Chemistry IGCSE SoW

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.1 Solids, liquids and gases, pp.
23
(S refers to material in the supplement)
Approximate timing for this section: 80 minutes (including experiments)

Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus Link (curriculum content numbers in brackets)
Describe the states of matter and explain their interconversion in terms of the kinetic particle theory (1 core)
Learning Objectives
Suggested Teaching Activities
Extension and Consolidation
The properties of solids, liquids and
This section may be mainly for revision, but many students still get
The fact that some substances have melting and
gases can be explained in terms of
confused with the structure of liquids so it is best to concentrate on this and boiling points that are negative often causes
the closeness of the particles and the
on the energy aspects of change of state.
difficulties, and additional questions might be given
extent of movement of the particles
The bulk properties of solids liquids and gases can be demonstrated using a about the state of these substances at certain
The terms melting point and boiling
beaker and a block of ice, then melting the ice and boiling the water.
temperatures below 0oC.
point are used for specific changes of The difference between a gas and a vapour could be mentioned.
Students could make a flickbook to show the
state
Tables of data about melting points and boiling points could be used and
movement of the particles of liquids and gases, or to
The meaning of the terms melting,
students draw thermometers to show at what temperatures the substance is show the change in arrangement and motion of the
boiling, freezing, condensing
solid, liquid or gas. Students may then be asked to identify the state of a
particles when a solid changes to a liquid and a liquid
Energy is absorbed on melting and
substance at a certain temperature. Focus on substances which are gases or
to a vapour. This is suitable for homework or for less
boiling
liquids at room temperature.
able students.
Energy is released on condensing
The terms melting, evaporating (and boiling), condensing and freezing
More advanced students could consider the energy
and freezing
could then be introduced, together with a discussion of the energy changes
changes on change of state in terms of forces between
involved.
the particles.
The arrangement and motion of particles in solids, liquids and gases can
then be suggested. This can be done as a kinaesthetic activity by the
students.
Learning Outcomes
Practical Work and Resources
Describe the difference in
A cooling or heating curve for salicylic acid could be undertaken by students to emphasise that heat is absorbed when a solid melts
arrangements and motion of particles and is released when a liquid solidifies the horizontal portion of the curve indicating the point where energy is absorbed or being
in the three states of matter
released see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.3. This can also be demonstrated using a temperature probe attached to a data logger and
Explain change of state in terms of
computer.
particles when substances are heated
A kinetic particle model could also be used (ball bearings in a vertical tube with vibrator at one end to give the ball bearings more
or cooled
and more energy to model the change from solid to liquid to vapour).
Show a computer animation to show the arrangement and motion of the particles in solids, liquids and gases.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.2 Diffusion, pp. 45

Describe and explain diffusion (1 core)
Describe evidence for the movement of particles in gases and liquids (1 core)
Describe dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass treated qualitatively (1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The kinetic particle theory states that Diffusion is best discussed in terms of randomly moving particles. There is
Students could make a flickbook showing a gas
molecules in liquids and gases are
no attempt at this stage to define what the particles are.
diffusing into air (show air particles as well as e.g.
constantly moving and in solids they
Some planning is needed to set up the experiments in advance.
bromine particles).
are constantly vibrating
You could start by placing an ester or other scented substance at the front of Give further examples of diffusion involving mixing
Diffusion is the random movement
the class and asking students to put their hands up when they smell the
of different liquids. More advanced students could be
of particles which leads to them
scent.
asked why if lead and gold are held together for a
spreading out
Demonstrate one or more of the other diffusion experiments, preferably one long time, they appear to become joined in one block
Evidence for the movement of
involving gases and one involving diffusion in solution.
a rather rare example of diffusion in solids.
particles comes from experiments
Get students to suggest what is happening in terms of movement of
More advanced students can predict the effect of
showing the bulk flow of substances, particles stress that the movement is random.
similar experiments to the white ring experiment,
e.g. bromine vapour spreading out/
Make sure that students distinguish between processes of evaporation and
for example using different gases which diffuse and
perfumes being smelled / ink
diffusion (or dissolving and diffusion for a coloured solid placed in liquid).
then react, e.g. methylamine and hydrogen chloride.
diffusing into water
Complete the session by getting the students to suggest that diffusion is one
piece of evidence for the movement of particles (kinetic particle theory).
Substances with a higher relative
Finally the idea of relating the rate of diffusion to relative molecular mass
molecular mass diffuse slower than
of the molecules can be discussed. You can just talk about the mass of the
those with a lower relative molecular molecules at present, since the idea of relative molecular mass has not been
mass (S)
covered yet. Refer to the experiment involving a long tube with ammonia
and hydrogen chloride gas diffusing. The white ring appears nearer the
hydrogen chloride end of the tube because hydrogen chloride molecules are
heavier than those of ammonia and move slower.
Learning Outcomes
Describe and explain diffusion
Set up a syringe with ink in the bottom and water at the top and watch the ink diffuse into the water over a few days.
Observe the dissolving then diffusion of a crystal of potassium manganate( VII) placed in the bottom of a beaker of water.
Explain how the rate of diffusion
Demonstrate the diffusion of bromine in air (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.5).
depends on the mass of the molecules Demonstrate rate of diffusion using a long glass tube with hydrochloric acid at one end and ammonia at the other (see Chemistry for
(S)
IGCSE, p.5)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.3, Apparatus for measuring, pp. 67
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes

Name appropriate apparatus for measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume including burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders (2.1 core)
Learning Objectives
Mass is measured in grams,
Introduce students to pieces of laboratory glassware. Much of this section
Students could label apparatus set up in a variety of
temperature in oC, and volume in cm3 could be introduced or returned to at appropriate points in the course rather ways, e.g. for distillation, a flask with a reflux
or dm3
than doing this as a section.
condenser, titration apparatus.
The measuring apparatus selected for It is especially important that students distinguish between volumetric
If insufficient apparatus is available, a demonstration
an experiment depends on the
pipettes and just ordinary pipettes.
set should be used or diagrams.
accuracy required in the experiment
Students should be able to understand the conventions of drawing sectional Students could be asked to criticise various sectional
Know the uses of standard laboratory diagrams of the apparatus as well as identifying apparatus in the round.
diagrams of apparatus, e.g. with mistakes such as
glassware, including the burette, gas
This can be done through a few simple experiments on measuring volumes
corks cutting across the tubes, absence of a proper
syringe and condenser
of gasses and liquids (see Practical work below). It must be stressed,
closed system, etc.
though, that at this stage, the emphasis is on using the correct apparatus for
the correct job rather than focusing on the particular chemical reactions.
The selection of apparatus according to the degree of accuracy required is
also important.
Methods of collecting gases could be done here or later when the tests for
different gases are discussed.
Students could be given a series of cards with pictures of apparatus and
asked to match them up with the job they are used for.
Learning Outcomes
Explain how to measure mass, time
Reading a burette and using it to deliver a fixed amount of liquid into a flask (which could have an indicator in it).
and temperature
Using a volumetric pipette / volumetric flask.
Explain how to measure volume
Collecting a gas, e.g. carbon dioxide from acid + carbonate in an upturned measuring cylinder over water and using a stopclock to
measure the volume of gas produced in 10 seconds.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.4, Whats that gas? pp.13839
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (but 30 minutes if tests demonstrated)
Describe the following tests to identify gases: ammonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (using limewater), chlorine (using damp litmus paper) , hydrogen
(using a lighted splint), oxygen (using a glowing splint) (8.4 core)
Learning Objectives
Oxygen relights a glowing splint
This section is introduced early in the course to ensure that students are
Students could be given various problems of a
Hydrogen gives a squeaky pop with a conversant with the common gases that they will meet throughout the
practical nature to solve involving method of gas
lighted splint
course and to gain more experience with apparatus following on from the
collection e.g. of gases they are unfamiliar with e.g.
Chlorine bleaches damp litmus paper last section.
sulfur dioxide.
Carbon dioxide turns limewater
Introduce the section by asking students how they would collect gases that
Students could be given a set of cards about gas tests
milky
are heavier than air or are lighter than air. The different methods of
and asked to match the gas with the correct test and
Ammonia turns damp red litmus
collection can then be demonstrated using some standard reactions (see
with the correct result.
paper blue
practical work).
Relate the insolubility of some gases to the fact that they can be collected
over water.
The fact that some gases are denser than air and others are lighter than air
can be demonstrated by simple test tube experiments in the following way
(use the fume cupboard): take a test tube of ammonia, put a moist red
litmus paper a few centimetres above the tube, then time how long it takes
for the litmus to turn a definite blue colour. Repeat with the tube inverted
and the litmus the same distance away from the mouth of the tube.
The tests are best done with previously prepared test tubes of gas, or gas
from a cylinder or Kipps apparatus, so that students concentrate on the gas
rather than on the chemical reaction producing the gas.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the tests for hydrogen and
Students test for carbon dioxide using limewater (acid on carbonate) (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.139)
oxygen
Students test for hydrogen (a calcium chip in acid) (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.138)
Describe how litmus is used to test
Students test for oxygen (potassium manganate(VII) heated) (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.138)
for ammonia and chlorine
Demonstration test for chlorine (sodium chlorate(I) and hydrochloric acid) (See Chemistry for IGCSE, p.139)
Describe that carbon dioxide turns
limewater milky
Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.4 Paper chromatography, pp. 89 and p. 243

