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27-301
Microstructure & Properties
September-November 2007
LABORATORY MANUAL
27-301 Lab. 2
Abstract
The main objective of this Lab is to stimulate students to learn how to optimize materials
properties in situations where multiple properties must be considered. By choosing a
pair of mechanical properties, toughness (Charpy) and strength (microhardness, verified
by tensile testing), the students will also learn practical skills in testing of materials
properties. The various groups of students will work on different types of materials and
share their results. The objective of property optimization is both a useful exercise in the
integration of theoretical with practical knowledge and a useful preparation for the
Capstone Course with its Design component.
Mechanical properties have chosen for this exercise because they are the basis for
many practical engineering applications. As an example to be described for Charpy
Impact testing, the lifetime of nuclear reactors is dependent in a critical and very direct
fashion on the toughness measured on pressure vessel steels as it changes with time
(and irradiation). At a more detailed level, the microstructure of many materials can be
drastically changed through simple heat treatment and so steels (Fe-C alloys) have been
chosen to illustrate these variations in experiment 2A. Experiment 2B, described here,
addresses composite (and bio-)materials, and a much ignored material is wood. Its
properties are strongly anisotropic (sensitive to direction): it is almost intuitive that wood
is stronger along the grain than perpendicular to it. Moreover, its strength is extremely
sensitive to the environment, especially the humidity level, which is again almost intuitive
but interesting to quantify. In this respect, wood is representative of many biomaterials in
its dependence on water content.
1. Introduction
1.1 Reading
There is an enormous literature on this subject. The course text by Porter & Easterling
gives a large amount of useful information. Also the text by Tom Courtney, Mechanical
Behavior of Materials, is very helpful.
1.2 Objective of the Experiment
The objective of the experiment is to show you, the student, how to manipulate
microstructures in a given material, and how strong an effect on the properties this can
have. This demonstration relies on a traditional structural material wood. You as a
materials engineer will be expected to understand and control the properties of materials
such as wood. Your ability to do this depends on your grasp of the microstructure2
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properties relationships in this and any other system that you deal with. This experiment
will illustrate some of the key aspects of mechanical behavior of composite materials and
biomaterials.
1.3 Desired Educational Outcomes
This set of experiments addresses several of the MSE Outcomes for the Undergraduate
Program. Outcome D, An ability to design and conduct experiments with an emphasis
on relating properties and processing to structure is most directly addressed by
requiring students to perform experiments and analyze their own data. Outcome F, An
ability to function responsibly and ethically in a professional, multidisciplinary
environment and as an individual or as a member of a team is addressed by requiring
students to perform the experiments in teams (3 per group) and share the workload of
analysis and reporting. Outcome G, An ability to employ the techniques, skills and tools
of modern materials engineering practice is addressed through hands-on training on
instrumentation. Outcome C, An ability to communicate effectively is addressed by
requiring the students to communicate their results with their own analysis through either
presentations (for this second Lab) or written reports. Finally Outcome B, An ability to
apply core concepts in materials science (structure, properties, processing and
performance) to materials engineering problems is addressed through requiring
students to relate their findings back to the basic principles discussed in the lecture part
of the course (27-301).
1.4 This Document
This document contains several sections with general information on mechanical
behavior in metallic systems. Mr. H. Greenberg (former Industrial Internship Coordinator
in MSE) is acknowledged for assembling the text. It has been retained in order to
provide a basic introduction to the relevant materials science for this experiment.
Students should, however, expect to read additional material.
1.5 Planning the Experimental Work
Before performing experiments, you will be required to learn how to use the equipment
safely and accurately. You will also be required to do some background reading, mainly
focused on the properties of wood, its anisotropy and its sensitivity to moisture content.
Then you must devise a plan for how you are proposing to proceed (see Outcome D
above!) and what your expected results may be. Only after one of the Course Assistants
and the Instructor have approved your plan will you be permitted to perform experiments.
1.6 Preparation Before the Laboratory Sessions
The wood experiments and the tensile testing experiments do not require any pre-Lab
work. Note however, that it is important to perform the wood testing on two days that are
reasonably close together in order to be able to dry some specimens (for low moisture
content) and soak others (for high moisture content).
1.7 Distribution of Experiments, Samples
Optimization of mechanical properties.
In Fall 2007 there are 9 groups. Of these x will perform the property optimization
exercise with steel samples and 9-x will perform them with wood samples (x TBD). The
wood properties will be strength and modulus with moisture content as the major
variable. Since moisture content is not exactly a microstructural parameter, evaluation of
the anisotropy of the properties with compression tests will be required in addition in
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order to quantify the effect of microstructure. For the experiments with wood, the
objective is to maximize the product of strength (measured in MPa) and toughness
(measured in Joules). Lastly, you are encouraged to perform the supplemental
experiments on cork to find out why its Poissons ratio is so interesting (e.g. for bottle
stoppers).
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2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Purpose
The purpose of this manual is to help the student become proficient in experimental skills
and to provide him/her with some practical applications of material discussed in lecture
courses. In this volume you will find instructions for the experiments to be performed this
term as well as some background material both for working in the laboratory and for the
experiments.
In this laboratory course considerable emphasis is placed on the formal technical report.
Details for the format and content of the various sections of a report are presented in the
Course Syllabus; please review them each time you write a report for this course.
1.2 Experimental Planning
The following comments are extracted from Holman. They are considered significant
enough to be reproduced here.
The key to success in experimental work is to ask continually:
1. What am I looking for?
2. Why am I measuring this?
3. Does the measurement really answer any of my questions?
4. What does the measurement tell me?
These questions may seem rather elementary, but they should be asked frequently
throughout the progress of any experimental program. Some particular questions which
should be asked in the initial phases of experiment planning are:
1. What primary variables shall be investigated?
2. What control must be exerted on the experiment?
3. What ranges of the primary variables will be necessary to describe the
phenomena under study?
4. How many data points should be taken in the various ranges of operation to
ensure good sampling of data, considering instrument accuracy and other
factors?
5. What instrument accuracy is required for each measurement?
J.P. HOLMAN, EXPERIMENTAL METHOD FOR ENGINEERS, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Book Go., New
York, 1971.
