creates the equivalent of a volitive subjunctive:
Ann mande yon moun.
Lets ask someone.

Ke: Let or May

This is evidently descended from the French construction que + subjunctive.
Nonk Bouki vle fou: ke Bon Dye fann li an kat, if li manj manman ti class="GramE"Malis tou!
Uncle Bouki begins (to go) insane: let God split him in four (i.e., even though God should split him in four), he must
eat style="font-size:

10pt;"Malis mother too. (Hall 120)

Tlman ke: the Result Clause

This construction shows none of the complexity of the purpose clause. It follows on a
phrase such as so much that, so many that, &c.
. . . li sezi tlman ke v-la tonbe nan men-li . . .
. . . he was so suprised that the glass fell from his hand. . . (Hall 186)

Se pou li: obligation: he has to

Li di se pou-l bwose dan-l
He said he had to (lit. it was for him to) brush his teeth.

The phrase se pou li will be well translated with the English formula has to. Here we
see this se pou li structure used in a relative clause:
Li konnen se konpe Chat ki pou-l f travay sa-a . . .
He knew it was friend Cat who had be the doer of (lit. who (it was) for him to) this work. (Hall 136)

Se pou li may take te, producing a subjunctive mood. This softens the expression.
Men mwen la ansam ak nou, se pou nou te f pa mwen. Bt volay mande km.
Here I am together with you, you might to do (something) for me. The birds enquired of their comrade (what he had
in mind). (Hall 164)

This example includes an a (short for ava):

Si nou ouvri pt-la, pou mwen a chante.
If you opened the door, I would be willing to sing (lit. its for me to want to sing). (Hall 165)

Ifk: necessity, must.

The interesting thing about this idiom is that it is followed by a complete clause with
subject and verb. I regard ifk it as almost a synonym for pou.
. . . li declare ifk li touye Malis.
. . . he said he must kill style="font-size:

10pt;"Malis. (Hall 116)

pito: it is preferable
This very flexibile verb may either take a subject (m pito pwa, I prefer beans) or be
used impersonally.
Pito nou ale a st .
It is preferable that we should go at style="font-size:

10pt;"seven oclock.

pinga: take care you dont

Pinga ou ale nan.

Take care you dont go there. (Hall 134)

The Infinitive
Complementary Infinitive
style="text-decoration: none;"
style="text-decoration: none;"
The complementary infinitive follows the main verb, exactly as in English:
. . . parenn-li aprann li li ak ekri.
. . . his godfather taught him to read and write. (Valdman, P. 241)

style="text-decoration: none;"
style="text-decoration: none;"
At times a pa may be added to a complementary infinitive, in imitation of the
French pour. This is incorrect even as a Gallicism, and should be eschewed.
V witan, m komanse pa okipe bt papa-m-yo . . .
At around the age of eight, I began to take care of my fathers animals. (Hall 80).

style="text-decoration: none;"
style="text-decoration: none;"
causal f
This use of the complementary infinitive is derived from the French faire causatif.
. . . li f mete oungan-an nan prizon.
. . . he had the houngan put (lit. he made to put the houngan) in prison. (Hall 140)

style="text-decoration: none;"
style="text-decoration: none;"
The second most common use of the infinitive in Kreyl is as a variation on the purpose
clause:
style="text-decoration: none;"
Yon lt jou tonton Jan kite bezwen kenbe ti volay yo, li fe yo gennen yon pakt pwa . . .
On another day, uncle John left his business to catch the little birds, he made them scatter a packet of beans . . . (Hall,
p. 164)

Participial and Gerundive Expressions

Kreyl does not have true participles or gerunds.
A Gerund is a verbal noun, which ends in -ing in English, and is often the object of
a preposition. Examples in English are desirous of ruling, suitable for framing,
dealt with by waiting.

A participle is an adjective made from a verb. Examples are

the walking wounded, and the living proof.
Often a complementary infinitive in Kreyl will be translated by an English gerund.
. . . men li gen prekosion di Malis pou li pa gaspiye b li.
. . . but he took the precaution of telling (lit. he took the precaution to tell ) style="font-size:

10pt;"Malis not to waste his butter. (Hall 115-116.)

