For other uses, see Parrot (disambiguation).

Parrots
Temporal range: Eocene - Holocene,[1] 54 0Ma
Pre??OSDCPTJKPgN
Ara ararauna Luc Viatour.jpg
Blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ararauna)
Rose-ringed Parakeet eating leaves.JPG
Rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri)
Scientific classification e
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Psittacopasserae
Order: Psittaciformes
Wagler, 1830
Superfamilies
Cacatuoidea (cockatoos)
Psittacoidea (true parrots)
Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots)
Parrot range.png
Range of parrots, all species (red)
Parrots, also known as psittacines /'s?t?sa?nz/,[2][3] are birds of the roughly
372 species in 86 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes,[4] found in most
tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamil
ies: the Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos) and the Stri
gopoidea (New Zealand parrots).[5] Parrots have a generally pantropical distribu
tion with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemispher
e as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia
.
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved bill, an upright sta
nce, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured,
and some are multi-coloured. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphis
m. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length.
The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, bud
s and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, whi
le the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar and sof
t fruits. Almost all parrots nest in tree hollows (or nest boxes in captivity),
and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial (helpless) young.
Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays and magpies, are among the most intellig
ent birds, and the ability of some species to imitate human voices enhances thei
r popularity as pets. Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, as well as huntin
g, habitat loss and competition from invasive species, has diminished wild popul
ations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group o
f birds.[6] Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charism
atic species have also protected many of the less charismatic species living in
the same ecosystems.[7]
Contents [hide]
1 Taxonomy
1.1 Origins and evolution
1.2 Phylogeny
1.3 Systematics
1.4 Other lists
2 Morphology
3 Distribution and habitat
4 Behaviour

4.1 Diet
4.2 Breeding
4.3 Intelligence and learning
4.3.1 Sound imitation and speech
4.3.2 Cooperation
5 Relationship with humans
5.1 Pets
5.2 Zoos
5.3 Trade
5.4 Culture
5.5 Feral populations
5.6 Threats and conservation
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Cited texts
8 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
Origins and evolution[edit]
Blue-and-yellow macaw eating a walnut held in its foot
Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order
may have evolved in Gondwanaland, centred in Australasia.[8] The scarcity of par
rots in the fossil record, however, presents difficulties in confirming the hypo
thesis.
A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower bill (UCMP 143274), found in
deposits from the Lance Creek Formation in Niobrara County, Wyoming, had been t
hought to be the oldest parrot fossil and is presumed to have originated from th
e Late Cretaceous period, which makes it about 70 Ma (million years ago).[9] Oth
er studies suggest that this fossil is not from a bird, but from a caenagnathid
theropod or a non-avian dinosaur with a birdlike beak.[10][11]
It is now generally assumed that the Psittaciformes, or their common ancestors w
ith several related bird orders, were present somewhere in the world around the
Cretaceous Paleogene extinction event (K-Pg extinction), some 66 Ma. If so, they p
robably had not evolved their morphological autapomorphies yet, but were general
ised arboreal birds, roughly similar (though not necessarily closely related) to
today's potoos or frogmouths (see also Palaeopsittacus below). Though these bir
ds (Cypselomorphae) are a phylogenetically challenging group, they seem at least
closer to the parrot ancestors than, for example, the modern aquatic birds (Aeq
uornithes). The combined evidence supported the hypothesis of Psittaciformes bei
ng "near passerines", i.e. the mostly land-living birds that emerged in close pr
oximity to the K-Pg extinction. Indeed, analysis of transposable element inserti
ons observed in the genomes of passerines and parrots, but not in the genomes of
other birds, provides strong evidence that parrots are the sister group of pass
erines, forming a clade Psittacopasserae, to the exclusion of the next closest g
roup, the falcons.[12]
Europe is the origin of the first undeniable parrot fossils, which date from abo
ut 50 Ma. The climate there and then was tropical, consistent with the Paleocene
-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Initially, a neoavian named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered i
n Denmark's Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 Ma, was assigned to the P
sittaciformes; it was described from a single humerus.[13] However, the rather n
ondescript bone is not unequivocally psittaciform, and more recently it was poin
ted out that it may rather belong to a newly discovered ibis of the genus Rhynch
aeites, whose fossil legs were found in the same deposits.
The feathers of a yellow-headed amazon. The blue component of the green colourat

ion is due to light scattering while the yellow is due to pigment.