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2.3.1 Structure
Structure can be at several levels starting with the discrete electron energy levels within individual atoms,
or the energy bands associated with an aggregate of atoms (solid, crystalline or not, or liquid but not a gas
at normal pressures - the atoms/molecules are too far apart). Crystal structure is important and results
from a balance between packing of atoms or molecules, (sometimes of different sizes) and directionality
(anisotropy) associated with certain types of bonding (usually covalent).
Defects in the structure such as vacancies, dislocations, grain boundaries and inclusions are important on
a scale generally bigger than atomic dimensions. Some of these defects also influence transformations by
changing rates (such as diffusion) or by offering preferred sites for nucleation of a new phase.
On an even larger scale, cracks or holes sometimes big enough to be visible to the naked eye can also be
present. These are important in that they can lead to premature failure.
2.3.2 Properties
There are many properties that can be of interest depending on the application we have
in mind. It is convenient to make a distinction between those which are:
a) structure-sensitive - e.g. the yield strength of a material depends on such factors as
the dislocation density, crystal structure, or grain size and
b) structure-insensitive - e.g. the modulus, or density are (to a very good approximation)
independent of imperfections in a given crystal structure. They do depend however on
crystal structure, e.g. whether iron is present as fcc or bcc. Moreover, most structureinsensitive properties are anisotropic, as discussed in 201 (Perfect Crystals) and 301
(this course), which means that the arrangement of crystals in a material (texture)
controls the degree of directionality of a property.
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Note the important details are underlined. You do not need to do this but the items
illustrate the sorts of things it is important to include - mass, temperature, times, pieces
of equipment, methods, etc.
At the next stage, if there is one, you may do other things to your specimen. Write these
down as above. Eventually you will have a result (or results). This can be recorded as
numbers, if appropriate - perhaps as a table - or as a sketch or as a photograph.
Remember you are trying to convey as much information as you can to a later reader
(who may be you).
Let us use a tensile test as an example. Record the initial width, thickness, and gauge
length of the specimen. After pulling the specimen, perhaps to fracture, remeasure these
dimensions. You will also need to note some important values from the chart printed out
from the testing machine which should be pasted in your notebook along with the
parameters of the test such as crosshead speed, etc. You will need to calculate various
standard strength and ductility characteristics from the chart readings. Be careful not to
mix units. We should all be using SI units but US units are still with us. Whichever you
use, be consistent, i.e. do not end up with Kg/inch2. If you have data from enough
samples, it is always a good idea to calculate statistical data such as averages and
standard deviations. If you do not calculate values in lab class, but plan to do so at some
later time, leave enough space in your notebook to enter the calculations before starting
to write on the next topic in lab so the data for one experiment are not intermixed with
data from another.
At this stage, you need to consider what you have learned. Do the results make sense,
or is there an obvious error? A number may not fall in a regular progression. Did you
make a mistake in writing it down (happens a lot!) or is there some less obvious
explanation? Do you understand what your results mean? Were they more or less what
you expected - or were led to expect by the instructor? After studying the results, write
down your comments, being careful to distinguish between things you feel sure about
and those where you are speculating. Speculation, hypothesis, and what-if thinking are
an important part of science and engineering because they suggest experiments which
you might try to get a better understanding of the subject at hand. It is important that you
and other readers know when you are speculating, so be sure to make it clear.
Finally, look over the whole experiment and see if you could have done something
differently or better. Maybe the plan suggested in the handout could be improved, or the
equipment was not working well. It is rare that things are so perfect that they can not be
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improved - even at CMU! In any case, write down your thoughts on deficiencies in the
experiment.
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Any necessary equipment (glassware, thermometers, etc.) and tools, if not already
available, must be obtained from an instructor, teaching assistant or laboratory
technician.
3.
At the end of each laboratory period, groups are responsible for making sure that
water, air, electricity, etc., are shut off and benches and sink tops are clean.
4.
All glassware, tools, stopwatches, etc., must be returned to the proper cabinets and
locked up at the end of each laboratory period. Such items have a remarkably high
vapor pressure, and will evaporate completely if left standing in the open. Each
group member is responsible for all equipment charged out to the group. Failure to
return equipment will result in financial assessment.
5.
6.
7.
Make sure that you understand the functions of all pieces of equipment before
beginning an experiment. If there are any questions at all about the operation of
equipment, ask an instructor.
8.
Feel free to ask questions or the advice of the instructor or professor in charge, and
if you wish, come in and inspect the equipment ahead of time.
9.
All data are to be recorded in bound laboratory notebooks. You may be required to
produce this notebook at any time. It must be kept well organized and neat. The use
of paper towels or other slips of paper for data recording will not be tolerated.
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10. Please notify an instructor when the supply of an expendable material runs low, or
when something is broken. Irresponsible usage of equipment or of supplies (films,
etc.) will result in financial assessment to the group.
11. All reports assigned must be submitted to complete the requirements of the course.
An incomplete report will not be averaged with other reports to give a passing grade.
3.2 General Background for Safety
A prime requisite for all laboratory operation is conscious application of safe practices at all times.
Toleration of unsafe practices is not consistent with professional standards. The following rules are
applicable:
1.
Pennsylvania law requires that safety glasses be worn at all times in the laboratory when there is an
eye hazard possibility. You should acquire your own pair.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Familiarize yourself with the location and operation of fire extinguishers and other safety devices.
6.
Watch your step in the laboratory. There are numerous irregularities in the grating and pipes across
the floor. Wet floors are very slippery.
7.
8.
9.
10. In order to protect your clothing, lab coats should be worn in the laboratory.
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4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
H. Greenberg
Mechanical properties are the characteristic responses of a material to applied stresses.
Selection of mechanical tests for a particular application is based primarily on experience
that many lots of a particular grade of material having properties falling within a certain
range have performed satisfactorily in service. It can then be anticipated that new lots of
this same material having the same mechanical properties will also perform satisfactorily
in the same application.
4.1 Definitions
1. Strength - ability of a material to resist applied forces.
2. Ductility - ability of a material to undergo permanent shape change (plastic
deformation) without rupturing.
3
4.
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One of the primary purposes, in making mechanical property tests of metal products, is
to determine conformance or non-conformance with specifications. The data may thus
serve as an index to the quality of a product in comparison with similar products obtained
previously. Since variations in the methods used in preparing test specimens may have a
significant effect on the test data, it is essential that careful and uniform procedures be
followed in machining and finishing test specimens. Procedures should be used that will
not cause temperature changes or distortions which, in turn, would affect appreciably the
mechanical property values.