Describe paper chromatography (2.2a core)
Interpret simple chromatograms (2.2a core)
Interpret simple chromatograms including the use of Rf values (2.2a supplement)
Outline how chromatography techniques can be applied to colourless substances by exposing chromatograms to substances called locating agents (2.2a supplement)
Learning Objectives
Chromatography is used to separate
Start by showing a variety of coloured substances which are mixtures of
Students could be asked to draw / complete diagrams
and purify mixtures of coloured
coloured pigments (dyes), e.g. colourings in sweets, inks in felt-tip pens.
of chromatography apparatus.
compounds using a filter paper and
Place a spot of ink on a piece of moist filter paper and after a few seconds
Students could carry out Rf analysis and
solvent
note the coloured bands (black ink or blue ink are best for this).
identification of compounds for homework
Chromatography can be used to
Introduce the idea of chromatography to separate different colours.
Extend to demonstrate the chromatography of amino
identify compounds
Students can then carry out chromatography using coloured sweets or nonacid using ninhydrin as a locating agent (fume
permanent felt-tip pen colourings.
cupboard) then warming the chromatogram (after the
Locating agents are used to make
Stress the importance of the solvent being below the origin (base) line and
solvent has evaporated) in an oven to bring out the
colourless compounds visible on
the fact that the base line should be in pencil not ink!
purple colour.
chromatograms (S)
Students could compare the heights of spots and calculate Rf values.
Students could also research food colourings and
Compounds on a chromatogram can
They might also identify compounds (amino acids) from known Rf values if some problems associated with their use e.g. Sudan
be identified by their typical Rf
a mixture of these is available; or they could do this from diagrams.
dyes / tartrazine.
values (S)
The importance of chromatography for identifying the absence of amino
acids in some diseases could be mentioned.
Learning Outcomes
Describe paper chromatography
Carry out chromatography of sweet colourings or inks (use a small spot of ink felt-tip pens are useful for this) (see Chemistry for
Interpret simple chromatograms
IGCSE, p.9).
Demonstration chromatography of chlorophyll (extract chlorophyll with warm or petroleum ether or ethanol flammable and
Interpret chromatograms using Rf
carry out chromatography with propanone or another suitable solvent) links with photosynthesis.
values (S)
Video clips of chromatography of various types are readily available and can be shown.
Outline how chromatography
techniques can be applied to
colourless substances using locating
agents (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.5 Is that chemical pure? pp.1011
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes including practicals (otherwise 10 minutes)
Identify substances and assess their purity from melting point and boiling point information (2.2a core)
Understand the importance of purity in substances in everyday life, e.g. foodstuffs and drugs (2.2a core)
Learning Objectives
Medical drugs and food additives
Start by asking students about the range of substances we either take into
Students could undertake a literature/ internet search
must contain pure compounds to
our bodies or put on our skins. This leads to a discussion of purity.
to find examples of where impurities have got into
avoid harming people
Use labels from bottles of mineral water to indicate that mineral water is
foods (bacteria / poisons e.g. mercury in fish) or into
A pure substance melts and boils at a not pure water. You could also discuss the concept of pure orange juice.
drinking water e.g. aluminium compounds /
sharp (definite) temperature. An
The importance of purity can then be introduced in terms of the compounds insecticides / heavy metal ions.
impure substance melts or boils over
that go into medicines and foodstuffs. Impurities are present in these, but
a range of temperatures
they should be uncontaminated by harmful impurities.
Impurities lower the freezing point
Develop the idea of how to test whether a substance is pure or not by
and raise the boiling point of a
measuring melting and boiling points (see practicals) leading to the idea
substance
that pure solids have sharp melting points and impure ones melt over a
range of temperatures.
Learning Outcomes
Assess purity from information about Students measure the boiling point of distilled water and salt water.
melting and boiling points
Students measure the melting point of crushed ice in a filter funnel with and without added salt.
Understand the importance of purity
of substances used in everyday life
Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.6 Methods of purification, pp. 1213

Describe methods of purification by the use of a suitable solvent, filtration, crystallisation (2.2b core)
Learning Objectives
Solids can be separated from
Demonstrate addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide to aqueous copper (II)
Make different types of crystal. Investigate different
solutions by filtering (or decanting or sulfate and filter off the precipitate. While doing this, introduce or
crystal shapes and the range of substances which
centrifuging)
reintroduce the terms solvent, solution, precipitate, filtrate and
form crystals. This might form a suitable internet
Crystals are formed when a solution
residue.
search, perhaps for homework.
is partly evaporated to saturation
You could discuss why filtration is often used rather than decanting or
Give a number of separation problems when given
points then allowed to cool
centrifuging.
suitable information about solubilities of the
Solvent extraction is used to separate Show samples or pictures of crystals showing their regular structure.
individual substances concerned.
substances, one of which is more
Introduce the standard method of crystallisation, stressing that to form good
soluble in the solvent than the other
crystals the solution should be heated only to the crystallisation point.
Students could make their own crystals of, e.g., copper(II) sulfate.
Demonstrate solvent extraction, stressing the fact that many substances are
soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents or vice versa (see below).
Learning Outcomes
Describe the processes of filtration
Students could make crystals of copper sulfate from a dilute solution of copper sulfate (or mixture of copper sulfate solution and
and crystallisation
sand) (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.13).
Describe how to use a solvent to
Students separate sand from salt (sodium chloride) by dissolving the salt in water, filtering, then crystallising the salt.
extract a particular chemical
Demonstrate the solvent extraction of chlorophyll: grind plant material in a small amount of water and put the mixture into a
separating funnel, then add petroleum ether and shake chlorophyll is extracted into the solvent layer.
Demonstrate the extraction of iodine from aqueous solution into hexane (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.13).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.7 More about purification, pp. 1415
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (including practical demonstrations)

Describe methods of purification by the use of distillation including the use of the fractionating column (2.2b core)
Suggest suitable purification techniques given information about the substances involved (2.2b core)
Learning Objectives
Simple distillation is used to separate Introduce simple distillation by referring to differences in boiling points of
solids and liquids.
water from a dissolved solid
Introduce idea of simple distillation with demonstration experiment (see
Fractional distillation is used to
separate a more volatile liquid from a below).
Link this in with the use of simple distillation for producing drinking water
less volatile liquid in the mixture
from salt water as done in several places in the Middle East.
Purification of a mixture often
Remind students about ease of evaporation and boiling points. Get students
involves a variety of methods, e.g.
to suggest which of a pair of liquids in a mixture will evaporate first when
separating sand from salt
heated.
Demonstrate fractional distillation or show a video clip of fractional
distillation. Link this with production of ethanol for a solvent, use in
alcoholic drinks, such as whisky, and for the production of fragrances.
Learning Outcomes
Describe how distillation is used to
purify mixtures of liquids
Describe some applications of
distillation
Suggest appropriate methods to
purify a given mixture of substances

More advanced students could find out about
desalination plants and membrane cells. They could
research the internet for examples of membrane cells
and desalination plants in outline and discuss the
economic and environmental reasons for adoption of
these processes.
Extension work could include discussion of steam
distillation for producing oils for perfumes.

Demonstrate simple distillation of water from copper(II) sulfate to leave concentrated solution of copper(II) sulfate in flask. This can
be simply done by students by boiling copper(II) sulfate solution in a hard glass boiling tube connected to an L-shaped delivery tube
which is cooled by a damp cloth.
Demonstrate (partial) separation of ethanol from water, especially if a fractional distillation column is available (see Chemistry for
IGCSE, p.15). The ethanol can be collected and its flammability tested.
Pictures/ video clips of perfume production using distillation could be shown, e.g. lavender oil, orange flower oil.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.1 The Periodic Table, p.146
Approximate timing for this section: 30 minutes (or less depending on previous experience)

Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements (9 core)
Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period (9.1 core)
Learning Objectives
Elements are arranged in the Periodic This section serves as an introduction / reintroduction to the Periodic Table
Table in order of their proton number to remind the students of its structure and its use in classifying the
Metallic character decreases across a elements.
period but increases down a group
Start by giving students labelled samples of selected elements, if available
Know the position of some elements
(or pictures of these) so that they become familiar with their character as
and groups, e.g. alkali metals,
solids, liquids or gases.
halogens and noble gases, in the
Giving a historical background to the Periodic Table helps emphasise the
Periodic Table
difficulty of the problems involved.
Use the version of the Periodic Table in the syllabus. Large coloured
versions are more useful, especially those with pictures of the elements.
Students could make observations from a photographic version of the
Periodic Table.
Get students to annotate their own blank copies of the Periodic Table using
shading and a key to show metals and non-metals and the step transition
between the two.
Concentrate at his stage only on the names of selected elements, the way
the Periodic Table is arranged and the names of the major groups (alkali
metals, halogens, noble gases) as well as the metalnon-metal transition
and which elements are liquids and gases.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the arrangement of the
Periodic Table with pictures of elements.
elements in the Periodic Table
Selection of elements or pictures of the elements.
Describe how the metallic and nonWeb Periodic Tables to investigate limited range of properties of elements.
metallic character of the elements
changes across a period
Be able to name and give examples
of the alkali metals, halogens and
noble gases

Ask groups of students to research different elements
especially Group I and VII and 0 and transition
elements and report back to the class on what they
have found. This could also be set for homework.
Students could product fact cards to show proton
number and neutron number in preparation for next
lesson cards. The cards could be compared and trends
shown.
A database of properties and states for elements could
be set up. Students could suggest relevant questions
to find the metals, solids, liquids etc and enter their
results on a blank copy of the Periodic table.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.1 Inside the atom, pp. 1819

State the relative charges and the approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons (3.1 core)
Define proton number and nucleon number (3.1 core)
Use proton number to explain the structure of the Periodic Table (3.1 core)
Learning Objectives
An atom is the smallest uncharged
Ask students what they think about the structure of the atom. They may
particle that can take part in a
think that they are like hard balls.
chemical change
Introduce the structure of the atoms as a central nucleus surrounded by
The subatomic particles are protons
rings of electrons, but draw to students attention that scientists are not sure
and neutrons in the nucleus and
where the electrons actually are in space; a better model is to show that
electrons in shells outside the nucleus electrons are arranged in a complex three-dimensional way in space.
Know the charges and relative
However students should realise that it is convenient to draw the electrons
masses of the proton, neutron and
as behaving like a planetary system.
electron
The size of the nucleus compared with the diameter of the atom might be
Atoms are neutral because the
compared with the size of a lemon pip compared with that of a football
number of positive protons equals the field.
number of negative electrons
The importance of proton number in the arrangement of the elements in the
Atoms are arranged in the Periodic
Periodic Table might then be discussed.
Table in order of their proton number
Learning Outcomes
State the relative mass and charge of
Model of atom showing various shells.
a proton, neutron and electron
Video clips or simulations of structure of atoms showing moving electrons.
Define proton number and nucleon
number
Use proton number to explain the
basis of the Periodic Table