Fossils assignable to Psittaciformes (though not yet the present-day parrots) da
te from slightly later in the Eocene, starting around 50 Ma. Several fairly comp
lete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found in England and Germany.[14]
Some uncertainty remains, but on the whole it seems more likely that these are n
ot direct ancestors of the modern parrots, but related lineages which evolved in
the Northern Hemisphere and have since died out. These are probably not "missin
g links" between ancestral and modern parrots, but rather psittaciform lineages
that evolved parallel to true parrots and cockatoos and had their own peculiar a
utapomorphies:
Psittacopes (Early/Middle Eocene of Geiseltal, Germany) basal[citation needed]
Serudaptus pseudasturid or psittacid[citation needed]
Pseudasturidae (Halcyornithidae may be correct name)
Pseudasturides formerly Pseudastur
Vastanavidae
Vastanavis (Early Eocene of Vastan, India)
Quercypsittidae
Quercypsitta (Late Eocene)
The earliest records of modern parrots date to about 23 20 Ma and are also from Eu
rope. Subsequently, the fossil record again mainly from Europe consists of bones cle
arly recognisable as belonging to parrots of modern type. The Southern Hemispher
e does not have nearly as rich a fossil record for the period of interest as the
Northern, and contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the early to m
iddle Miocene, around 20 Ma. At this point, however, is found the first unambigu
ous parrot fossil (as opposed to a parrot-like one), an upper jaw which is indis
tinguishable from that of modern cockatoos. A few modern genera are tentatively
dated to a Miocene origin, but their unequivocal record stretches back only some
5 million years (see genus articles for more).
Fossil skull of a presumed parrot relative from the Eocene Green River Formation
in Wyoming
The named fossil genera of parrots are probably all in the Psittacidae or close
to its ancestry:
Archaeopsittacus (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene)
Xenopsitta (Early Miocene of Czechia)
Psittacidae gen. et spp. indet. (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zeal
and) several species
Bavaripsitta (Middle Miocene of Steinberg, Germany)
Psittacidae gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of France) erroneously placed in Pa
rarallus dispar, includes "Psittacus" lartetianus
Some Paleogene fossils are not unequivocally accepted to be of psittaciforms:
Palaeopsittacus (Early Middle Eocene of NW Europe) caprimulgiform (podargid)[citat
ion needed] or quercypsittid[citation needed]
"Precursor" (Early Eocene) part of this apparent chimera seems to be of a pseudast
urid or psittacid
Pulchrapollia (Early Eocene) includes "Primobucco" olsoni psittaciform (pseudasturid
or psittacid)[citation needed]
Molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 Ma (range 66 51 Ma
) in Gondwanaland.[15] The three major clades of Neotropical parrots originated
about 50 Ma (range 57 41 Ma).
Phylogeny[edit]
Parrots
Psittacoidea Rose-ringed Parakeet (Male) I IMG 9141.jpg