4.2.1 Hardness Tests
(From R.A. Flinn and P.K. Trojan, Engineering Materials and Their Applications, 2nd Ed.,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1981, p. 79-82).
Hardness is usually defined as resistance to penetration. Let us review a few of the most
common tests (see Figure 4.1) and see how closely they fit this definition.
27-301 Lab. 2
place for 15 sec. for steels or 30 sec. for softer materials, and then removed. The
diameter of the impression in millimeters is then read with a low-power microscope with
a Filar (measuring) eyepiece. Next the observer reads the Brinell hardness number
(BHN) that corresponds to the impression's diameter from a table of values for the load
used. The more difficult the penetration, the higher the BHN. The hardness conversion
table has been developed such that the BHN is about the same whether the 500- or
3,000-kg load is used, although obviously the impression diameter is different. The
lighter load is used for aluminum and copper alloys because in very soft materials the
ball with a 3,000-kg. load will continue to penetrate until it is deeply sunk into the surface.
4.2.1.2 Vickers Hardness Number (VHN) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH);
a.k.a. Microhardness
This is an improvement on the Brinell test. Here, a diamond pyramid indented is pressed
into the sample under loads much lighter than those used in the Brinell test. The
diagonals of the square impression are read, and averaged, and the Vickers hardness
number (VHN) is read from a chart for the specific load. As shown in Fig. 4.2, the VHN is
close to the BHN from 250 to 600. The figure does not show that the VHN climbs steadily
with hardness at higher values, whereas the BHN is not used above 600. The
advantages of the Vickers test are in greater accuracy, capability of obtaining hardness
measurements at high levels, and in measuring the hardness of a small region. On the
other hand, the BHN gives a better averaging effect because of the larger impression.
Finally, one significant advantage of the microhardness test is that by dividing the load
(and multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity to obtain force) by the area
of the indent, a value with units of stress can be obtained. This can then be related to
yield stress or ultimate strength measured in a tensile test.
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FIGURE 3.2: Conversion values for Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell Tests
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utilizing 15, 30, or 45 Kg loads and either a diamond (N scales) or a 1/16" steel ball (T
scales) as the indenter.
4.2.2 Tension Tests (by M. Stevens)
The tension test is the most common characterization method used for determining
design information on the strength and ductility of metals as well as for acceptance
determinations in quality assurance applications. In a tension (or tensile) test, a
specimen is subjected to a continually increasing uniaxial tension force while
simultaneous observations are made of the elongation of the specimen. This is
physically accomplished by mounting a machined specimen of the material of interest
into mechanical "grips" which are attached to a load frame. One of these grips is
mounted to a moving crosshead which is operated by two vertical lead screws which are
rotated in a suitable direction by a servo-motor. Electronic instrumentation provides
control signals to the servo-motor in order to control crosshead speed, direction of test,
etc.... An additional feature included in the load train is a highly sensitive electronic load
weighing system with load cells that use strain gages for detecting tensile or
compressive load on the specimen. Similar strain gages are used on extensometers
which may be attached to the specimen during testing in order to accurately measure
elongation (strain). The load, or stress, on the specimen is subsequently plotted as a
function of elongation or strain to constitute a stress-strain curve.
The shape and magnitude of the stress-strain curve of a metal will depend on its
composition, prior thermomechanical processing, strain rate, temperature and state of
stress. The important parameters which can be deduced from a stress-strain curve
include the yield strength, tensile strength, and percent elongation. These are indicated
on the representative stress-strain curve shown in Figure 4.3.
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As measures of ductility, the reduction of area at fracture and the elongation to fracture
are used as percent reduction of the original area and percentage increase of the original
gage length. The percentage reduction of area at fracture is only slightly affected by the
shape of the tensile test specimen. As long as the ratio of the width to thickness does not
exceed about 5:1, for a rectangular cross-section, the percent reduction of area remains
the same as for circular cross-sections.
Elongation to fracture is usually measured by fitting the broken specimen back together
and measuring the distance between punch or scribe marks. Elongation may also be
taken from an autographic record of the load-extension diagram; the two do not
necessarily agree. Elongation is so much affected by the gauge length over which it is
measured that the gauge length must always be specified when reporting data.
Variations in ductility from specimen to specimen, and from point to point and with
direction in the same specimen are often considerable and are almost always greater
than variations in the other tensile properties. Tests taken transverse to the direction of
greatest elongation in working are generally inferior in ductility, often considerably so.
Some useful definitions:
ENGINEERING STRESS
= P/Ao
where
P = Load
Ao = Original cross-sectional area
ENGINEERING STRAIN
E=
L-Lo
Lo
where
27-301 Lab. 2
freely and after it has broken the sample, the energy absorbed in breaking the sample
may be calculated. This energy is the impact strength of the material and can be read
directly from a dial gauge on the machine.
FIGURE 4.4: Operation of a Charpy impact test (from Hayden et al. The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. 3, Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and Sons, 1965)
"The types of data obtained are shown schematically in Figure 4.5. FCC metals show
high impact values and no significant change with temperature; however, BCC metals,
polymers, and ceramics show a transition temperature below which brittle behavior is
found. It should be emphasized that the actual transition temperatures for different
materials vary greatly. For metals and polymers it is generally between -200 and 200F (129 and 93C), while for ceramics it is above 1000F (538C)."***
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FIGURE 4.6: (a) Charpy impact strength vs. temperature of a 3.5%Ni, 0.1% C
steel,
with the fraction cleavage fracture surface.
(b) Charpy impact fracture surfaces for different temperatures relative
to the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
4.2.4 Fatigue Testing (Extracted from Introduction to Engineering Materials, V.B.
John)
"If a material is subjected to repeated, or cyclic, stressing, it may eventually fail even
though the maximum stress in any one stress cycle is considerably less than the fracture
stress of the material, as determined by a tensile test. This type of failure is termed
fatigue failure."
"Very many components are subjected to alternating or fluctuating loading cycles during
service, and failure by fatigue is a fairly common occurrence. The mechanism of fatigue
in metals has been thoroughly investigated. When a metal is tested to determine its
fatigue characteristics, the test conditions usually involve the application of an alternating
stress cycle with a mean stress value of zero. The results are plotted in the form of an SN curve (Figure 4.7), where S is the maximum stress in the cycle, and N is the number of
cycles to failure. Most steels show an S-N curve of type (i), with a very definite fatigue
limit, or endurance strength. This means that if the maximum stress in the stress cycles
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is less than this fatigue limit, fatigue failure should never occur. Many non-ferrous
material show S-N curves of type (ii) with no definite fatigue limit with these materials it is
only possible to design for a limited life, and a limit of 106 or 107 cycles is often used."
