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Notes
CONTENTS
Page
Page
Introduction
923 Mathematical models in geomorphology
935
Basis of a dynamic approach
925 References cited
937
Type of stress
925
Type of material
926
Type of strain
927
Gravitational stress phenomena
928
ILLUSTRATIONS
Molecular stress phenomena
932 Flgure
Page
Surficial creep phenomena
933
Chemical processes
934 1. Plastic and
fluid
flow
926
Tectonic and volcanic stresses
934 2. Stream profile as a function of time and
Dynamic open systems and the steady state.. 934
distance
937
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to outline a system
of geomorphology grounded in basic principles
of mechanics and fluid dynamics, that will
enable geomorphic processes to be treated as
manifestations of various types of shear stresses,
both gravitational and molecular, acting upon
any type of earth material to produce the
varieties of strain, or failure, which we recognize
as the manifold processes of weathering, erosion,
923
924
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
edge that the field of dynamic geomorphology
deals. The principles are usually most easily
discovered by a study of contemporary processes and existing forms, but the dynamic
geomorphologist will refer to any part of the
geologic record for evidence which will increase
his understanding. He is not, however, primarily
concerned with the actual series of events
within a particular geologic period and in a
particular geographical location, as is the historical geomorphologist. Although many
historical-regional geomorphic investigations
have been ably conducted with minimum reference to geomorphic processes, it is only reasonable to suppose that a better knowledge of
how processes operate and normal forms evolve
will increase the effectiveness of historical
studies and reduce the likelihood of drawing
erroneous inferences of past events.
On the other hand, studies of dynamic geomorphology based on existing landforms cannot
be prosecuted in ignorance or disregard of past
changes of climate, and hence, of relative rates
and importance of various processes dependent
on climate, during the long period required to
develop the forms. One cannot, for example,
extrapolate rainfall intensity-frequency-duration statistics of the past 50 years back over a
period of 50,000 years in correlating drainage
basin forms with rainfall characteristics. The
dynamic geomorphologist must be alert to
evidences of important differences in processes
operating during earlier stages of development
of the forms he is studying. Thus historicalregional geomorphic treatment cannot be
divorced from dynamic investigations. The difference in the two types of study lies in
proportion of each one involved, for neither can
successfully be pursued independently of the
other.
BASIS OF A DYNAMIC APPROACH
Type of Stress
Table 1 outlines the organization of a dynamic treatment of geomorphology. The first
basic subdivision is made according to the
nature of the stresses involved: (A) gravitational
stresses and (B) molecular stresses. The gravitational stresses act upon all earth materials.
Where these have a sloping surface, components of the gravitational stress tend to produce
925
926
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
in
o>
:T
Rate of shear
(F -/)
dy
Type of Material
du/dy
F_
u
STRAHLER, TABLE 1
Table 1. DYNAMIC
A.
MATERIAL INVOLVED
IN MOTION
6ravitational
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIAL
BASIS
TYPE OF FAILURE
(STRAIN)
1.
I.
Glacial Ice ,
near surface.
Crevassmg , overthrusting ,
calving of glaciers.
Argillaceous
1 rocks and soils
5.
6.
Wafer film on
sloping Surface.
B. Molecular
Newtonian fluid. Mo
Laminar- flow, ceasing
yield value. Linear increase when water thins below
of shear rate with stress.
capillary control limit.
Subject to capillary influences.
Permeable rock
or soil + water
and salts
7.
8.
Water layer on
sloping surface
Newtonian
fluid.
9.
Water in sloping
linear channel
A/ewton/an
fluid.
11.
Air
Newtonian fluid.
A gas : compressible
fluid of extremely
low viscosity.
KIND OF FAILURE
Rupture by shear or
tension fractures between
grains, along cleavages,
joints , bedding planes.
Granular or blacky
disintegration of rocks,
esp. coarse-grained
crystalline rocks.
Rupture between
layers paralleling rock
Surface.
Exfoliation of rock
by fire, lightning ; solar
or atmospheric heating-cooling.