Cacatuoidea Cacatua galerita -perching on branch -crest-8a-2c.jpg

Strigopoidea Kaka (Nestor meridionalis)- Wellington -NZ-8-2c.jpg

Other birds
Phylogenetic relationship between the three parrot superfamilies based on the av
ailable literature[8][16][17]
The Psittaciformes comprise three main lineages: Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and
Cacatuoidea.
The Strigopoidea were considered part of the Psittacoidea, but recent studies pl
ace this group of New Zealand species at the base of the parrot tree next to the
remaining members of the Psittacoidea as well as all members of the Cacatuoidea
.[8][16][17]
The Cacatuoidea are quite distinct, having a movable head crest, a different arr
angement of the carotid arteries, a gall bladder, differences in the skull bones
, and lack the Dyck texture feathers which, in the Psittacidae, scatters light i
n such a way as to produce the vibrant colours of so many parrots. Colourful fea
thers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium
Bacillus licheniformis better than white ones.[18]
Lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae,[19] but are now
considered a tribe (Loriini) within the subfamily Lorinae. The two other tribes
in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots (two genera in the tribe Cy
clopsittini) and budgerigar (tribe Melopsittacini).[8][16][17]
Systematics[edit]
The following classification is based on the most recent proposal, which in turn
is based on all the relevant recent findings.[5][8][16][20][21][22][23]
Skeleton of a parrot
Superfamily Strigopoidea: The New Zealand parrots.
Family Nestoridae: 2 genera with 2 living (kea and New Zealand kaka) and several
extinct species of the New Zealand region.
Family Strigopidae: The flightless, critically endangered kakapo of New Zealand.
Superfamily Cacatuoidea: Cockatoos
Family Cacatuidae
Subfamily Nymphicinae: 1 genus with one species, the cockatiel.
Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: The black cockatoos
Subfamily Cacatuinae
Tribe Microglossini: One genus with one species, the black palm cockatoo.
Tribe Cacatuini: Four genera of white, pink and grey species.
Superfamily Psittacoidea: true parrots.
Family Psittacidae
Subfamily Psittacinae: Two African genera, Psittacus and Poicephalus
Subfamily Arinae
Tribe Arini: 15 genera
Tribe Androglossini: 7 genera

Incertae sedis: 10 genera

Family Psittrichasiidae
Subfamily Psittrichasinae: One species, Pesquet's parrot
Subfamily Coracopsinae: One genera with several species.
Family Psittaculidae
Subfamily Platycercinae
Tribe Pezoporini: ground parrots and allies
Tribe Platycercini: broad-tailed parrots
Subfamily Psittacellinae: 1 genus (Psittacella) with several species.
Subfamily Loriinae
Tribe Loriini: lories and lorikeets
Tribe Melopsittacini: 1 genus with one species, the budgerigar
Tribe Cyclopsittini: fig parrots
Subfamily Agapornithinae: 3 genera
Subfamily Psittaculinae
Tribe Polytelini: 3 genera
Tribe Psittaculini: Asian psittacines
Tribe Micropsittini: pygmy parrots
Other lists[edit]
A list of all parrots sortable by common or binomial name, about 350 species.
Taxonomic list of Cacatuidae species, 21 species in 7 genera
Taxonomic list of true parrots which provides the sequence of Psittacidae genera
and species following a traditional two-subfamily approach, as in the taxobox a
bove, about 330 species.
List of Strigopidae
List of macaws
List of amazon parrots
List of Aratinga parakeets
Morphology[edit]
Behaviour[edit]
There are numerous challenges in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to
catch and once caught they are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely o
n banding or wing tagging, but parrots chew off such attachments.[34] Parrots al
so tend to range widely and consequently there are many gaps in knowledge of the
ir behaviour. Some parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend much
of their time perched or climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills
for climbing by gripping or hooking on branches and other supports. On the groun
d parrots often walk with a rolling gait.
Diet[edit]
File:Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoo kobble08.ogg
A yellow-tailed black cockatoo using its strong bill to search for grubs
A white-eyed parakeet couple eating queen palm seeds. Parrots have curved and st
rong beaks that can break very hard seeds.
The diet of parrots consists of seeds, fruit, nectar, pollen, buds, and sometime
s arthropods and other animal prey. The most important of these for most true pa
rrots and cockatoos are seeds; the evolution of the large and powerful bill can
be explained primarily as an adaptation to opening and consuming seeds. All true
parrots except the Pesquet's parrot employ the same method to obtain the seed f
rom the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and the lower mandible crus
hes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in the bill and the remaining husk i
s removed.[34] A foot is sometimes used to help holding large seeds in place. Pa
rrots are seed predators rather than seed dispersers; and in many cases where sp
ecies are recorded as consuming fruit they are only eating the fruit to get at t
he seed. As seeds often have poisons to protect them, parrots are careful to rem
ove seed coats and other fruit parts which are chemically well defended, prior t
o ingestion. Many species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea consume
clay which both releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds from the gut.[35]

Parrots at a clay lick in Ecuador.