FIGURE 4.7: S-N curves for (i) metal showing fatigue limit (steel),
(ii) metal showing no fatigue limit (aluminum),
Hayden et al., The Structure & Properties of Matter.
Although maximum stress under fatigue conditions is nominally below the elastic limit
of the material, it has been established that some plastic deformation by slip takes place.
During continued cyclic stressing, slip bands appear on the material; and, at these slip
bands, there are some extrusive and intrusive effects (Figure 4.8(a)). These extrusions
and intrusions formed by slip are extremely small, being of the order of one micron (1
m) in size. Once an intrusion has formed, it can then act as the commencement of a
fatigue crack. The intrusion, with a very small root radius, acts as a point of stress
concentration and the crack slowly propagates through the material until, eventually, the
remaining sound portion of the cross-section is too small to be able to sustain the
maximum load. At this point, sudden fracture occurs."
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FIGURE 4.8:
(a) Intrusion and extrusions formed in early stages of fatigue.
(b) Fatigue fracture surface showing both smooth
and crystalline (conchoidal) fracture zones.
"A fatigue fracture surface is distinctive in appearance and consists of two portions, a
smooth portion, often possessing conchoidal markings showing the growth of the fatigue
crack up to the moment of final failure, and the cleavage or shear final fracture zone
(Figure 4.8(b))."
" The type of stressing cycle to which a material in service is subjected may be classed
as alternating, repeating, or fluctuating. In an alternating stress cycle the value of the
mean stress is zero. A repeating stress cycle is one in which the stress varies from zero
to some maximum value, and a fluctuating stress cycle is one in which neither the
minimum stress nor the mean stress value is zero. There are many factors that affect the
fatigue strength of a material; these include surface condition, component design, and
the nature of the environment. Specimens for fatigue testing are usually prepared with a
highly polished surface, and this condition will give the best fatigue performance. The
fatigue limit for highly polished steels is approximately one-half of the tensile strength. If
the surface of the specimen contains a scratch or notch, or is ground rather than
polished, the fatigue limit of the material will be reduced. The presence of scratches or
notches act as small defects from which fatigue cracks can be initiated. Similarly, a sharp
change in section with a small fillet radius can act as a stress raiser, and fatigue cracks
can commence from such points. Keyways and oil holes in shafts are often points at
which fatigue commences. The effect of a notch or scratch is not the same for all
materials; a ductile metal is much less sensitive to the presence of surface flaws than is
a brittle material. If conditions are such that corrosion can occur, not only is the fatigue
limit very greatly reduced but also the rate of corrosion is increased. For some materials,
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including some steels, there is no fatigue limit in a corrosive environment, and failure will
eventually occur, even when the stress levels are very low. "
" Materials other than metals are also subject to failure by fatigue, but comparatively little
work has been done in this area. For concrete and polymers, as with metals, the number
of stress cycles necessary for failure is increased as the maximum stress in the loading
cycles is decreased, but there does not appear to be a definite fatigue limit with these
materials. There are difficulties in the fatigue testing of polymers, because of their low
thermal conductivities and high damping capacities. Furthermore, there is an increase in
the temperature of a polymer test-piece during a test."
"Fatigue tests are carried out by cycling the material either in tension compression or in
rotating bending (Figure 4.9). The stress, in general, varies sinusoidally with time, though
modern servo-hydraulic testing machines allow complete control of the wave shape."
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gradually increases with time after the initial elastic loading. Creep can be defined as
plastic (permanent) deformation occurring at high temperature under constant load over
a long time period. After the initial elastic deformation at t = 0, Figure 4.12 shows three
stages of creep deformation. The primary stage is characterized by a decreasing strain
rate. The relatively rapid increase in length induced during this early time period is the
direct result of enhanced deformation mechanisms. A specific example is dislocation
climb as illustrated in Figure 4.13. This enhanced deformation comes from thermally
activated atom mobility, giving dislocations additional slip planes in which to move. The
secondary stage is characterized by straight-line, constant strain-rate data (Fig. 4.12). In
this region the increased ease of slip due to high-temperature mobility is balanced by
increasing resistance to slip due to the buildup of dislocations and other microstructural
barriers. In the final (tertiary) stage, strain rate increases due to an increase in true stress
resulting from cross-sectional area reduction due to necking or internal cracking. In some
cases, fracture occurs in the secondary stage, eliminating this final stage.
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Figure 4.14 shows how the characteristic creep curve varies with changes in applied
stress or environmental temperature. The thermally activated nature of creep makes this
process another example of Arrhenius behavior. A demonstration of this is an Arrhenius
plot of the logarithm of the steady-state creep rate (e) from the secondary stage against
the inverse of Absolute temperature (Figure 4.15). As with other thermally activated
processes, the slope of the Arrhenius plot is important in that it provides an activation
energy for the creep mechanism. Another powerful aspect of the Arrhenius behavior is
its predictive power. The dashed line in Figure 4.15 shows how high-temperature strain
rate data, which can be gathered in short-time laboratory experiments, can be
extrapolated to predict long-term creep behavior at lower, service temperatures. This
extrapolation is valid as long as the same creep mechanism operates over the entire
temperature range. Many elaborate semi-empirical plots have been developed, based on
the principle, to guide design engineers in material selection.
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5. Experiment Description
5.1 Optimizing Properties of Wood as a Function of Moisture Content;
Measurement of Anisotropy
In this experiment you will perform tests on wood. The focus will be on (a) the variation
in mechanical properties between different types of wood; (b) the anisotropy of wood
properties; (c) the effect of thermal treatment (drying) and soaking (to vary the moisture
content of the wood) on mechanical properties; and (d) the composite nature of wood.
Note that only the first of these requires testing all the available species of wood. The
other series of experiments may be performed on only one type.