Look at different models of the atoms through the
ages e.g. hard balls, plum pudding model, planetary
model , modern model and put these in historical
context of the discovery of various types of particle
and development of new theories.
The size of the various atoms might also be discussed
and patterns in the size related to the position in the
Periodic Table.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.2 Isotopes, pp. 201 and Energy from radioactivity, p.89

Define isotopes (3.1 core)
State the two types of isotope as being radioactive and non-radioactive (3.1 core)
State one medical and one industrial use of radioactive isotopes (3.1 core)
Describe radioactive isotopes such as U-235 as a source of energy (6.2 core)
Learning Objectives
The number of protons + nucleons in Before discussing uses of isotopes it is important to discuss the general idea
the nucleus is called the nucleon
of isotopes as being described as non-radioactive as well as radioactive.
number
Examples could be given of writing the isotopes in standard form showing
The number of neutrons in an atom is nucleon number as well as atomic (proton) number. Filling in the gaps in
found by subtracting the proton
tables showing numbers of neutrons, electrons and protons in given
number from the nucleon number
isotopes gives students plenty of practice in understanding atom structure.
Isotopes are atoms with the same
The uses of isotopes can be shown using video clips, sources from the
number of protons but different
internet or from books. Students could research the use of one industrial
numbers of neutrons
and one medical use and feed back to either small groups or to the whole
Isotopes can be radioactive or nonclass.
radioactive
Details about alpha, beta and gamma radiation are not required.
Know one medical and one industrial The use of isotopes of uranium in the production of energy can be
use of radioisotopes
discussed in terms of perceived problems about nuclear fuels, but that
Uranium-235 is a radioisotope that is they are non-polluting in terms of minimal carbon dioxide production.
a source of energy in atomic power
Learning Outcomes
Define the term isotope
State the difference between
radioactive and non-radioactive
isotopes
State some industrial and medical
uses of isotopes
Describe the use of specific
radioactive isotopes as a source of
energy

Finding out about the range of isotopes and types of
radiation.
Students could hold a discussion or a mock meeting
about the pros and cons of building a nuclear power
station in a rural area near the sea. Some students
could represent the contractor, nuclear authority and
government department of energy, others could
represent worried local residents, pressure groups etc.

Video clips about uses of non-radioactive and radioactive isotopes.
Leaflets / information from internet about nuclear fuels and nuclear power.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.3 Electronic structure and the Periodic Table, pp.223
Approximate timing for this section: 30 minutes (if the activity is done)
Describe the build-up of electrons in shells and understand the significance of the noble gas electronic structures and of valency electrons (3.1 core)
Use the simple structure of atoms to explain the basis of the Periodic Table (3.1 core)
Learning Objectives
Electrons in atoms are arranged in
Students already know that the number of electrons in a neutral atom equal
Less able students could be given the task of making
shells
the number of protons. Here they build up a picture of the atoms in shells
model atoms using different coloured circles of cards
The outer shell electrons in an atom
for the first 20 elements.
representing the electron shells and circle of white
are the valency electrons
Start by giving the rules for the build-up of electrons in shells together with sticky dots to represent the electrons. Each student
The number of valency electrons in
the concept of full shells of electrons. Students can then draw the electronic does one, two or three of the first 20 elements. They
an atom of an element determines the structure of particular atoms in empty shells and arrange them on a blank
then come out to the board and place the atom they
chemical properties
Periodic Table according to the proton number. Alternatively, they could be have made in the appropriate place on a blank
Atoms of elements in the same group given the electronic structure of the first 20 elements and asked to arrange
Periodic Table (using sticky tape).
in the Periodic Table have the same
them to find the periodic pattern out for themselves.
number of valence electrons
From the general arrangement so discovered emphasise that the number of
valency electrons is the same as the group number.
Then go on to draw out similarities of chemical / physical properties of
elements in some groups of the Periodic Table, e.g. Groups I, II, VII and 0.
Finish off by discussing the relationship between the unreactivity of the
noble gases and their electronic structure.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the build-up of electrons in
Blank Periodic Tables.
shells
Photocopied empty electron shells for students to fill in.
Explain the significance of the noble
gas electronic structure and valency
electrons
Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.4 Elements, compounds and mixtures, pp. 245
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (if demonstrations included and models made)
Describe the differences between elements mixtures and compounds (3.2 core)
Learning Objectives
An element contains only one type of Show models of elements with different numbers of atoms, e.g. sulfur,
Students could look at models of selected compounds
atom
chlorine, nitrogen, carbon, and ask students what they notice about each.
on appropriate DVDs or on the internet. Pictures of
A compound is a substance
From this develop the definition of an element.
compounds which are able to be rotated are useful to
containing two or more different
Demonstrate the difference between elements and compounds by
give a three dimensional representation and show
atoms bonded together
experiment, comparing the properties of, e.g., sodium and chlorine with
students that there are a variety of different shapes of
Mixtures do not have a fixed
sodium chloride or iron and sulfur with iron sulphide (see experiments
simple molecules
composition and their components
below).
can be separated by physical means
From this develop the concept of a compound.
Students could make models of compounds using model kits, or using clay
or Plasticine of different colours and straws or cocktail sticks. It is best to
stick to models of simple molecular structures at this stage.
Finish off by discussing.
Learning Outcomes
Define the terms element and
Demonstration of burning sodium in chlorine to compare the properties of the elements with that of the compound sodium chloride
compound
(see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.25).
Explain the differences between
Demonstration of difference between iron, sulfur and iron sulphide. The sulphide is dark brown and reacts with acid to give off a
elements, compounds and mixtures
gas which turns lead ethanoate paper grey-brown: demonstrate using a fume cupboard since the hydrogen sulfide is very poisonous.
Sulfur does not react with acid, but iron gives off hydrogen (although there are small amounts of hydrogen sulfide from impurities
in the iron).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.5 Metals and non-metals, pp. 267
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (if demonstrations or class experiments included)

Describe the differences between metals and non-metals (3.2 core)
Learning Objectives
Metals are good conductors of heat
If sufficient strips of metal are available, students could investigate some of Students could compare the density of blocks of
and electricity and are malleable,
their properties such as electrical conductivity, flexibility and hardness by
different metals, e.g. iron, aluminium, and tin, to see
ductile and shiny
scratching. These may be compared with selected non-metals, e.g. sulfur.
the range of densities. Irregular pieces of metal may
Non-metals are poor conductors and The ideas of a fair test could be mentioned in relation to this experiment.
have their volumes calculated by displacement of
are brittle and often dull
The idea of physical as opposed to chemical properties could be introduced water.
Many metals, but not all, have high
here.
The hardness of metals could be compared by seeing
melting points
This is also an appropriate place to introduce ideas about density. Students
which metals are able to scratch others.
Exceptions are graphite (non-metal
could compare the densities of some metals and non-metals using tables of
They could search the internet to compare selected
which conducts) and Group I metals
data.
properties of a given set of metals and non-metals.
and mercury (low melting points)
When a list of general physical properties of metals and non-metal has been
produced, some exceptions to the rule might be demonstrated e.g. graphite,
mercury.
The chemical properties of metals could also be mentioned briefly here,
e.g. reaction with water, steam and dilute acids. These will however be
covered in detail later.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the differences between
Class practical or demonstration: comparing electrical conductivity of metals and non-metals (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.26);
metals and non-metals
suitable non-metals are sulfur and iodine (demonstration only). If lead is chosen as a metal, it should be place inside a transparent
Recognise that some metals and non- polythene bag. Students should wash their hands after the experiment. The flexibility of the metals could also be tested and ideas of
metals have properties that are
a fair test brought up.
exceptions to these general rules
Video clips of metals and non-metals undergoing testing for strength or other properties.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.1 Ionic bonding, pp. 3031

Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain (3.2a core)
Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Groups I and VII (3.2a core)
Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-metallic elements (3.2a supplement)
Learning Objectives
When atoms from Groups I and VII
Refer back to the experiment where sodium reacted with chlorine to ask
Models of ionic structures can be built, so that the
react, the atoms from the Group I
what was happening when the reaction occurred.
idea of giant structures is introduced concomitantly
element loses the electron from its
Introduce the idea that it is only the outer electrons that move when reactive with the idea of ions and students do not get the
outer shell and the atom from the
metals react with reactive non-meals. A demonstration using small circular
impression that ions normally exist just as pairs.
Group VII element gains this electron fridge magnets can be quite successful (outer electron shells only).
Ions have the noble gas electronic
There is also an opportunity to demonstrate the movement of the electron(s)
structure with a complete outer shell
with a kinaesthetic activity. There is no attempt at this stage to mention
of 8 electrons (or 2 for lithium)
giant ionic structures.
Know how to draw dot and cross
Students practise drawing the ions formed from suitable elements showing
diagrams to show the electronic
the electron shells and overall charge.
structure of ions between Group I
From ions with simple charges, the structure of ions with multiple charges
and VII elements
may be accessed.
The attraction between oppositely
charged ions is called ionic bonding
diagrams for ionic compounds with
multiple charges (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the formation of positive
Show video clips of atoms turning into ions or a computer simulation of this.
and negative ions
Computer simulations to show the formation of ions from atoms can be shown.
Draw dots and cross diagrams for
Small fridge magnets to demonstrate the movement of the electrons.
ions of Group I and Group VII
elements
Draw dot and cross diagrams for
other ions including those with
multiple charges (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.2 and 3.3 Covalent bonding (1) and (2) more complex molecules, pp. 325