The lories and lorikeets, hanging parrots and swift parrot are primarily nectar
and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to collect this source of
food, as well as some specialised gut adaptations to accommodate this diet.[36]
Many other species also consume nectar as well when it becomes available.
In addition to feeding on seeds and flowers, some parrot species prey on animals
, especially invertebrate larvae. Golden-winged parakeets prey on water snails,
and the kea of New Zealand kill juvenile petrels and adult sheep.[37] Another Ne
w Zealand parrot, the Antipodes parakeet, enters the burrows of nesting grey-bac
ked storm petrels and kills the incubating adults.[38] Some cockatoos and the ka
ka excavate branches and wood to obtain grubs; the bulk of the yellow-tailed bla
ck cockatoo's diet is made up of insects.[39]
Breeding[edit]
Although there are a few exceptions, parrots are monogamous breeders which nest
in cavities and hold no territories other than their nesting sites.[34][40] The
pair bonds of the parrots and cockatoos are strong and a pair remains close even
during the non-breeding season, even if they join larger flocks. As with many b
irds, pair bond formation is preceded by courtship displays; these are relativel
y simple in the case of cockatoos. In Psittacidae parrots common breeding displa
ys, usually undertaken by the male, include slow deliberate steps known as a "pa
rade" or "stately walk" and the "eye-blaze", where the pupil of the eye constric
ts to reveal the edge of the iris.[34] Allopreening is used by the pair to help
maintain the bond. Cooperative breeding, where birds other than the breeding pai
r help the pair raise the young and is common in some bird families, is extremel
y rare in parrots, and has only unambiguously been demonstrated in the El Oro pa
rakeet and the golden parakeet (which may also exhibit polyamorous, or group bre
eding, behaviour with multiple females contributing to the clutch).[41]
The vast majority of parrots are, like this feral rose-ringed parakeet, cavity n
esters.
Only the monk parakeet and five species of Agapornis lovebird build nests in tre
es,[42] and three Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest on the ground.
All other parrots and cockatoos nest in cavities, either tree hollows or cavitie
s dug into cliffs, banks or the ground. The use of holes in cliffs is more commo
n in the Americas. Many species use termite nests, possibly to reduce the conspi
cuousness of the nesting site or to create a favourable microclimate.[43] In mos
t cases both parents participate in the nest excavation. The length of the burro
w varies with species, but is usually between 0.5 2 m (1.6 6.6 ft) in length. The ne
sts of cockatoos are often lined with sticks, wood chips and other plant materia
l. In the larger species of parrot and cockatoo the availability of nesting holl
ows may be limited, leading to intense competition for them both within the spec
ies and between species, as well as with other bird families. The intensity of t
his competition can limit breeding success in some cases.[44][45] Some species a
re colonial, with the burrowing parrot nesting in colonies up to 70,000 strong.[
46] Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be expected, possibly becau
se most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own.[47]
The eggs of parrots are white. In most species the female undertakes all the inc
ubation, although incubation is shared in cockatoos, the blue lorikeet, and the
vernal hanging parrot. The female remains in the nest for almost all of the incu
bation period and is fed both by the male and during short breaks. Incubation va
ries from 17 to 35 days, with larger species having longer incubation periods. T
he newly born young are altricial, either lacking feathers or with sparse white
down. The young spend anything from three weeks to four months in the nest, depe
nding on species, and may receive parental care for several months thereafter.[4
8]