5.2 Design of Experiment
You will design a set of experiments, write a plan and submit it by the date specified in
the Course Schedule. The instructor will provide feedback on your plan. You will
measure the mechanical properties by performing compression tests in the Instron
testing frame. You will also compare the strength in compression with the strength in
tension by performing tensile tests. Since performing tensile test on a wood specimen is
difficult because of the care needed to grip the specimen without crushing the material,
you will only perform a few tensile tests for comparison with the compression tests
(which will provide your primary measurement of strength). You will analyze the data
from the tensile tests to produce a true stress-true strain curve. You will use the Charpy
tester to measure toughness. You will use optical microscopy on the various samples in
order to document the variations in microstructure. You may perform scanning electron
microscopy in addition (e.g. for characterization of fracture surfaces) but this must be
arranged well in advance with the staff member in charge of electron microscopy, Mr.
Tom Nuhfer (Roberts Hall). A critical issue is the amount of time available for your
tests, so you must manage your time with care, sharing out tasks etc.
The mechanical properties of wood are dependent on the microstructure just as they are
for any other class of material. The main objective of the lab therefore is to illustrate this
point for a material class that is in widespread use but receives little attention in
conventional materials science. It also illustrates the complexity of the structure of wood,
which you will explore to a limited extent. The mode of testing will be compression
instead of tension (or Charpy impact) in order to demonstrate an alternative method and
because gripping wood specimens in a tensile test is not as straightforward as for metal
or polymer specimens. Nevertheless, you will be provided with your own tension
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samples and test them to compare tensile properties and failure modes with
compression testing. Lastly, although wood is itself a natural composite, it is highly
anisotropic as you should observe in the test results. Therefore it is often used in a manmade, macroscopic composite form i.e. plywood. You will test a common form of
plywood to compare its properties with those of regular wood.
Although you will be working in a group of two or three students for each experiment,
each student must submit an individual report which encompasses Experiments 1 a, b
and c. Raw data sheets may be common, i.e. Xeroxed, to the reports of each member of
the group, but graphs and tables of data must be individually prepared. Record the
initials of the individual responsible for each data point.
5.3 Types of Wood to be tested:
1) White Pine: a standard softwood much used for building frames and simple cabinetry
2) Oak: a tough hardwood with a relatively open grain, much used for sailing ships in
former times and still used extensively in furniture and cabinetry.
3) Cork: technically this is the bark of a type of oak. This is provided in case you have
time to measure its Poissons ratio.
Some specimens may also be available for these wood types (in limited numbers):
4) Plywood: you will test interior grade plywood laminated from softwoods.
5.4 Experimental Procedure
Compression Testing: this will be the main type of test to be carried out. One of the
frames will have a subpress which is a cage constructed to hold the specimen and, in
effect, reverse the action of the testing apparatus. You will need to arrive at a collective
plan for performing the tests in order to ensure that all the test parameters have been
covered. When you consider the anisotropy of wood, recall its microstructure and be
aware that all three directions have different properties (which point group describes the
symmetry of the properties?!). As a natural material, wood is very sensitive to its
environment: in order to demonstrate this, you will test samples in the as-received
condition and artificially dried (by baking samples in an oven) and after soaking in water
for an extended period (at least overnight). You must also use lubrication on the faces
that contact the platens of the subpress. A soft graphite pencil rubbed on the contacting
faces should suffice to lubricate your specimens.
35
27-301 Lab. 2
Special Test 1: One of the mechanical properties of materials that is important in certain
applications is the Poissons Ratio (see text for definition). For many structural materials
its value is the range 0.25-0.35. Certain materials have values very different from this,
however, with interesting and useful consequences. Cork is considered to be a cellular
material and, as such, it has a Poissons Ratio close to zero. You will attempt to
determine the ratio for cork and for one of your test woods by measuring the initial
dimensions (as you should do in any case), placing the specimen in the test frame,
loading to a substantial fraction of the yield stress (or in the case of cork, a displacement
that will yield approximately 10% longitudinal strain) and measuring the lateral
dimensions. If this proves too awkward in the subpress used for compression testing,
you may use a vice (or equivalent device) to apply compressive loads since load
measurement is not required.
Special Test 2: You will be provided with tensile specimens (two per group) in pine and
in plywood. Test the tensile properties following the standard protocol. Compare your
results with handbook values. Discuss whether you encountered any special problems
with the testing such as the accuracy of the specimens relative to the design, gripping of
the specimens (to transmit the load) etc.
Special considerations in testing wood: Compliance Correction:
Although compliance correction is generally a necessity when performing tensile tests on
high-modulus materials such as metals, wood has a low modulus, especially across the
grain. If your measured modulus (from the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve) is
within the range for the type of wood being tested, then there is little point in trying to
apply a compliance correction. If it turns out thus, note in your report that you evaluated
the elastic modulus and did not find any need to apply a compliance correction.
Special considerations in testing wood: true stress, true strain:
Plastic (irreversible) deformation of metals to large strains occurs without volume or
density change. Thus the cross-sectional area of a metal specimen increases during a
compression test as the specimen height is reduced. This typically leads to an
engineering stress-strain curve that appears to accelerate with strain. Wood is a
cellular material, however, so it responds to compression across the grain mainly by
collapse of the pores. You should check what your specimens actually do (i.e. try to
measure the change in cross-sectional area during a compression test), but the area
may well remain approximately constant. This, if true, is convenient because it means
that the true stress is equal to the engineering stress. Strain can be measured as the
change in specimen height, divided by the original height (or the logarithm of this ratio, to
obtain log strain).
5.5 Report
Parameters:
36
27-301 Lab. 2
A) Type of wood
B) Direction of testing (parallel to grain/parallel to radial direction/ parallel to the
circumferential direction)
C) Condition of the wood (As received/ Oven dried/ Water saturated)
D) Testing Direction relative to the grain
5.5.1 Observations:
i) Elastic modulus
ii) Yield Stress (you may have to use back extrapolation to determine a yield)
iii) Maximum Stress (this may depend on the failure mode)
iv) Failure mode (buckling? fracture? along the grain? plywood: do the laminations
remain intact?)
v) Dimensions and weight of each sample (including before and after treatment to vary
moisture content)
5.5.2 Analysis:
a) Mechanical Property values (compare to handbook values): elastic modulus, yield
stress, maximum stress
b) Stress-Strain Curves (mark essential features such as yield, failure etc.)
c) Anisotropy of Modulus, Strength. Report the elastic anisotropy tensor for stiffness in
the matrix notation (Cij). Note which values you were able to measure, and which ones
your experiments could not address
d) Document the appearance of the specimen after testing: how did it fail?
e) Optical microscopy of the fracture surfaces
f) Density attempt to calculate the moisture content
5.5.3 Questions for discussion about the results:
1) How important is the anisotropy of wood (be quantitative)?