Describe the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4 and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration (3.2b core)
Describe the electron arrangement in more complex covalent molecules such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2 (3.2b supplement)
Learning Objectives
A covalent bond is formed when
Refer back to ball and stick models made earlier to introduce the idea that
Less able students could omit making dot and cross
atoms share a pair of electrons
covalent bonding involves the sharing of pairs of electrons. A
diagrams involving double and triple bonds. They can
When atoms combine to form
demonstration using small circular fridge magnets can be quite successful
concentrate more on the ideas of pairing up the
covalent bonds each atom has 8
(outer electron shells only). Alternatively you can use different coloured
molecules using different coloured counters and
electrons in its outer shell (except for counters or sticky paper circles.
ignoring the inner shell electrons.
hydrogen which has 2)
There is also an opportunity to demonstrate the movement of the electron(s)
A single covalent bond is shown by a with a kinaesthetic activity.
line, e.g. HH
Give examples of the types of atom that join to form covalent compounds,
so that students get the idea that it is usually non-metals which combine
diagrams for the molecules specified
here.
in the core: H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4 and
Students practise drawing the molecules formed from suitable elements,
HCl
starting with the formation of single-bonded compounds only.
After this, students could go on to draw structures with more than two types
Know that a double covalent bond
of atom and then with double and triple bonds.
contains 2 pairs of shared electrons
and a triple bonds contains 3 (S)
diagrams for more complex
molecules, e.g. N2, C2H4, CH3OH
and CO2 (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the formation of covalent
Show video clips of atoms combining to form molecules or a computer simulation of this.
bonds
Small fridge magnets to demonstrate the movement of the electrons to form shared pairs.
Draw dot and cross diagrams for
hydrogen, chlorine, water, methane
and hydrogen chloride
Describe the electron arrangement in
covalent molecules with three or
more different types of atom (S)

Describe the electron arrangement in
atoms containing double or triple
bonds (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.4 Ionic or covalent?, pp. 367
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including practical)

Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity between ionic and covalent compounds (3.2b core)
Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions (3.2a supplement)
Learning Objectives
Ionic compounds generally have high Students could start by looking at ionic crystalline structures with a hand lens or
It is useful to demonstrate ionic conduction by
melting points, dissolve in water and
microscope to show the regularity of crystal structure. The question could then be
carrying out electrophoresis experiments. This
conduct electricity in solution
asked about why these crystals are so regular. This leads into ideas about the
demonstration makes it clear to the students
Covalent compound generally have
structure of an ionic crystal lattice. This can be developed naturally out of the
that it is the ions which move through the
low melting points, are insoluble in
students knowledge about ionic bonding.
solution and not the electrons. It can be done
water and so do not conduct
Models of the ionic structure could be shown at this point.
with damp filter paper on a microscope slide
electricity
The question then arises as to what is the generalised difference between
attached to a 20 V power pack by wires and
molecular and ionic compounds. This can be undertaken experimentally by
crocodile clips. A crystal of potassium(VII)
Know the meaning of the term ionic students seeing how a range of ionic and molecular compounds behave on
manganate or copper(II) sulfate is placed in the
lattice (S)
melting, dissolving in water and conducting electricity. Some molecular
middle of the filter paper. After a while, the
compounds are soluble in water, e.g. glucose (but mention there are exceptions).
coloured ions are seen moving to one of the
The point is that even if they do dissolve, they will not conduct.
electrodes. Copper ions may be made more
Students could undertake a data search concentrating on melting and boiling
visible by adding aqueous ammonia to the
points of a range of ionic and covalent compounds, e.g. chlorides and oxides.
filter paper. The electrophoresis of copper
The dissolving and subsequence conductance of electricity due to the movement
chromate in concentrated aqueous urea in a Uof ions can be shown by means of computer simulations or by using counters
tube, with carbon electrodes dipping into
marked with + and for the ions. It is also possible to do a kinaesthetic activity
sulfuric acid layered over the chromate in each
with some students being ions and others water molecules, freeing them from the
arm, shows the movement of copper ions to
surface of the crystal.
the cathode and chromate ions to the anode.
The point should finally be made that molecular structures cannot conduct
because they have no charged particles.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the differences
Compare how easily ionic and molecular substances melt and conduct electricity in solution (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.36).
in volatility, solubility and electrical
Suitable substances to use are sulfur, iodine, glucose and wax (carry out in fume cupboard) and sodium chloride, anhydrous copper
conductivity between ionic and
sulfate and potassium chloride (which will not melt easily). If an electrical conductivity metre is available, this can be used to
covalent compounds
measure the electrical conductance in solution.
Explain the term ionic lattice (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.5 Giant covalent structures, pp. 389

Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond (3.2c core)
Relate their structures to the use of graphite as a lubricant and of diamond in cutting (3.2c core)
Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) (3.2c supplement)
Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and silicon(IV) oxide related to their structures (3.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Diamond and graphite are
If samples of natural graphite are available, students could feel the slippery The structure and properties of carbon allotropes
macromolecules
surface and demonstrate how easily it flakes and can mark paper. A
could be extended to other forms of carbon, i.e.
Describe the structures of diamond
comparison could then be made with photographs or video clips of
buckminsterfullerene and nanotubes.
and graphite
diamond, showing that it is very hard.
Other forms of silicates could be mentioned and the
Know that graphite is a lubricant
Now tell students these are both forms of carbon with very different
fact that silicates are glasses. Students could be asked
because the layers slide over each
properties. How can we account for this?
why some forms of glass appear to conduct
other
Show students models or pictures of the structures and properties (high
electricity when semi-molten; this could be
Know that diamond is used in cutting melting point etc.) of the two allotropes. Students can then try to work out
demonstrated with a suitable sample of glass. This
because it has a 3-dimensional
for themselves why diamond is hard and graphite is soft and flaky. The
leads to the idea that there are ions in glass which,
network of strong bonds
most useful diagrams show the 3-dimensional structure which is rotatable
when it is semi-molten, can move.
on a computer simulation.
Know why graphite conducts
The electrical conductivity of graphite can then be explained in terms of the
electricity (S)
mobile electrons moving through the layers this conduction could be
Know the structure of silicon(IV)
demonstrated.
oxide and compare its structure and
Give students cards showing different properties of diamond and graphite
properties with diamond (S)
and their explanations, and ask them to work out which property fits which
explanation e.g. diamond is denser than graphite atoms in diamond
matches with the atoms are closer together.
The structure of silicon dioxide can then be discussed start with the
premise that sand is largely silicon dioxide and that it does not conduct
electricity. The similarity to diamond and the differences could then be
discussed.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the structures of graphite
Show computer-generated pictures of graphite and diamond.
and diamond
Video clips of diamond-tipped drills being used for cutting.
Relate the uses of graphite and
Demonstrate that a pencil lead conducts electricity.
diamond to their structures
Describe the structure of silicon(IV)

oxide (S)
Relate the properties of diamond,
graphite and silicon dioxide to their
structures (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.6 Metallic bonding, pp. 401
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including practical demonstrations)

Describe metallic bonding as a lattice of positive ions in a sea of electrons and use this to describe the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals (3.2d supplement)
Learning Objectives
The atoms in metals are arranged in Start by getting students to reiterate the properties of metals.
Metal crystals can be grown using displacement
regular layers (S)
Introduce the idea of metal structure by reference to metal crystals or
reactions, e.g. a copper wire dipping into a solution
A metallic structure consists of
grains. These can be seen, for example, on lamp posts and can be
of silver nitrate.
positive metal ions in a sea of
demonstrated by making an etching lead pancake (see below).
electrons (S)
Since metals have crystal structures, by analogy with ionic structures their
Metals conduct electricity because
atoms may be regularly arranged in layers.
the mobile sea of electrons can move
A demonstration of metal structure using a bubble raft could be shown (see
freely through the structure (S)
below).
Show a model of metal structures with layers of polystyrene spheres, and
use the sliding of these layers to explain the malleability and ductility of
metals.
Develop the metal cations in a sea of electrons model. Develop the model
to show that the outer electrons have been lost, i.e. the ions are not
touching. The electrons can then move through the structure when a voltage
is applied.
Learning Outcomes
Describe metallic bonding (S)
The crystal structure of metal can be shown by making an etched lead pancake: Melt a small amount of lead in a crucible. When it
Explain the electrical conductivity
is molten, pour out the lead onto a flat surface to get a lead pancake. Immerse this in dilute sulfuric acid. After 2030 minutes
and malleability of metals (S)
remove the lead and observe the crystal structure.
A model of metallic structure can be demonstrated using a bubble raft. All the class can easily see this if it is carried out on an
overhead projector (Chemistry for IGCSE, p.40).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 13.1 Alloys, pp.1589

Describe an alloy, such as brass, as a mixture of metal with other elements (3.2 core)
Explain why metals are often used in the forming of alloys (10.1 core)
Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure (10.1 core)
Learning Objectives
Alloys are mixtures of metal atoms
Introduce the idea of alloys as mixtures by reference to diagrams of their
Students could research the properties of alloys for
with other metal atoms or non-metal
structure. By reference to larger or smaller atoms within the main metal,
homework or select particular alloys to study and
atoms
students should be able to see that the layers are prevented from sliding
feed back to groups or the whole class.
Know how to identify an alloy from
over each other. This can be modelled by polystyrene layers with several of Students could also ensure that they can draw
a diagram of its structure
the spheres increased in size by addition of Plasticine. Students should be
accurate representations of alloys with the layers
The properties of metals are changed able to see that the layers are prevented from sliding.
distorted compared with the layers in pure metals.
by making it into an alloy
Students research properties of alloys compared with constituent elements.
Metals are made into alloys to
The difference in properties of alloys compared with the individual metals
improve their strength, hardness or
in their composition can be studied by reference to solder (see below).
resistance to corrosion
Finish by mentioning that many alloys reduce corrosion. This can be taken
further when rusting and corrosion is discussed later.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the general physical and
Demonstrate the lower melting point of solder compared with tin and lead, by carrying out an experiment to demonstrate the order
chemical properties of metals
in which these three metals melt (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.158).
Explain why metals are often used in Video clips about alloys and computer simulations about why alloys are stronger than pure metals could be shown.
the forming of alloys
Identify representations of alloys
from diagrams of their structure
Chemistry for IGCSE, 6.7 Conductors and insulators, pp. 823
Approximate timing for this section: 25 minutes (without practical work)