As typical of K-selected species, the macaws and other larger parrot species hav
e low reproductive rates. They require several years to reach maturity, produce
one or very few young per year, and do not necessarily breed every year.
Intelligence and learning[edit]
Sun conure demonstrating parrots' puzzle-solving skills
Studies with captive birds have given insight into which birds are the most inte
lligent. While parrots are able to mimic human speech, studies with the African
grey parrot have shown that some are able to associate words with their meanings
and form simple sentences (see Alex and N'kisi). Along with crows, ravens, and
jays (family Corvidae), parrots are considered the most intelligent of birds. Th
e brain-to body size ratio of psittacines and corvines is actually comparable to
that of higher primates.[49] One argument against the supposed intelligent capa
bilities of bird species is that birds have a relatively small cerebral cortex,
which is the part of the brain considered to be the main area of intelligence in
other animals. However, birds use a different part of the brain, the medio-rost
ral HVC, as the seat of their intelligence. Research has shown that these specie
s tend to have the largest hyperstriata, and Harvey J. Karten, a neuroscientist
at the University of California, San Diego, who studied bird physiology, has dis
covered that the lower part of the avian brain is functionally similar to that i
n humans. Not only have parrots demonstrated intelligence through scientific tes
ting of their language-using ability, but some species of parrot such as the Kea
are also highly skilled at using tools and solving puzzles.[50]
Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much of that
learning is social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblin
gs, and in several species creches are formed with several broods, and these as
well are important for learning social skills. Foraging behaviour is generally l
earnt from parents, and can be a very protracted affair. Supra-generalists and s
pecialists are generally independent of their parents much quicker than partly s
pecialised species which may have to learn skills over a long period of time as
various resources become seasonally available. Play forms a large part of learni
ng in parrots; it can be solitary, and related to motor skills, or social. Speci
es may engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An ab
sence of stimuli can delay the development of young birds, as demonstrated by a
group of vasa parrots kept in tiny cages with domesticated chickens from the age
of 3 months; at 9 months these birds still behaved in the same way as 3-month-o
lds, but had adopted some chicken behaviour.[34] In a similar fashion captive bi
rds in zoo collections or pets can, if deprived of stimuli, develop stereotyped
behaviours and harmful behaviours like self plucking. Aviculturists working with
parrots have identified the need for environmental enrichment to keep parrots s
timulated.
Sound imitation and speech[edit]
Main article: Talking bird
See also: Animal language
File:Amazon edited.ogg
Video of an orange-winged amazon saying "Hello" having been prompted by some peo
ple
Many parrots can imitate human speech or other sounds. A study by Irene Pepperbe
rg suggested a high learning ability in an African grey parrot named Alex. Alex
was trained to use words to identify objects, describe them, count them, and eve
n answer complex questions such as "How many red squares?" with over 80% accurac
y. N'kisi, another African grey, has been shown to have a vocabulary of approxim
ately a thousand words, and has displayed an ability to invent as well as use wo
rds in context and in the correct tense.
Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by expelling air acros

s the mouth of the bifurcated trachea. Different sounds are produced by changing
the depth and shape of the trachea. African grey parrots of all subspecies are
known for their superior ability to imitate sounds and human speech. This abilit
y has made them prized as pets from ancient times to the present. In the Masnavi
, written by Rumi of Persia in 1250, the author describes an ancient method for
training parrots to speak.
Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the amazon parrots are
generally regarded as the next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world.
The question of why birds imitate remains open, but those that do often score v
ery high on tests designed to measure problem solving ability. Wild African grey
parrots have been observed imitating other birds.[51] Most other wild parrots h
ave not been observed imitating other species.
Cooperation[edit]
The journal Animal Cognition stated that some birds preferred to work alone, whi
le others like to work together as with African grey parrots. With two parrots,
they know the order of tasks or when they should do something together at once,
but they have trouble exchanging roles. With three parrots, one parrot usually p
refers to cooperate with one of the other two, but all of them are cooperating t
o solve the task.[52]
Relationship with humans[edit]
File:Amazona aestiva -The Parrot Zoo, Friskney, Lincolnshire, England -laughing8a.ogv
Video of a blue-fronted amazon mimicking a human laughing
Humans and parrots have a complicated relationship. Economically they can be ben
eficial to communities as sources of income from the pet trade and are highly ma
rketable tourism draws and symbols. But some species are also economically impor
tant pests, particularly some cockatoo species in Australia. Some parrots have a
lso benefited from human changes to the environment in some instances, and have
expanded their ranges alongside agricultural activity, but many species have dec
lined as well.
There exist a number of careers and professions devoted to parrots. Zoos and aqu
ariums employ keepers to care for and shape the behaviour of parrots. Some veter
inarians who specialise in avian medicine treat parrots exclusively. Biologists
study parrot populations in the wild and help to conserve wild populations. Avic
ulturalists breed and sell parrots for the pet trade.
Tens of millions of parrots have been removed from the wild, and parrots have be
en traded in greater numbers and for far longer than any other group of wild ani
mals.[53] Many parrot species are still threatened by this trade as well as habi
tat loss, predation by introduced species, and hunting for food or feathers. Som
e parrot species are agricultural pests,[54] eating fruits, grains, and other cr
ops, but parrots can also benefit economies through birdwatching based ecotouris
m.[55]
Pets[edit]
Pet Cuban amazons in Cuba
Further information: Companion parrot
Parrots do not make good pets for most people because of their natural wild inst
incts such as screaming and chewing. Although parrots can be very affectionate w
hen immature, once mature, they often become aggressive and may bite, causing se
rious injury, partly due to mishandling and poor training. For this reason, parr
ot rescue groups estimate that most parrots are surrendered and rehomed through
at least five homes before reaching their permanent destinations or before dying
prematurely from unintentional or intentional neglect and abuse.

Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or aviary; though generally, tame parrots shou
ld be allowed out regularly on a stand or gym. Depending on locality, parrots ma
y be either wild caught or be captive bred, though in most areas without native
parrots, pet parrots are captive bred. Parrot species that are commonly kept as
pets include conures, macaws, amazons, cockatoos, African greys, lovebirds, cock
atiels, budgerigars, Eclectus, caiques, parakeets, Pionus and Poicephalus. Tempe
raments and personalities vary even within a species, just as with dog breeds. E
ven though African grey parrots are thought to be excellent talkers, not all Afr
ican Grey parrots want to talk, even though they have the capability to do so. N
oise level, talking ability, cuddliness with people, and care needs, can sometim
es depend on how the bird is cared for and the attention he/she regularly receiv
es.
Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care and intellectua
l stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three-year-old child, which
many people find themselves unable to provide in the long term.[56] Parrots that
are bred for pets may be hand fed or otherwise accustomed to interacting with p
eople from a young age to help ensure they will be tame and trusting. However, e
ven when hand fed, parrots revert to biting and aggression during hormonal surge
s and if mishandled or neglected. Parrots are not low maintenance pets; they req
uire feeding, grooming, veterinary care, training, environmental enrichment thro
ugh the provision of toys, exercise, and social interaction (with other parrots
or humans) for good health.
Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, amazons, and macaws, have
very long lifespans, with 80 years being reported and record ages of over one hu
ndred.[citation needed] Small parrots, such as lovebirds, hanging parrots, and b
udgies have shorter life spans of up to 15 20 years. Some parrot species can be qu
ite loud, and many of the larger parrots can be destructive and require a very l
arge cage, and a regular supply of new toys, branches, or other items to chew up
. The intelligence of parrots means they are quick to learn tricks and other beh
aviours both good and bad that get them what they want, such as attention or treats.
The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger kinds of pet p
arrot and their wild traits such as screaming, has led to many birds needing to
be re-homed during the course of their long lifespans. A common problem is that
large parrots which are gentle as juveniles mature into intelligent, complex, of
ten demanding adults that can outlive their owners and can also become aggressiv
e or even dangerous. Due to these problems, homeless parrots are being euthanise
d like dogs and cats, and parrot adoption centres and sanctuaries are becoming m
ore common. Parrots don't often do well in captivity, causing some parrots to go
insane and develop repetitive behaviors, such as swaying, screaming, or they be
come riddled with intense fear. Feather destruction and self-mutilation, althoug
h not commonly seen in the wild, occur frequently in captivity.
Zoos[edit]
Scarlet macaw riding a tricycle at a show in Spain
Parrot species are found in most zoos, and a few zoos participate in breeding an
d conservation programs. Some zoos have organized displays of trained parrots an
d other birds doing tricks.
Trade[edit]
Main article: International parrot trade
Ten thousand hyacinth macaws were taken from the wild for the pet trade in the 1
980s.[57] As a result Brazil now has only a very small number of breeding pairs
left in the wild.[citation needed]
The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving and often illegal trade in t
he birds, and some species are now threatened with extinction. A combination of