2) Do you expect wood to be tough or brittle? Could its toughness vary with
circumstances?
3) How useful is wood as an engineering material? Why?
4) How significant is its sensitivity to environmental conditions? How does wood
compare with other materials?
5) How do the specific properties of wood (modulus/density, strength/density) compare
with other materials?
Useful ref: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/FPLGTR/fplgtr113/fplgtr113.htm
5.5.4 Typical Values:
Compression tests on 1cm cubes:
Area = .01*.01 m2 = 1.10-4 m2.
Oak/Northern Red/ green: compression along grain = 23,700 kPa = 23.7 MPa
Load at "strength" = 23.7.106*1.10-4 = 23.7e2N = 2,370 N
Oak/Northern Red/ green: compression across grain = 4,200 kPa = 4.2 MPa
Load at "strength" = 4.2.106*1.10-4 = 4.2e2N = 420 N
Oak/Northern Red/ 12%: compression along grain = 23,700 kPa = 23.7 MPa
Load at "strength" = 46.6.106*1.10-4 = 46.0e2N = 4,600 N
Oak/Northern Red/ 12%: compression across grain = 7,000 kPa = 7.0 MPa
Load at "strength" = 7.0.106*1.10-4 = 7.0e2N = 700 N
White Pine/ green: compression along grain = 16,800 kPa
37
27-301 Lab. 2
27-301 Lab. 2
curve that corresponds to the maximum (ultimate) tensile stress. The suggested steps
for analyzing the load-displacement curves are as follows.
Convert the load-displacement data to
engineering stress (eng) - engineering strain (eng).
Correct the strains for the machine compliance. To do this, compare the measured
elastic slope against the handbook value for the (Youngs) modulus. For each data
point, subtract a strain that corresponds to the difference between the apparent
elastic strain and the true elastic strain. Note that the amount that you subtract
depends on the load, not on the strain! This also means that the correction changes
most rapidly at small strains, and least rapidly at large strains (where the load and
therefore the elastic strain is changing rather slowly). The procedure is illustrated in
the figure below.
Subtract the elastic strain from the total strain in order to obtain the plastic strain.
The elastic strain is a small fraction of the total strain once yield has occurred.
At this point, you have engineering stress versus engineering strain and can plot a
curve.
We now convert the plot of engineering stress versus engineering strain to a plot of
true stress versus true (logarithmic) strain.
First we note that;
A() L() = A0 L0 for all points on the curve.
39
27-301 Lab. 2
From this, we obtain the true stress in terms of the engineering stress:
F F A0
A
=
#
= " eng. 0
A A0 A
A
%l %l
%l
$log. = + + K = &
l1 l2
i li
" true =
Taking the limit of infinitesimally small changes in length, the latter becomes the
logarithmic strain (also called true strain). Therefore we can write:
!
"# =
"l
.
l
dl
=
l0
l0 l
%l(
"true $ "log = ln' *
& l0 )
!
"=
d" =
# d(ln l)
l0
This gives us a method to calculate the logarithmic strain from the engineering strain
at every point. Finally, we re-write the true stress in terms of the engineering stress
and the engineering strain.
" true =
F F (1+ #e )
=
= " eng (1+ #e )
A
A0
C3. Incorporate and discuss the data in the report (presentation) for Experiment 2. Be
!
sure to compare the different characteristics of the various materials. Remember to
address the four questions listed above.
Useful notes on recording the data from tensile test on the Instron in the undergraduate
Laboratory [based on an email from an Instron service engineer]:
If you are using Series IX version 8, in the method editor under Main--Global
Parameters there is a field called ASCII Test Data. Enabling this will create a file
with all the data points with each test/replay in the Instron\s9\output directory.
If you are using a previous version of Series IX, you can export an ASCII file of
the data as follows. Click on Utilities in the Main Window and select Display
Raw Data (under the Raw Data menu item). Under the File Menu, select
Create ASCII file. Answer the prompts at the bottom of the screen. Note: The
40
27-301 Lab. 2
default setting of "Header" will not give the actual data points. "Raw Data" or
"Header and Raw Data" must be selected (F2 will pop up a menu with these 3
choices). This will create a file (F10 will do this) of the same name as the MRD
file in the same directory as the MRD file. The new file will have an .MAD
extension. Note: to open an MAD file in Excel97, the extension must be changed,
e.g. to .TXT. As of October 2004, there are two computers, one for each Instron
frame. The older machine (left) has a version of the Utilities that will make the
conversion as described above; the newer machine (right) will display raw data
but the window does not allow a conversion to ASCII. One can copy a data file to
the older machine and perform the conversion there.
Notes from October 2004:
There are two Instron frames in the Laboratory. One is newer than the other and
each has its own computer that you can (and should) use to control the tests and
acquire data (in the form of load+displacement data points). The software is the
same on the two computers. However, when choosing the units for plotting, the
new frame (on the right) will function with either British or SI units: the older frame
(on the left) will only function with British units.
41
27-301 Lab. 2
6.
Report Requirements
27-301 Lab. 2
is quite proper to include another author's curves on your plots, but not his individual
data points. Evaluate trends in the results and any conclusions that can be drawn.
Development of conclusions must begin in this section where they can be supported by
logical argument, even though they will be dealt with exclusively in the next section. In
the event of poor results, explain how the experiment should be modified to obtain
satisfactory ones. This important section demonstrates your thinking and understanding
of what was intended. In this section, you must discuss how you optimized the
combination of toughness and strength as measured by the product of the two quantities
(units to be discussed).
7A. Conclusions -- This section should be a numbered listing of the more important test results
and major conclusions reached in the discussion. Conclusions are single sentences and
typically 5 to 8 of them should be sufficient.
7B. Summary -- This section is a recapitulation of major points made in the Discussion in
bulletized form and is intended to leave your audience with a clear idea of what you
accomplished.
8. References -- This is a list of references in alphabetical order by author.
1. Use journal abbreviations as follows (article titles need not be included):
Example: Author, Journal, Year, Vol. No., pp.
R. M. Horn and R.O. Ritchie, Met.Trans., 1978, vol. 9A, pp. 1039-1053.
2. References to books should include the title and pages within the book.
Example: Author, Book, edition, vol., pages, publisher, place, date.