Describe the reasons for the use of copper and (steel-cored) aluminium in cables and why plastics and ceramics are used as insulators (5 core)
Learning Objectives
Steel-cored aluminium cables are
Show a variety of conductors and insulators (including clay, cements, sand, Demonstrate the non-conduction of clays and
used in HT power lines because
porcelain and plastics described as solid inorganic non-metallic materials).
ceramics compared with the conduction of metals.
aluminium is lightweight as well as a The term insulator can be explained in terms of electrical resistivity. A
For more advanced students, the effect of increasing
good conductor and steel strengthens link can be made back to the structure of silicon(IV) oxide as an insulator.
the temperature on the passage of electricity through
the cable
Show photographs of HT electricity pylons, focussing on the ceramic
wires could be mentioned (in terms of increased
Copper is used in electrical wiring
insulators and on the cables. A discussion can then ensue on the properties
vibration of metal ions).
because it is a good conductor of
required for carrying electricity by over-ground cables (strength and low
electricity
density as well as good electrical conductivity).
Insulators, such as plastics and
Students could select the best metals to use for electrical cables overCeramics, prevent an electric current
ground and underground from selected tables of data about particular
from flowing: they are nonmetals and alloys.
conductors
Finish off by discussing the use of plastic-coated copper wires for domestic
electricity and why they must not be subjected to current overload.
Learning Outcomes
Describe reasons for the use of steelcored aluminium in high voltage
electric cables and copper in
electrical wiring
Describe plastics and ceramics as
Insulators
Explain why plastics and ceramics
are insulators (S)

If a resistivity meter is available, the resistance of various conductors and insulators can be measured.
The comparative conductance of various materials can be compared using the apparatus shown on Chemistry for IGCSE, p.82,
especially if this apparatus was not used when the properties of metals were discussed earlier on.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 4.1 Chemical formulae, pp. 445

Use the symbols of the elements and write the formulae of simple compounds (4 core)
Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative numbers of atoms present (4 core)
Learning Objectives
Know the chemical symbols for the
You could start in the context of an historical introduction as to why
elements stated in the syllabus
symbols are important.
Know how to name compounds
Stress that if a symbol has a second letter that is always small. The Periodic
containing two elements
Table can be used in conjunction with a discussion of element symbols to
Know how to work out the formula
give students more experience in determining the position of elements in
of a simple compound from valencies relation to each other.
(combining powers)
Revise concept of valency / combining powers.
Go over naming of compounds with two elements and stress how the name
ending changes when a compound is formed from two elements.
Students can test themselves with flash cards in two piles, one with the
element / compound names and one with the symbols/ formulae. This could
be done as a competition, the first group to finish all the cards correctly
being the winners.
Learning Outcomes
Know how to write symbols for
chemical elements and formulae for
simple compounds
Deduce the formula of a simple
compound from the relative number
of atoms present

More advanced students could research the origins of
some of the symbols of the elements.
Core students could concentrate more on the names
of the elements and compounds.

Samples of pictures of various elements and compounds to relate to symbols / formulae.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 4.2 Working out the formula, pp. 467
Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes (including model making)

Deduce the formula of a simple compound from a model or diagrammatic representation (4 core)
Determine the formula of an ionic compound from the charges on the ions present (4 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Students could start by working out the molecular and the empirical
More advanced students could try to write formulae
of an ionic or molecular compound
formulae from relatively simple molecular structures, e.g. P4O10. These
for compounds with a greater range of ions e.g.
from a diagram
could be provided as models or as diagrams/ downloads from the internet.
phosphate, hydrogencarbonate, sulphite, nitrite.
Organic structures can also be included to widen the students appreciation
They could also try to build models of more complex
of an ionic compound from the
of the range of molecules.
structures.
charges on its ions (S)
Students can be asked to write the full structural formulae (displayed) for
molecular compounds, by considering the combining power of particular
atoms.
Now introduce how to work out the formulae for giant covalent structures
including ionic structures. The ionic structures should be of the sectional
type not of the three-dimensional type.
More advanced students can go on the predict formulae from the charges on
the relevant ions. The formula of the ions should be linked to the group
number in the Periodic Table.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to work out the chemical
Models of compounds to calculate the formula from or downloaded molecular structures from the internet, e.g. Wikipedia, often
formula of an ionic or molecular
give the structure of more complex molecules.
compound from a diagram of its
Model kits to make models of selected structures or for students to investigate the formulae of pre-made structures.
structure
Be able to work out the formula of an
ionic compound by using the
charges on its ions (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 4.3 Chemical equations, pp.489
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minute (including model making and practical demonstrations)
Construct word equations and simple balanced chemical equations (4 core)
Deduce the balanced equation for a chemical reaction given relevant information (4 supplement)
Learning Objectives
There is the same number of each
Start with ideas about reactants and products and perhaps carrying out
Making a flickbook of reactions showing reactants
type of atom on each side of a
selected chemical reactions. Word equations can then be introduced. Start
going into products helps to counteract the static
chemical equation
with molecular examples so that the students have a clear picture of what
impression given by an equation. This could be set
In a chemical reaction, the mass of
the equation means.
for homework or could be additional work for core
the products is equal to the mass of
Students could build model reactions of a molecular type, e.g. hydrogen
students. Core students could also concentrate more
the reactants
reacting with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride. They could break the
on model building.
To know how to write word
bonds in the reactants and form the new products. This leads to the idea that More advanced students can be given more complex
equations
the number of atoms in the products is the same as in the reactants and
examples of equations to balance.
To know how to balance simple
hence there is conservation of mass (see experiments below).
symbol equations by placing
Students could then do more formal balancing of equations (including those
numbers in front of particular
involving ionic compounds), perhaps using the dot method for keeping
reactants or products
account of the number of atoms in a sequential fashion as shown in
Chemistry for IGCSE, p.49.
Deduce a balanced chemical
More advanced students can go on to balance equations for compounds
equation given relevant information
where use of brackets is involved.
(S)
If computer access is available, students could use suitable websites or CD
ROMs to test their ability to balance equations.
Learning Outcomes
Construct word equations
Demonstration of reactions to discuss the meaning of reactants, products and to discuss the conservation of mass, e.g. magnesium
Balance simple symbol equations
burning in air/ oxygen, reaction of zinc and iodine, reaction of iron and sulfur. For some reactions you could demonstrate that there
when given the chemical formulae of is no mass change, e.g. adding sodium hydroxide pellets to a concentrated solution of iron(II) chloride and shaking to dissolve the
some or all of the species in the
pellets. Some discussion could then be involved about why there is an apparent mass change when magnesium burns in air, the air
equation
having mass. The idea could be extended to the need to measure the mass of gases as well in reactions where these are evolved e.g.
acid and carbonate.
Construct balanced symbol equations
when given suitable information (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 4.4 More about equations, pp. 501

Construct equations with state symbols including ionic equations (4 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The correct use of the state symbols
(s), (l), (g) and (aq) in equations (S)
Ionic equations considered as
simplified symbol equations,
showing only those ions which react
and the products of their reaction (S)
The ions which do not take part in a
reaction are called spectator ions (S)
Learning Outcomes
Write symbol equations to include
state symbols (S)
Construct balanced ionic equations
(S)

Ionic equations can be introduced through experimental work /
demonstrations (see below). This has the advantage that students can
reinforce their observational skills.
Start with simple examples where a precipitate is formed by adding two
solutions together, then graduate to more complex examples e.g. reaction of
acid with carbonate, reaction of chlorine with potassium iodide.

Core students could also study the use of state
symbols. They could use them to reinforce the state
of particular substances they are likely to come
across in the course. They can do this given suitable
information and simple equations.

Demonstrate a precipitation reaction to introduce the idea of ions combining e.g. copper( II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide.
Demonstrate (later) reaction of aqueous chlorine with aqueous potassium iodide to show a more complex example of an ionic
equation.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.5 Testing for cations, pp.1401
Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes (including equation writing and demonstration of the tests)
Describe the following tests to identify aqueous cations: aluminium, ammonium, calcium, copper( II), iron(II), iron(III) and zinc using aqueous sodium hydroxide and
aqueous ammonia (8.4 core)
Learning Objectives
The use of aqueous sodium
The analysis of aqueous cations follows directly from the point where
This can be made more challenging by using
hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to
students have learnt how to write equations. This has the advantages that
unknown samples of an ionic compound, or even a
test for the cations specified above to students can be encouraged to make observations early on in the course as
mixture or compound where cation and anion have to
include the colour of the precipitate
well as giving them an early opportunity to write equations for some of the
be tested.
where appropriate
reactions. These tests can be referred back to later on in the course for
More advanced students could research more modern
When sodium hydroxide is heated
reinforcement, e.g. test for transition element ions when transition elements methods for identifying ions.
with a solution containing
are discussed, test for ammonium ions in relation to fertilisers.
ammonium ions ammonia gas is
Some of the tests can be demonstrated, but it is best if some are conducted
produced
by the students themselves using very small amounts of materials.
Students can also be asked questions relating to a scheme to separate out
ions or questions of a more demanding nature, e.g. How can you use
sodium hydroxide to distinguish whether the sample of an alloy has zinc or
copper or both in?
Flash cards can also be used to test students on their knowledge of these
tests.
Learning Outcomes
Describe test for the following ions
Test tube experiments on the reaction of aqueous ammonia and sodium hydroxide and the metal ions specified on the left (class or
in aqueous solution using aqueous
demonstration) including the effect of excess hydroxide and aqueous ammonia (see Chemistry for IGCSE, pp.1401). These
sodium hydroxide or aqueous
experiments can be done using very small amounts of chemicals (a few drops only) on a spotting tile or in an ignition tube.
ammonia: aluminium,
Demonstrate the reaction of sodium hydroxide with ammonium salts (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.141).
ammonium, calcium, copper(II),
iron(II), iron(III) and zinc
Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.6 Testing for anions, pp.1423
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including equation writing if some of the tests are carried out by the students)
Describe the following tests to identify aqueous anions: carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater), chloride (by reaction under acidic conditions with
aqueous silver nitrate), iodide (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with aluminium), sulfate (by reaction under acidic
conditions with aqueous barium ions) (8.4 core)
Learning Objectives
The identification of carbonate,
The analysis of aqueous cations follows directly from the point where students have
More advanced students could
chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulfate
learnt how to write equations. This has the advantages that students can be
include the test for bromide ions
ions using the tests above
encouraged to make observations early on in the course, as well as giving them an
using silver nitrate. Although not
early opportunity to write equations for some of the reactions. These tests can be
in the syllabus, this has relevance
referred back to later on in the course for reinforcement, e.g. test for carbon dioxide
to the photochemical reaction of
when discussing the decomposition of limestone, the test for sulfates when sulfuric
silver halides in the section on
acid is being discussed.
reaction rates.
Some of the tests can be demonstrated, but it is best if some are conducted by the
students themselves using very small amounts of materials.
Stress the importance of writing down the correct observations (i.e. when a carbonate
reacts with an acid, bubbles of gas are given off) rather than stating the inference from
the observation. It is therefore best to start by allowing the students to undertake the
carbonate test themselves and for you to demonstrate some of the others.
Flash cards can also be used to test students on their knowledge of these tests.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the tests for chloride and
Experiment to test for carbonates (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.142)
iodide ions using aqueous silver
Demonstration of the test for chloride and iodide ions (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.142)
nitrate
Demonstration of the test for sulfates (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.143)
Describe the test for carbonate ions
Demonstration of test for nitrates (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.143)
using hydrochloric acid and testing
the gas with limewater
Describe the test for nitrate ions
using aluminium foil and sodium
hydroxide then testing the gas with
red litmus paper
Describe the test for sulfate ions
using acidified aqueous barium
chloride or barium nitrate
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.1 Reacting masses, pp. 545
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (including calculations)