Rock or soil
+ capillary wafer
Elastic or
plastic solid
6.
Rock or soil
+ plant roots
Elastic or
plastic solid
Strong, hard
monolithic
bedrock
Elastic solid
7.
4.
Rock or soil
+ colloids
and water-
Disintegration of granular
permeable rocks. Heaving
or subsidence of clays,
silts .
Disintegration of rock by
prying of roots. Deformation of soils.
Exfoliation of domes,
slabs, shells. Quarry
rupture, rock-burst.
C.
WEATHERIN6 PROCESS
AND FORM
Elastic or
plastic solid
Newtonian fluid,
subject to capillary
influences.
Stresses
PROPERTIES
OF MATERIAL
Rock :
geneous.
si rang, hard
crystalline,
glassy or
b). Elastic solid,
crystal aggregate.
homogeneous
Water in permeable
rock, soil . (No
surface slope)
MATERIALS
INVOLVED
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
AND FORMS
4.
6EOMORPHOLO6Y
Stresses
Crystalline rocks,
arenaceous rocks,
limestones ; dry so/Is
Unconsolidafed rock,
soil + water
OF
1.
2.
Processes
PROCESS
FORMS PRODUCED
Soil, rock +
acids , water
Soil, rock +
water
MATERIALS
Turbulent flow as
a). Pulsating or oscillating
currents caused by waves.
t>). Tide -induced currents.
Chemical
927
928
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
929
930
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
931
valleys, and all of the depositional features as- currents may be hydraulically induced by the
sociated with floodplains, deltas, terraces, al- raising of water level near shore by shoreward
luvial fans, and glacial meltwaters are included drift of water under strong onshore winds.
in the work of streams.
Wave- and tide-induced currents! of sufficient
Fortunately streams have been studied from velocity to transport beach detritus are in turthe dynamic-quantitative standpoint by compe- bulent flow. Unlike the more or less steady.
tent scientists over a long period of years. unidirectional flow of streams, the wave-inAmong the important geological contributors duced currents take the form of short-period
are G. K. Gilbert (1914), W. W. Rubey (1933; pulsations or oscillations.
1938), John Leighly (1932; 1934), and Filip
Landforms associated with shore currents
Hjulstrom (1935). Fundamental work on dy- include all features of shore lines, erosional
namics of streams with particular reference to and depositional. Beaches, bars and spits, wavethe transportation of bed load and suspended cut cliffs, and abrasion platforms all require
load has been published in recent papers by for their study an understanding of the fundaG. H. Matthes (1941; 1949), H. A. Einstein mental principles of pulsating and oscillating
(1950), Samuel Shulits, (1936; 1941), V. A. water currents. Although the qualitative-deVanoni (1947; 1948), Hunter Rouse (1939), scriptive phases of shore processes and forms
A. A. Kalinske (1947), and J. F. Friedkin have been extensively treated by geomorphol(1945), to list but a few examples. Future ogists, the quantitative-dynamic aspects have
geomorphic studies of stream-formed features been given little attention by these same workand of the Pleistocene and earlier history of ers. In recent years, studies by laboratory
river systems under the influences of changing personnel of the Beach Erosion Board of the
conditions of discharge, load, gradient, and U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and of such
base level must be based upon sound principles hydraulic laboratories as the Fluid Mechanics
of stream action as they are being discovered Laboratory of the University of California at
today through the experimental and quanti- Berkeley, have brought forward much new
tative field studies of the hydraulic engineer.
quantitative information correlating wave char10. Shore-line processes, which we may re- acteristics with beach forms and with the
gard as water currents or pulsations generated attainment of the steady state in the shore
by the impingement of water waves upon a profile. (See J. W. Johnson, 1949; Krumbein,
shoaling bottom or by differences of level ac- 1950; Keulegan and Krumbein, 1949; and Wilcompanying tides. Wind-generated waves can- lard Bascom, 1951.)