George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, 2nd ed., pp. 160-165, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1976.
9. Appendices (Supplemental Slides) -- Detailed technical information for which there is not
space in the actual presentation should be included in these sections. An appendix
contains information that would enable a reader to go into depth and completely check
and reproduce the results. Included should be at least one complete set of sample
calculations from original data to final results, copies of original data sheets, computer
programs, etc. Appendices should not contain information vital to the report such as
graphs or tables of data that properly belong in the Test Results section.
6.2 Report Grading
Make sure that each team member gets to talk for about the same amount of time. Your
presentation grade will depend on the following items:
25 points for Content: was the content correct? Was it complete? Were figures and tables
properly cited?
25 points on Slides: were the slides readable and informative? Were they prepared with care
or just slapped together at the last minute?
25 points on the Oral presentation: did you have a fluent speaking style? Was the
presentation rehearsed or was this the first time you talked out loud about this topic? (Note that
this component of the grade will be different for each student; the other items are common to all
the students of a particular group).
25 points on the Question and Answer session: how well (and professionally) were questions
answered after the presentations? Questions will be asked by the faculty present, the TAs, and
also by students from the 4 groups that do not have their presentation that day.
Final copies of your slides (which constitute the written report) must be submitted by
5pm on the submission date noted in the Course Schedule.
43
27-301 Lab. 2
Grading for reports submitted late will be reduced 20% for the first week and an additional 20%
for each succeeding week.
Note the following chart of guidelines for how to differentiate between high quality and low
quality presentations.
Students are referred to the University Policy About Cheating and Plagiarism (Organization
Announcement No. 297, 6116/80). It shall be the policy in this course to discourage cheating to
the extent possible, rather than to try to trap and to punish. On the other hand, in fairness to all
concerned, cheating and plagiarism will be treated severely.
"Cheating includes but is not necessarily limited to:
1.Plagiarism, explained below.
2.Submission of work that is not the student's own for reports or quizzes.
3.Submission or use of falsified data.
Plagiarism includes (but is not limited to) failure to indicate the source with quotation marks or
footnotes, where appropriate, if any of the following are reproduced in the work submitted by a
student:
1. A graph or table of data.
2. Specific language.
3. Exact wording taken from the work, published or unpublished, of another person.
44
27-301 Lab. 2
27-301 Lab. 2
Mechanics of Wood and Wood Composites, J. Bodig and B. A. Jayne, Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
detailed textbook, emphasis on mechanics.
The New Science of Strong Materials, J. E. Gordon, Princeton.
pleasant, qualitative account of the development of a wide range of materials, with
reference to aeroplanes, ships ....
I.4 Structure
It is important to understand wood as a cellular, composite structure. It is one,
however, that has several different length scales from that of the cellulose molecule to
the macrostructure of lumber as we accustomed to looking at it at the visual scale. The
summary viewgraph illustrates the hierarchy of length scales that are pertinent to wood
from the atomic structure of cellulose to the structure of a tree trunk. The basic building
block of wood is the polymer of glucose known as cellulose, which occurs as a (mostly)
crystalline fiber. The other critical component of wood is lignin, which is a complex,
amorphous material containing phenyl groups. Lignin sets wood apart from other plants;
its occurrence as outer and inner linings of the cell walls is critical for both structural
properties and for woods (relative) insensitivity to environment.
I.5 Mechanical Properties
The most useful way to develop an understanding of the mechanical properties of
wood is to relate the variation in modulus, strength etc. to the density. For this we follow
the analysis of cellular structures in order to relate the macroscopic modulus to the
modulus of the cell wall material.
I.5.1 Basic Equations: Modulus
Eaxial Ecell ( cell)
Etransverse Ecell ( cell)2
(1)
(2)
The first equation simply quantifies the idea that the tensile modulus of wood
parallel to the grain is just the volume average of the area fraction occupied by cell wall.
The second equation is more subtle and states that the elastic modulus
transverse to the grain varies more rapidly - with the square of the density - than the
axial modulus. The reason for this can be understood very simply in terms of the cellular
structure. When wood is loaded across the grain, the cell walls bend like miniature
beams. This response can be quantified by use of beam theory to arrive at the
functional dependence of equation 2. The mechanical behavior can be modeled by a
framework of beams (see the last page of figures in this handout). The deflection, , of
a beam of length l and thickness t, under a load F, is given by standard beam theory as
Fl3/EcellI, where Ecell is the Youngs modulus of the beam material (i.e. cell wall) and I is
the bending moment which is proportional to t4. The force is stress multiplied by area,
i.e. F=l2. The strain, , is the displacement, , divided by the cell length, =/l. Thus we
can obtain Eq. 2 as the ratio of stress to strain:
Etransverse = / = { Fl3 /EcellIl}-1 = { l2l3 /EcellIl}-1 = C {EcellI/l4} = C {Ecell t4/l4}
But we also relate the density to the cell dimensions by writing (t/l)2 and obtain Eq. 2,
46
27-301 Lab. 2
Etransverse = C Ecell 2.
Note that this derivation is a general one for open-celled foams and happens to be a
simple, easy-to-understand approach. Woods have more complex structures than the
open cell model, which helps to explain the scatter in the data.
27-301 Lab. 2
For fracture toughness, the result is given without proof that the cellular structure
leads to a 3/2 exponent in the density dependence. The crucial point is that propagating
a crack parallel to the grain is much easier than transverse. More than one
microstructural feature contributes to the high transverse toughness, including fiber pullout, propagation of secondary cracks perpendicular to the primary crack, and elongation
of the polymer chains in the cell walls. Again, there are many different directions and
planes for crack propagation in this anisotropic material which further increases the
variability of the toughness.
I.6 Time Dependent Properties
Although it is straightforward to perform mechanical tests on wood, many of the
basic mechanical properties are time dependent. For modulus, this simply means that
there is a frequency dependence with significantly higher effective moduli at high
frequencies. For strength, the phenomenon of creep means that the allowable values of
strength for design must be derated (decreased) when sustained stress is encountered.
For current values of accepted design allowables, the appropriate handbook should be
consulted: the data suggest that a derating of 50% is sufficient to account for timedependent deformation. Again, the effect of moisture is so large that realistic lifetimes
for wood must account for expected moisture-temperature cycles in the particular service
location.
I.7 Effect of Moisture
The primary modifier of mechanical properties of wood is the moisture content.