Define relative atomic mass, Ar (4 core)
Define relative molecular mass, Mr, as the sum of the relative atomic masses (or relative formula mass for ionic compounds) (4 core)
Calculate reacting masses involving simple proportions (4 core)
Learning Objectives
The relative atomic masses of atoms
Weighted models of different atoms could be shown (polystyrene spheres
More advanced students could be asked to find out
are compared on a scale which gives
with different masses put in them) to show that the size of the atom is not
how relative molecular mass is found nowadays.
an atom of carbon-12 a mass of
necessarily related to its mass. From this, go on to explain that a symbol
If time needs to be saved, some of the calculations
exactly 12 units
equation shows the number of atoms which react and it is the number
could be done for homework once the pattern has
Know how to calculate relative
which is important.
been established.
molecular mass (or relative formula
A number of simple calculations could then be done showing, for example,
mass for ionic compounds) as the
how many helium atoms weigh the same as one carbon atom. This gets
sum of the relative atomic masses
over the fact that if we want to compare numbers of atoms, we have to
Know how to calculate reacting
account for their mass as well.
masses of reactants and products
From here, define relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass.
using simple proportion
Give plenty of calculations involving the use of brackets for relative
formula mass.
Learning Outcomes
Define relative atomic mass and
relative molecular mass
Perform simple chemical
calculations involving reacting
masses by using simple proportion

Video clips about counting atoms and relative molecular mass.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.2 Chemical calculations, pp. 567
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (including mole calculations)

Define the mole and the Avogadro constant (4.1 supplement)
Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
One mole of a substance contains
Start by reference to the tiny size and mass of atoms and that we cannot
There is a lot of mythology written about how
6 1023 atoms molecules or ions (S) possibly weigh individual atoms. Yet we have to weigh out atoms that are
difficult mole calculations are, much of which is not
The Avogradro constant is the
in the correct number so that they react in the correct amounts.
true. Core students should still be able to do simple
number of specified atoms,
Refer back to the weighing experiment in the last section and develop the
mole calculations of the type How many moles of
molecules or ions in one mole of a
idea that you need a lot of particles to weigh things on a balance.
ethanol are there in 5 g of ethanol? The difficult parts
substance (S)
Develop the idea of the mole as a particular number of particles, and then
are how to apply the mole concept to equations. In
Using chemical equations and
give the formula relating moles to mass and relative atomic / formula mass. place of the mole calculations, core students could be
relative formula masses to calculate
It is important to stress that it should always be clear what the moles refer
set calculations involving simple proportions as
the mass of product obtained from a
to. Practise at questions such as How many moles of oxygen atoms are
specified on p. 57 of Chemistry for IGCSE.
given amount of reactant (S)
there in 2 moles of sulfur trioxide? help focus students minds on this
More advanced students could calculate how many
problem.
atoms of zinc it would be needed to weigh 0.01 g
Plenty of practice is need not in the basic mole formula which can at this
when given the actual mass of an average zinc atom.
level be regarded as a formula like any other but in the application in
calculations, such as finding the mass of product formed from a given
amount of reactant.
Learning Outcomes
Define the mole and the Avogadro For elements combining, different coloured counters with different masses could be used to represent moles of reactants or products
Constant (S)
and stoichiometric amounts of these could be weighed to mimic how moles work.
Use the mole in calculations
involving reacting masses (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.3 How much product? pp. 589
Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes including calculations (excluding experiment)
Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses involving limiting reagents (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The limiting reagent is the one that is Limiting reactants can be introduced by way of an experiment with counters
More able students could use mole calculations to
not in excess (S)
along the lines of the diagram on p.58 of Chemistry for IGCSE. Two sets of 10 find the number of moles of water in hydrates
Know how to work out which
counters of different colours represent the reactants. The coloured counters are copper(II) sulfate.
reagent is limiting by using the
removed in the stoichiometric reacting ratio until only one colour is left. The
number of moles of each reagent as
limiting reactant is the one that is no longer in the pile. This can be repeated
well as the equation for the reaction
using different stoichiometric removal ratios
(S)
Calculations of the amount of product obtained from a given amount of
Using chemical equations and
limiting reactant can then be undertaken.
relative formula masses to calculate
the mass of product obtained from a
Learning Outcomes
Be able to calculate the theoretical
(Extension) Finding the amount moles of water in one mole of hydrated copper( II) sulfate. A given mass of copper sulfate is heated and
yield of product obtained from a
the mass of the anhydrous copper sulfate is found. The moles of copper (II) sulfate can therefore be calculated, knowing its formula.
The moles of water are also known by subtraction and the ratio of moles water to moles of copper sulfate calculated.
Apply the concept of limiting
reactants (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.4 Percentages and volumes, pp. 601
Approximate timing for this section: 90 minutes (if experiments demonstrated as well)
Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses (4.1 supplement)
Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure (4.1 supplement)
Calculate volumes of gases (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Finding the % by mass of an
Students could be introduced to calculations of percentage mass of an
For extension work, more advanced students could
element in a compound using relative element in a compound by a demonstration experiment: finding the
find out about reduction and calculate the percentage
atomic masses and relative formula
percentage by mass of copper in copper(II) oxide by reducing copper(II)
of nitrogen in various fertilisers, e.g. ammonium
masses (S)
oxide with natural gas (see details below)
sulfate, ammonium phosphate.
The volume of one mole of any gas
Following on from this, students should be able to extend the calculation to
is 24 dm3 at room temperature and
further examples.
pressure (S)
The molar gas volume can be introduced by reference to two experiments
For reactions involving gases
(see below).
calculating reacting masses using the An interesting variant calculation using molar gas volumes is to get
molar gas volume (S)
students to calculate the mass of argon in the laboratory or room they are in
assuming that air contains 1% argon.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to calculate the percentage
The percentage by mass of copper in copper oxide can be found by demonstrating the experiment detailed on p. 114 of Chemistry
by mass of an element present in a
for IGCSE. The mass of copper oxide in the tube is recorded as well as the mass of copper remaining in the tube after reduction. It is
compound (S)
important to keep the natural gas flowing through the tube until the apparatus is cooled, otherwise the copper will oxidise back to
Be able to perform calculations
copper(II) oxide.
involving reacting volumes of gases
The molar gas volume for hydrogen can be found by reacting a small amount of magnesium with excess hydrochloric acid. Because
(S)
of leakages, the calculated volume is likely to be lower than the actual value (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p.60 for details).
If large flasks and an accurate top-pan balance are available, the mass of the same volume of different gases e.g. oxygen, carbon
dioxide can be calculated. Dividing the mass of the gas by the molar mass should result in the same number of moles.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.5 Yield and purity, pp. 623
Approximate timing for this section: 20 minutes (if practical not done)
Calculate % yield and % purity (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The predicted yield in a chemical
The percentage yield of a compound can be introduced in terms of loss of
More advanced students could be asked to devise a
reaction is found using relative
materials during the production process.
method of finding the percentage yield of copper
atomic masses and the stoichiometry
The percentage yield of magnesium oxide produced on heating a known
sulphate, which can be obtained from copper
of the equation (S)
mass of magnesium in air could be calculated, assuming that all the
carbonate ore assuming that all the ore is made up of
The % yield in a chemical reaction is magnesium forms magnesium oxide rather than some nitride. (See below.)
copper(II) carbonate and that one mole of copper
100 actual yield / predicted yield
Remind students of areas of everyday life where purity is important.
carbonate is converted to one mole of copper sulfate.
(S)
Samples of impure and pure elements or compounds can be shown, e.g.
The relevant information about the reactions needs to
% purity is given by 100 mass of
pure copper and impure copper. Ores are impure sources of elements.
be given, but the students can use their knowledge of
pure product/ mass of impure product Medical tablets generally contain only a small amount of the active
methods of purification to devise the method.
(S)
ingredients, the rest of the tablet is impure.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to calculate percentage yield Calculating the percentage yield of magnesium oxide from magnesium and oxygen: The calculated mass of magnesium oxide
(S)
formed from a known mass of magnesium is the theoretical yield. The actual yield in grams will be much less than this.
Be able to calculate percentage
Suitable videoclips or news reports of cases when impurities have caused problems could be shown.
purity (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.6 More chemical calculations, pp. 645
approximate timing for this section 40 minutes without practicals

Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The empirical formula shows the
The idea of finding empirical formulae rests on practical procedures, so it is More advanced students could calculate the mass of
simplest whole number ratio of atoms important that students understand the type of processes involved.
magnesium oxide predicted from the known formula
in a compound (S)
The empirical formula of magnesium oxide or copper( II) oxide can be
and work out the percentage yield in the experiment.
The empirical formula is found using calculated by means of experiment (see below).
More advanced students can research how the
the mass of the elements present and
Plenty of examples of calculating both empirical and molecular formulae
percentage of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in
their relative atomic masses (S)
should be given.
organic compounds are found (standard quantitative
The molecular formula shows the
methods and modern methods)
actual number of each type of atom
present in a molecule of a compound
(S)
Learning Outcomes
Be able to calculate empirical
Experiments to find the formula for magnesium oxide or black copper oxide.
formulae (S)
To find the formula for magnesium oxide, a known mass of magnesium is heated in a crucible, lifting the lid carefully from time to
Be able to calculate molecular
time. After the reaction is complete weigh the magnesium oxide, calculate the moles of oxygen by subtraction and the moles of
formulae from the molar mass and
magnesium. The ratio of moles gives the empirical formula. The experiment gives only an approximate value because of the
the empirical formula of a compound formation of nitride and the loss of oxide from the crucible.
(S)
The formula for black copper oxide can be found using the method shown on p. 114 of Chemistry for IGCSE.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.7 (part) Solution concentration, p.66
approximate timing for this section 30 minutes

Calculate solution concentrations in g/ dm3 and mol/ dm3 (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Solution concentration is calculated
This section concentrates only on calculations involving solution
More advanced students could do more calculations,
as number of moles dissolved in 1
concentration. Titrations are left until later.
e.g. calculating the concentration of hydroxide ions in
dm3 of solution (S)
Students could make up a solution of known concentration in g/dm3 and
mol/dm3 when a certain mass of calcium hydroxide is
3
The mass of solute dissolved in a
then calculate its concentration in moles/dm (see below).
present in a given volume of solution.
solution can be found if the
Plenty of examples of calculations of varied types could be given.
concentration and volume of a
solution are known as well as the
relative formula mass of the solute
(S)
Learning Outcomes
Be able to calculate solution
Students make up solutions in graduated flask by adding water to an accurately weighed mass of solid, e.g. potassium iodate, up to
concentration (in mol/dm3) from
the graduation mark. This allows them to appreciate the correct method of making up a solution. The accuracy of their work could
mass of solute and volume of
be checked later by titration with excess iodide in the presence of acid and carrying out a titration with sodium thiosulfate.
solution (S)
Be able to calculate the mass of
solute present in a solution of a given
concentration (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 9.3 Redox reactions, pp. 11415
Approximate timing for this section: (50 minutes if the experiments are demonstrated)
Construct equations including ionic equations (4 supplement)
Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen loss/ gain (7.3 core)
Oxidation state limited to its use to name ions, e.g. iron(II), iron(III), copper(II), manganate(VII), dichromate(VI) (7.3 core)
Define redox in terms of electron transfer (7.3 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen by a
The concept of redox is introduced before electrolysis, since this
More advanced students can study oxidation numbers
substance, and reduction is the loss of electrolysis involves oxidation and reduction.
in more detail at this stage and be introduced to a
oxygen from a substance
Begin by a simple experiment involving the oxidation of copper foil (see
wider range of half equations.
Redox reactions involve both
below). This introduces oxidation as gain of oxygen, the copper (where it is More advanced students can also consider reduction
oxidation and reduction at the same
exposed to the air) being oxidised to copper oxide.
as addition of hydrogen and oxidation as removal of
time
The concept of reduction as the opposite of oxidation can then be
hydrogen. This is best done with reference to organic
Oxidation numbers are used in
demonstrated, if it has not been done before (see below).
compounds.
naming some ions
The idea of redox as oxidation and reduction occurring together is then
Extension work could also link ease of electron
introduced. Possible kinaesthetic activities can be done with the students to transfer to the reactivity of metals.
Oxidation is loss of electrons and
model this.
reduction is gain of electrons (S)
Following this, introduce oxidation numbers (oxidation states) as a means
of naming compounds. The idea that for metal ions the oxidation numbers
give the charge on the metal ion can be introduced.
Redox in terms of electron transfer can then be discussed, leading to the
splitting of reactions into half equations, one referring to oxidation, the
other to reduction. The mnemonic OIL RIG can be used as a memory aid.
Learning Outcomes
Understand oxidation and reduction
Students heat a piece of copper foil about 6 6 cm, which has been folded into four and the edges carefully folded over. After
in terms of oxygen loss or gain
heating the foil strongly for a few minutes and allowing it to cool, it is opened out. A butterfly pattern is seen with the copper
Understand the significance of
unoxidised on the inside and the black on the outside.
oxidation numbers
Demonstrate the reduction of copper(II) oxide by natural gas (see p.114 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Video clips are readily available of various redox reactions.
Understand redox reactions in terms
of half equations involving electron
loss or gain (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 9.4 More about redox reactions, pp. 11617

Construct equations including ionic equations (4 supplement)
Define redox in terms of electron transfer (7.3 supplement)
Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation state and by the colour changes involved when using acidified potassium manganate( VII) and potassium iodide (7.3
supplement)
Learning Objectives
In a redox reaction involving ions,
Students can work out a set of rules for determining oxidation numbers.
More advanced students could study a wider range of
two half equations can be written,
They can use metal displacement in context to identify the oxidising agents oxidation number rules and consider oxidation
one showing oxidation and the other
(oxidants) and reducing agents (reductants).
number changes in a wider range of reactions.
showing reduction (S)
Various demonstration reactions are possible (see below) and the colour
If students know about the reactivity series, work on
An increase in oxidation state of an
changes of these can be observed to show the oxidant, the reductant and the the links between more reactive metals reacting with
element is oxidation and a decrease
substance oxidised and reduced. Links can be made to reactions of metals
less reactive metal ions could be explored.
in oxidation state is reduction (S)
and with the reactions of halogens with halide ions.
The colour changes of potassium
manganate(VII) and potassium iodide
can be used to test for oxidising and
reducing agents (S)
Learning Outcomes
Understand the use of oxidation
Students can carry out a series of redox reactions to demonstrate redox reactions and introduce the terms oxidising agents and
number changes in redox reactions
reducing agents. There are a number of simple test tube reactions which can be used to do this (see p. 117 in Chemistry for
(S)
IGCSE). The use of potassium manganate(VII) and potassium dichromate, as well as oxygen, as oxidising agents; and reactive
Understand redox reactions in terms
metals and potassium iodide as reducing agents could also be demonstrated. Students could note the colour changes.
of electron transfer (S)
Video clips are readily available of various redox reactions.
Be able to identify redox reactions
by using acidified potassium
manganate(VII) and potassium
iodide (S)
Understand and use the terms
oxidising agent (oxidant) and
reducing agent (reductant) (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 6.1 Electrolysis, pp. 701
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (if experiments included)

Describe the electrode products in the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide between inert electrodes (platinum or carbon) (5 core)
Predict the products of the electrolysis of a specified binary compound in the molten state (5 core)
Learning Objectives
Electrolysis is the breaking down of
Start by demonstrating an electrolysis, e.g. electrolysis of lead bromide or
More advanced student could be asked to suggest
an electrolyte using electricity
of zinc chloride (see below). During the electrolysis the various parts of the what is happening at the electrodes in terms of ions,
An ionic compound can only be
circuit can be pointed out. At the end, ask the students what is happening to given the fact that electrons are being released from
electrolysed when it is molten or in
the electrolyte by reference to the electrode products.
the cathode and taken up at the anode.
solution in water
An alternative is to demonstrate the original experiment of Davy on the
Describe the main features of an
electrolysis of potassium hydroxide to put electrolysis in an historical
electrolysis cell and know that the
context (see below).
electrodes are usually inert (platinum These experiments lead to a definition of electrolysis as a process of
or carbon)
decomposing compounds and rearranging the elements.
When a molten ionic compound is
At present no explanation of electrolysis is given, the production of the
electrolysed a metal is formed at the
elements from the molten electrolyte being the main argument.
cathode and a non-metal is formed at
the anode
Learning Outcomes
Describe the main features of an
The demonstration of the electrolysis of lead bromide (see p. 70 in Chemistry for IGCSE) can be carried out in a fume cupboard.
electrolytic cell: anode, cathode,
The electrolysis of zinc chloride is less hazardous, a small amount of zinc being observed at the cathode and a slight smell of
electrode, electrolyte
chlorine which bleaches litmus at the anode.
Describe the electrolysis of molten
Davys Capital Experiment can be demonstrated: put potassium hydroxide granules in a tin lid and make a circuit, by connecting
lead bromide
one edge of the lid to a positive pole of the power pack (12 V) and the negative pole to a clean steel nail which just dips into the
Be able to predict the products of the potassium hydroxide. Heat the potassium hydroxide to melt it. Potassium is formed at the end of the iron nail, which will ignite and
electrolysis of a molten ionic
crackle when water vapour in the atmosphere reacts with it and produces hydrogen. Oxygen is produced at the anode.
compound
Chemistry for IGCSE, 6.6 Extracting aluminium, pp. 801

Name the main ore of aluminium as bauxite (10.3a core)
Describe in outline the manufacture of aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite (5 supplement)
Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at the electrodes in the examples given (5 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The electrolytic cell for the
Start by showing a sample or picture of bauxite ore and sample or picture
extraction of aluminium has carbon
of aluminium to show the differences.
anodes and cathodes (S)
Highlight the main points in the process, i.e. the role of cryolite, the nature
The electrolyte in the cell is molten
of the electrodes, the reactions occurring at the electrodes, ionic equations
aluminium oxide dissolved in
for the electrode reaction.
cryolite to lower its melting point (S) Further discussion might focus on the large energy demand for the process
Aluminium forms at the cathode and
because of the high electric current needed and the importance of recycling
oxygen forms at the anode (which is
aluminium.
oxidised away) (S)
Summarise the extraction of aluminium by showing short film, video clips
Write half equations for the electrode or pictures of the process.
reactions (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the extraction of aluminium Film / video clips of aluminium production.
from bauxite (S)
Computer simulation of aluminium electrolysis if available.
Describe the essential conditions in
the extraction of aluminium (S)
Be able to write half equations for
the reactions occurring at the anode
and cathode in the extraction of
aluminium (S)