not be regarded as direct responses to gravi11. Air, the fluid of lowest viscosity among
tational shear stresses acting on a slope, but the geomorphic agents, with its content of dust
the winds from which the energy is derived or sand in transport. With the exception of
by shear of air over water owe their existence katabatic winds, which are simple downslope
to differences in air density. One might, of flows of cold air formed by inversion near the
course, make a separate stress group out of ground or local upslope winds of thermal origin,
propagated water waves (tsunami) generated winds are not directly related to topographic
by crustal movements. But the pure deep-water slopes. They may, however, be traced to graviwave does not directly accomplish significant tational stresses acting upon air masses of diferosion or transportation at the shore line. Only fering density, or air pressure. In this respect,
when the energy of orbital motion is trans- the transportational work of wind is unique,
formed into mass movements of water such as because material can be moved upslope or in
the swash (uprush), backwash (backrush), or some direction other than the downslope lines
longshore current, does the wave become a followed by water and mass movements of soil
major agent. In these cases, gravitational stress or rock.
due to differences in water level or to slope of
Air has extremely low viscosity in comparison
the beach is important in producing or modi- with water, hence air engages in turbulent flow
fying the flow. The backwash is simply the at very low velocities. Excepting the thin
return gravitational flow, while some longshore boundary layer of laminar flow, turbulent flow
932
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
933
934
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
Although landforms of various types are produced directly by tectonic stresses or by volcanic extrusion, these processes have not been
included in this discussion, which takes as its
scope the processes of weathering, mass wasting, erosion, transportation, and deposition
powered or triggered by solar energy. Whereas
these exogene or external processes affect only
a thin surficial zone of the landmasses, the tecCHEMICAL PROCESSES
tonic and volcanic processes are deep seated;
Chemical processes (Table 1C) are set apart they involve structural and petrographic
because they do not directly produce shear changes of enormous masses, along with the
stresses, yet are of great importance in land- transformation of enormous amounts of energy
form development. Distinction is made be- whose source we may regard as internal. Such
tween (1) chemical reaction in which acids ions landforms as fault scarps, initial domes or antiin soil water or surface water react with mineral clines, volcanoes, and lava flows are superficial
surfaces and (2) simple solution or ionization features in terms of the deep-seated changes of
of unusually soluble minerals, such as halite. state which they accompany. A complete treatRemoval of the ions in the circulating ground ment of stresses and behavior of these materials
water and in surface runoff constitutes a form at depth would require inclusion of all of strucof mass reduction that might otherwise be im- tural geology, petrology, and geophysics into
possible because of resistance of the hard crys- geomorphology. Moreover, initial landforms
talline or glassy minerals to corrosion or to produced by these deep-seated processes are
other forms of mechanical reduction.
easily identified and understood as landforms,
Chemical reaction or simple solution causes hence cause no special concern to the student
loosening of cementing bonds between grains of geomorphology. He considers crustal changes
of a sedimentary rock and selective removal of as changes of potential energy of mass with
mineral grains in igneous and metamorphic respect to base level, the quantitative values
rocks, thereby weakening the rock and reduc- for which are readily calculable by multiplying
ing its resistance to both gravitational and mass times elevation.
molecular shear stresses. Minor forms such as
DYNAMIC OPEN SYSTEMS AND THE
pitting and grooving of rock surfaces are usually
STEADY STATE
described in connection with dissolution of
rocks, but the general lowering of land surfaces
Geomorphology will achieve its fullest deby removal of mass throughout the soil and velopment only when the forms and processes
936
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY
(1)
dx+ Mdt.
\A
dy = (dx+ kidt)[
Equation (4) holds for all values of t, in particular for t = t0. Differentiating (1),
(5)
>*/
or
Q = -M*- hktdt.
y
Time
FIGURE 2.STREAM PROFILE AS A FUNCTION OF
DISTANCE AND TIME
A. Profile at a given time, /.
B. Variation in elevation at a point, x, with
time.
t = /, y = An (the elevation at the head of the
stream), we obtain
In y In AO = k\x kikit
or
(7)
y= 4
937
938
A. N. STRAHLERGEOMORPHOLOGY