The higher the moisture content, the lower the strength until one reaches the fiber
saturation point; this is, ideally, the moisture content above which the cell walls can not
absorb any more water, and the further uptake of water is as free water in the interior of
the cells. As before, it is useful to think of this discontinuity in the response of the
material as being a characteristic of its cellular microstructure. Simply knowing the
chemistry of the material (i.e. that the majority component is cellulose) is insufficient to
explain the properties of the material. It is important to realize that, as is so often the
case with materials, there is no free lunch. In more precise terms, as the strength goes
up (with decreasing moisture content) the toughness goes down. This reciprocal
relationship between strength and toughness is well known in metal alloys.
I.8 Degradation of Wood
The lifetime of wood is limited by its vulnerability to biological decay. This can
take both microscopic and macroscopic forms.
At the microscopic level, there are many species of fungus that consume one or
more of the constituents of wood. Brown Rots attack the cellulose and the
hemicellulose. White Rots are more omnivorous and find the lignin edible too. The
probability of attack by rot varies considerably by timber species because of the variation
in extractives present. Teak, for example, is extremely durable whereas Balsa is highly
perishable. In any case, a minimum moisture content of ~20% is required for fungal
attack to occur, which is much higher than for non-lignified plants. This is another
illustration of the importance of lignin in the properties of wood!
At the macroscopic level, many insects enjoy feasting on wood. Termites are
notorious for their depradations, partly because they have the habit of tunneling through
beams and posts in order to stay out of the light (and in moist conditions). By the time
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27-301 Lab. 2
that termite damage is evident on the exterior of a piece of wood, all structural integrity
has been lost. In colder climates, several wood boring beetles leave their characteristic
calling card of fine (~1mm diameter) holes on the surface.
The processing of wood now includes a variety of impregnation procedures which
impart greater resistance to decay. The use of wood ties for railroad track prompted the
development of creosote impregnation methods. This is a good example of lifecycle
costs being considered more important than cost of purchase, since the enhanced
lifetime of treated ties more than pays for the increased cost per tie. Note, however, that
impregnation is only routine for softwoods. Also, the design of wooden structures now
places considerable emphasis on avoiding contact between wooden members and the
ground.
I.9 Processing of Wood
Lest you think that wood is limited to its naturally occurring forms, it is very
important to be aware of the wide variety of man-made forms of wood products. Most of
these forms are motivated by cost as well as engineering design considerations.
Plywood, for example, uses a significantly larger fraction of the available volume of a log
because the individual sheets from which it is made are shaved off a log as a continuous
strip. Not only can knot-holes be filled but the anisotropy of wood is much reduced in
plywood. Glu-lams are wood beams made from relatively thick lamellae that, again,
permit more efficient use of available lumber and offer increased dimensional stability.
Conventional wooden floor joists can only take advantage of the shape of rectangles (in
cross section), as compared, for example, to the more efficient shape of steel I-beams.
Recently, more elaborate composites are being manufactured for joists that approximate
I-beams in shape and offer very good resistance to sound transmission.
I.10 Joining of Wood
As with many composites, a major difficulty with the application of wood is joining.
In ancient times, great care was used to avoid tension joints; where these were
unavoidable, mechanical pinning was used with subtlety that the pins (pegs) needed to
be drier than the beams so that, in time, the structural members would shrink onto the
pins and hold them. Ship construction resulted in the need to seal the joints between the
planks used to sheath the hull which was done with, amongst other materials, tar or
pitch. The phrase devil to pay is actually a contraction of the frustrated shipbuilders
remark that there was the devil to pay and only half a bucket of pitch left; in this
context, the devil was a particular seam that was prone to leak. Modern glues based
on caesin (milk products) and on epoxies have greatly improved the prospects of wood,
especially the man-made composites based on wood.
I.11 Cork
Cellular Solids, Lorna Gibson & Michael Ashby, Pergamon
detailed description of the properties and structure of cellular solids.
Cork in its natural form is simply the bark of the cork oak, Quercus Suber, which
happens to grow as an unusually thick layer of the cork cambium layer in the bark.
Unlike regular wood, where there is considerable heterogeneity in the structure, cork is
nearly a homogeneous structure of (approximately) hexagonal cells, whose prism axis is
parallel to the radial direction in the tree trunk. The exception to this concerns the
49
27-301 Lab. 2
lenticels which are planar channels in the cork whose plane normal is in the tangential
direction. The cell walls themselves have corrugations which are very important in
controlling the mechanical properties of the honeycomb. They also are covered in
suberin (an unsaturated fatty acid) and waxes, with the result that cork is highly resistant
to chemical and biological attack.
The mechanical properties of cork can be predicted based on its microstructure.
The key feature of the prediction is the incorporation of the corrugated nature of the cell
walls, because it allows one to predict the zero value of the Poisson ratio(s) for
compression on the prism axis (radial direction), for example. The values shown for the
predictions are based on measured values of cell wall density of 1150 kg/M3, and
modulus of 9 GPa. Note that the agreement is surprisingly good except for the in-plane
Poisson ratio, for which the variation is probably due to the heterogeneities in the
structure.
Table of Mechanical Properties of Cork
Calculated
Measured
Moduli
Etransverse (MPa)
Eprism (MPa)
Gin-plane (MPa)
Gout-of-plane (MPa)
Poisson ratioin-plane
Poisson ratioout-of-plane
15
20
4
1.0
0
13 5
20 7
4.3 1.5
2.5 1
0.5 0.05
0 0.05
Collapse Stresscompr.
in-plane (MPa)
out-of-plane (MPa)
1.5
1.5
0.7 0.2
0.8 0.2
Perhaps the best known application of cork is for wine bottle corks (also for
gaskets in general, e.g. in internal combustion engines). The chemical resistance of cork
is ideal for long-term use, but the elastic properties are also crucial to this application.
Although the low Young's modulus is useful, note that the bulk modulus is also low,
unlike other solid polymers above their glass transition temperature. Better yet, when
cork is compressed along its prism axis, there is no change in lateral dimension. One
might imagine that cutting corks along the radial direction would be ideal. The lenticels
mentioned above, however, render this impracticable because they offer a leak path
across the cork. The solution is materials engineering, such that a practical cork has two
layers cut with the prism axis along the bung axis, topped with a cork composite made
from bonding cork particles. This then is another example of manipulation of natural
materials for particular applications.
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27-301 Lab. 2
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