trapping of wild birds and damage to parrot habitats makes survival difficult or
even impossible for some species of parrot. Importation of wild caught parrots
into the US and Europe is illegal.
The trade continues unabated in some countries. A report published in January 20
07 presents a clear picture of the wild-caught parrot trade in Mexico, stating:
"The majority of parrots captured in Mexico stay in the country for the domestic
trade. A small percentage of this capture, 4% to 14%, is smuggled into the USA.
"[58]
The scale of the problem can be seen in the Tony Silva case of 1996, in which a
parrot expert and former director at Tenerife's Loro Parque (Europe's largest pa
rrot park) was jailed in the United States for 82 months and fined $100,000 for
smuggling hyacinth macaws.[59] (Such birds command a very high price). The case
led to calls for greater protection and control over trade in the birds. Differe
nt nations have different methods of handling internal and international trade.
Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960. Following years
of campaigning by hundreds of NGOs and outbreaks of avian flu, in July 2007, the
European Union halted the importation of all wild birds with a permanent ban on
their import. Prior to an earlier temporary ban started in late October 2005, t
he EU was importing approximately two million live birds a year, about 90% of th
e international market: hundreds of thousands of these were parrots. There are n
o national laws protecting feral parrot populations in the U.S. Mexico has a lic
ensing system for capturing and selling native birds (though the laws are not we
ll enforced).
Culture[edit]
Moche parrot. 200 A.D. Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru
Parrots painting, 1670, Skokloster Castle.
Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion and music f
or thousands of years. From Aesop's fable "The parrot and the cat" and the Roman
poet Ovid's "The Dead Parrot"(Latin), (English) to Monty Python's "Dead Parrot
Sketch" millennia later, parrots have existed in the consciousness of many cultu
res. Recent books about parrots in human culture include Parrot Culture.[60]
In ancient times and current, parrot feathers have been used in ceremonies, and
for decoration. The "idea" of the parrot has been used to represent the human co
ndition in medieval literature such as the bestiary. They also have a long histo
ry as pets.
In Polynesian legend as current in the Marquesas Islands, the hero Laka/Aka is m
entioned as having undertaken a long and dangerous voyage to Aotona in what are
now the Cook Islands, to obtain the highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gi
fts for his son and daughter. On the voyage a hundred out of his 140 rowers died
of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough pa
rrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers.[61][62] By at least some versions, t
he feathers were plucked off living parrots without killing them.[63]
Macaws, like other parrots, mate for life
Currently parrots feature in many media. There are magazines devoted to parrots
as pets, and to the conservation of parrots.[64] Fictional films include Paulie
and Rio, and documentaries include The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill.
Parrots have also been considered sacred. The Moche people of ancient Peru worsh
ipped birds and often depicted parrots in their art.[65]
Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is found on the