Sometimes we find the infinitive introduced by nan. We will translate it with a gerund,
but it is really neither a gerund, nor an infinitive nor a participle. It is an imitation of the
French construction en+ participle, (e.g., en parlant, while speaking.
Nan chache, Madanm Wadile tonbe sou kle-a . . .
While searching, Madame Wadile stumbled upon the key . . . (Hall 142)

ap plus the infinitive.

This very useful formulation fills in the want of gerunds and of participles.
Li pas tout nwuit-la ap we si lit ta plen panye-a.
He passed the whole night in seeing if he would fill that basket. (Hall 131)
De peyi-sa-you te konn ap monte tt esklave nan koloni-yo . . .
These two countries were in the habit of influencing slaves in their colonies (Valdman, p. 141.)
Vwala konp Makak vini ap pase . . .
Now friend Monkey came passing by . . . (Hall 116).

Etan Bouki ap manje mango, gen yon panyl ki vini ap pase sou yon milt . . ..
While Bouki was eating mangos, there was a Dominican who came passing by on a mule . . . (Hall 124)

Reiteration to Show Subordination

Repetition is a striking feature of Kreyl syntax. At its simplest, it is used to emphasise:
Pale mal, yo tap pale mal . . .
They are speaking very ill (lit. speaking ill, they are speaking ill) . . . (Voodoo song)

Repetition is also used to indicated the dependence of the subordinate clause or clauses
on the main clause. It is here an economical way of supplying the want in Kreyl of a
distinct subjunctive mood to show subordination. I will call this usage the Reiteration to
Show Subordination (RSS). Generally speaking, RSS is found immediately after the
subject of the clause that is being subordinated.
The repeated word may be a negation:

Rivi pa grosi san li pa trouble.

The river doesnt swell without getting turbid. (Hall p. 200)

Even a preposition may fill this role:

Se ki f ke se a st a ke yo ale a.
Thats what brought it about that it was at style="font-size:

10pt;"7:00 that they set out (Hall 200)

Most commonly, RSS appears as the repetion of the anterior marker te.
Enben nou ta pwete kk ti zl pou, l moun tav ap vini, pou m ta kapab demele mwen tou.
OK, you should lend me some small wings so that, when the man will come, Ill be able to extricate myself as
well. (Hall 164)

The sentence begins with an independent should of obligation (you should lend me.)
The subordinate clauses are two: a temporal clause (when the man will come)
followed by a purpose clause so that Ill be able to extricate myself.
The ta is repeated from the main clause (you should lend me), not to give new
information about the sequence or aspect of the subordinate clauses, but to
show their relation to the main clause. Thus we do not translate tes of the second or
third ta: their role is punctuation rather than meaning, they articulate without modifying
the phrases to which they adhere.
Li kalkile Franse te sanble yo te ofri plis garanti pou ansyen esklav-yo.
He reckoned that style="font-size:
their former slaves. (Valdman 241)

10pt;"France seemed to offer (lit. seemed they offered) more security for

The second te in the sentence above subordinates the description of how the French
appeared to the statement that Toussaint is thinking about it. Toussaint is not making his
calculation with regard to how the French appeared at some period in the past, but how
they will act in the future. Thus this cannot be an anterior te.
Here we have an interesting example. A te has been added unnecessarily in front of the
complementary infinitive (to control) in an overapplication of the principle of RSS.
Properly, the te shouldbe repeated only in a subordinate clause, not within the main
clause.
Li te difisil pou peyi LaFrans te kontwole sa ki tap pase nan koloni-an . . .
It was difficult for style="font-size:
241)

10pt;"France to control what was going on in the colony . . . (Valdman

Poetic Usages

(Not yet ready. This will deal primarily with puzzling variations in word-order and
inserted non-verbal sounds found in Voodoo songs.)