flag of Dominica. The St. Vincent parrot is the national bird of St. Vincent an
d the Grenadines, a Caribbean nation.
Parrots are popular in Buddhist scripture and there are many writings about them
. For example, Amitabha once changed himself into a parrot to aid in converting
people. Another old story tells how after a forest caught fire, the parrot was s
o concerned it carried water to try and put out the flames. The ruler of heaven
was so moved upon seeing the parrot's act, that he sent rain to put out the fire
. In Chinese Buddhist iconography, a parrot is sometimes depicted hovering on th
e upper right side Guan Yin clasping a pearl or prayer beads in its beak.
Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parroting" c
an be found in the dictionary, and means "to repeat by rote." There are also cli
chs such as the British expression "sick as a parrot"; although this refers to ex
treme disappointment rather than illness, it may originate from the disease of p
sittacosis which can be passed to humans.[66][67] The first occurrence of a rela
ted expression is in Aphra Behn's 1681 play The False Count.[68]
Feral populations[edit]
Main article: Feral parrot
Feral red-masked parakeets in San Francisco. The population is the subject of th
e book and film The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill.
Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the wild outside t
heir natural ranges and in some cases outside the natural range of parrots. Amon
g the earliest instances were pet Red Shining-parrots from Fiji which establishe
d a population on the islands of southern Tonga. These introductions were prehis
toric and Red-shining Parrots were recorded in Tonga by Captain Cook in the 1770
s.[26] Escapees first began breeding in cities in California, Texas and Florida
in the 1950s (with unproven earlier claims dating back to the 1920s in Texas and
Florida).[30] They have proved surprisingly hardy in adapting to conditions in
Europe and North America. They sometimes even multiply to the point of becoming
a nuisance or pest, and a threat to local ecosystems, and control measures have
been used on some feral populations.[69]
Threats and conservation[edit]
A mounted specimen of the Carolina parakeet, which was hunted to extinction
Deforestation pushed the Puerto Rican amazon to the brink of extinction, still r
emaining among the world's rarest birds despite conservation efforts.[70]
Many parrot species are in decline and several are extinct. Of the 350 or so liv
ing species, 130 are listed as near threatened or worse by the IUCN of which 16
are currently considered Critically Endangered.[71] There are several reasons fo
r the decline of so many species, the principal threats being habitat loss and d
egradation, hunting and, for certain species, the wild-bird trade. Parrots are p
ersecuted because, in some areas, they are (or have been) hunted for food and fe
athers, and as agricultural pests. For a time, Argentina offered a bounty on mon
k parakeets (an agricultural pest), resulting in hundreds of thousands of birds
being killed, though apparently this did not greatly affect the overall populati
on.[72]
Capture for the pet trade is a threat to many of the rarer or slower to breed pa
rrots. Habitat loss or degradation, most often for agriculture, is a threat to m
any species. Parrots, being cavity nesters, are vulnerable to the loss of nestin
g sites and to competition with introduced species for those sites. The loss of
old trees is a particular problem in some areas, particularly in Australia where
trees suitable for nesting need to be centuries old. Many parrots occur only on
islands and are vulnerable to introduced species such as rats and cats, as they
lack the appropriate anti-predator behaviours needed to deal with mammalian pre

dators. Controlling such predators can help in maintaining or increasing the num
bers of endangered species.[73] Insular species, which have small populations in
restricted habitat, are also vulnerable to unpredictable events such as hurrica
nes and volcanic eruptions.
There are many active conservation groups whose goal is the conservation of wild
parrot populations. One of the largest is the World Parrot Trust,[74] an intern
ational organisation. The group gives assistance to worthwhile projects as well
as producing a magazine[75] and raising funds through donations and memberships,
often from pet parrot owners. They state they have helped conservation work in
22 countries. On a smaller scale local parrot clubs raise money to donate to a c
onservation cause. Zoo and wildlife centres usually provide public education, to
change habits that cause damage to wild populations. Recent conservation measur
es to conserve the habitats of some of the high-profile charismatic parrot speci
es has also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the ecosyst
em.[7] A popular attraction that many zoos employ is a feeding station for lorie
s and lorikeets, where visitors feed small parrots with cups of liquid food. Thi
s is usually done in association with educational signs and lectures.
Several projects aimed specifically at parrot conservation have met with success
. Translocation of vulnerable kakapo, followed by intensive management and suppl
ementary feeding, has increased the population from 50 individuals to 123.[76] I
n New Caledonia the Ouvea parakeet was threatened by trapping for the pet trade
and loss of habitat. Community based conservation, which eliminated the threat o
f poaching, has allowed the population to increase from around 600 birds in 1993
to over 2000 birds in 2009.[77]
At present the IUCN recognises 19 species of parrot as extinct since 1600 (the d
ate used to denote modern extinctions).[78] This does not include species like t
he New Caledonian lorikeet which has not been officially seen for 100 years yet
is still listed as critically endangered.
Trade, export and import of all wild-caught parrots is regulated and only permit
ted under special licensed circumstances in countries party to CITES, the Conven
tion on the International Trade in Endangered Species, that came into force in 1
975 to regulate the international trade of all endangered wild caught animal and
plant species. In 1975, 24 parrot species were included on Appendix I of CITES,
thus prohibiting commercial international trade in these birds. Since that init
ial listing, continuing threats from international trade led CITES to add an add
itional 32 parrot varieties to Appendix I.[79] All the other parrot species are
protected on Appendix II of CITES. In addition, individual countries may have la
ws to regulate trade in certain species.
See also[edit]
Portal icon
Birds portal
Parrots International
References[edit]
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Cited texts[edit]
Cameron, Matt (2007). Cockatoos. Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-643-09232-7.
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