More advanced students can find out more detail of
the extraction process, i.e. the use of sodium
hydroxide in purifying the oxide. This forms a link
with the amphoteric oxide later in the syllabus.
For less advanced students, a kinaesthetic activity
illustrating the movement of ions and electrons
during the process could be used as reinforcement.
Chemistry for IGCSE , 6.2 More about electrolysis, pp.723
Approximate timing for this section: 80 minutes (including practical work)

Describe the electrode products in the electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (5 core)
State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at the negative electrode (cathode) and that non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed at the positive
electrode (anode) (5 core)
Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte exemplified by specific examples in the syllabus (5 supplement)
Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and the reactions at the electrodes in the examples given (5 supplement)
Describe in outline the manufacture of chlorine and sodium from concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (5 supplement)
Learning Objectives
When concentrated hydrochloric acid Start by demonstrating the electrolysis of hydrochloric acid (in a fume
More advanced students can research the uses of
is electrolysed, hydrogen is formed at cupboard) using graphite electrodes. The chlorine and hydrogen can be
chlorine and sodium hydroxide.
the cathode and chlorine at the anode tested for using the standard methods.
When concentrated aqueous
Students can then electrolyse a small volume of aqueous sodium chloride
solutions of metal ions are
and the products tested, i.e. chlorine is easily tested at the anode with litmus
electrolysed, hydrogen is formed at
paper being bleached and hydrogen collected at the cathode using a small
the cathode
tube e.g. an ignition tube (see below).
Follow up by discussing the electrode reactions and writing half equations.
Chlorine and sodium hydroxide are
The presence of hydrogen at the cathode rather than sodium should then be
manufactured by electrolysis of
discussed in terms of the discharge series.
concentrated aqueous sodium
Finish by discussing the electrolysis of brine to manufacture chlorine and
chloride (S)
sodium hydroxide.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the electrolysis of
concentrated hydrochloric acid and
concentrated sodium chloride
solutions
Predict the products of the
electrolysis of concentrated aqueous
ionic solutions (S)
Describe the manufacture of chlorine
and sodium hydroxide by the
electrolysis of brine (S)

For carrying out the electrolysis of both hydrochloric acid and aqueous sodium chloride, the electrolysis cell tube should be large
enough so students can see what is happening. Home-made cells can be made by cutting the top off a plastic chemical bottle and
fitting it with large bung through which the carbon electrodes are placed (see diagram on p. 72 of Chemistry for IGCSE).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 6.3 Explaining electrolysis, pp. 745

State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at the negative electrode (cathode) and that non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed at the positive
electrode (anode) (5 core)
Predict the products of electrolysis of a specified halide in dilute or concentrated aqueous solution (5 supplement)
Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte exemplified by specific examples in the syllabus (5 supplement)
Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and the reactions at the electrodes in the examples given (5 supplement)
Learning Objectives
In electrolysis, metals or hydrogen
Start by demonstrating the electrolysis of water (dilute sulfuric acid) using
Less advanced students could undertake a
are formed at the cathode and
a Hoffman voltameter, or standard electrolysis apparatus using graphite
kinaesthetic activity to model electrolysis using
halogens or oxygen are formed at the electrodes. Collect the hydrogen and oxygen. Show the 2:1 ratio and test
tables as the electrodes and themselves as ions or
anode
the gases evolved as reinforcement.
atoms, handing on cards representing electrons/ ions
Electrolysis can then be explained as a reversal of the process of electron
to each other and/ or to the table.
When dilute aqueous solutions
transfer which takes place when ionic compounds are formed from their
Core students could may a less ambitious flickbook
are electrolysed, hydrogen is
elements.
to show what happens to the ions during electrolysis
produced at the cathode and oxygen
Reinforce this by showing a computer simulation or video clip of
by omitting the electrons.
at the anode (S)
movement and discharge of ions during electrolysis.
When dilute solutions of halides are
Reinforce the idea of the selective discharge series by carrying out
electrolysed, a halogen is formed at
electrolysis of various dilute solutions, e.g. potassium iodide, sodium
the anode; although if the solution is
nitrate, magnesium sulfate (see below).
very dilute, oxygen may be formed
Students could summarise what they know about the mechanism of
During electrolysis, ions gain
electrolysis by making a flickbook to show what happens to the negative
electrons at the cathode and lose
ions when they meet the anode and positive ions when they meet the
electrons at the anode (S)
cathode.
Learning Outcomes
Understand that metals or hydrogen
are formed at the negative electrode
during electrolysis
Understand that halogens or oxygen
are formed at the positive electrode
during electrolysis

The electrolysis of dilute solutions of iodides, nitrates and sulfates can be carried out using standard electrolysis apparatus (see p. 72
in Chemistry for IGCSE). The colour of the iodine produced at the anode indicates that halogens are low in the discharge series.
Bubbles of hydrogen will be formed at the cathode when compounds of reactive metals are electrolysed.
Video clip of ion movement during electrolysis or computer simulation of this.
Predict the products of electrolysis of

dilute and concentrated aqueous
solutions of halides (S)
Describe electrolysis in terms of the
ions present and the reactions at the
electrodes (S)
Be able to write half equations for
the reactions occurring at the
electrodes during electrolysis (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 6.4 Purifying copper, pp. 767

Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte and electrodes used exemplified by the specific examples in the core together with aqueous copper( II) sulfate using
carbon electrodes and using copper electrodes as used in the refining of copper (5 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Copper is purified by using an
Start by putting copper refining in the context of the need for very pure
More advanced students could investigate how much
impure copper anode and a pure
copper for electrical wiring. Samples of electrical wiring could be shown to copper is deposited at the cathode using different
copper cathode (S)
expose the copper inside the plastic coating. If samples of malachite ore or
amounts of current for various time intervals. They
copper carbonate are available, these could be shown and students might be might also be asked to devise a method of getting
During electrolysis, using inert
asked how to demonstrate the refining of copper by using an impure copper copper out of a boulder containing a large amount of
electrodes the negative ions in the
anode (an oxidised one with verdigris on is suitable) and a pure copper
native copper without removing the boulder from the
electrolyte lose electrons to the anode cathode (see below).
ground.
From this, go on to discuss the electrode reactions this could also be done
In electrolysis, using metal
with the aid of video clips or computer simulations.
electrodes the metal atoms of the
Finish off by discussing the reasons for the differences in the electrolysis of
anode lose electrons to form positive
copper sulfate using graphite and metal electrodes. If the two are compared
ions (S)
practically side by side, they can make relevant observations.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to relate the products of
Demonstration of copper refining, see p. 76 in Chemistry for IGCSE
electrolysis to the type of electrode
Video clips/ computer simulations of purification of copper.
used: copper or graphite (S)
Describe the refining of copper using
copper electrodes (S)
Explain the reactions occurring at the
anode and cathode during the
refining of copper (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE , 6.5 Electroplating, pp. 789

Describe the electroplating of metals (5 core)
Name the uses of electroplating (5 core)
Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions presents and the reactions at the electrodes in the examples given (5 supplement)
Learning Objectives
An object can be electroplated by
Start by showing a variety of electroplated articles, e.g. teapot, spoons.
For core students the theory behind electroplating
making the object to be plated the
Students could do an internet search to find examples of electroplating and
could be reinforced by doing a by a kinaesthetic
cathode
the range of articles that can be electroplated.
activity to show which ions move and the direction of
The metal object to be plated is the
From here ask why we need to electroplate articles. Show the condition of
movement.
cathode and the electrolyte is a
some articles where their plating has come off, e.g. an old bicycle where
solution of a compound of the plating chrome plating has come off and the metal underneath has started to rust, or
metal
a spoon where plating has come off revealing underlying copper which has
become green (and therefore poisonous).
When an article is electroplated the
Demonstrate the plating of a metal article (see below).
metal atoms at the anode lose
Complete the section with discussing the theory behind electroplating in
electrons and go into solution as
terms of the movement of ions.
metal ions (S)
A summary could include suitable video clips/ computer simulations of
When an article is electroplated the
electroplating.
ions of the electrolyte gain electrons
at the cathode and become metal
atoms (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the electroplating of metals Demonstrate copper plating of a metal article, e.g. steel spoon / iron nail (see Chemistry for IGCSE, p 78).
State some uses of electroplating
Students could make initial badges by painting initials or symbols using nail varnish or wax on zinc strips and then electroplating
them with copper. The varnish/ wax can be removed afterwards leaving the grey initial with a coppery background. It is best that the
Be able to write equations for the
zinc first be cleaned by dipping in it in concentrated NaOH and then dilute HCl, then washing with water.
reactions at the anode and cathode
Video clip or pictures showing electroplating.
during electroplating (S)
Selection of electroplated articles, some of which have the plate rubbed off e.g. copper spoon, chrome-plated article.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 7.3 Energy from electrochemical cells, pp. 901

Describe the production of electrical energy from simple cells, i.e. two electrodes in an electrolyte (6.2 supplement)
Relate the production of electrical energy with the reactivity series and red ox reactions (6.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
An electrolytic cell has two
Start by demonstrating the exothermic reaction of copper( II) sulfate with
electrodes of different reactivity
zinc. The heat energy released is not being used to do any useful work.
dipping into an electrolyte (S)
Set up a cell with copper dipping into copper(II) ions and zinc dipping into
The electrode higher in the reactivity zinc(II) ions connected by a salt bridge and with a voltmeter connecting the
series is the negative pole of the cell
two electrodes. Comment on the fact that the reaction has now been made
(S)
to do useful work (provide an electric current) and does not heat up (as
The voltage in of an electrolytic cell
much). Students can then do a practical to measure voltages when different
is higher the greater the difference in
pairs of electrodes are dipped into an aqueous electrolyte. (see below)
reactivity of the two metals used as
This lead to a discussion of how to get the best voltage for a cell and its
electrodes (S)
relation with the reactivity of the metals.
The usefulness of rechargeable batteries including their use to store energy
from alternative energy sources such as solar cells and wind powered
generators could also be discussed.
Learning Outcomes
Describe simple electrochemical
cells in terms of two metal
electrodes dipping into a suitable
electrolyte (S)
Understand how the voltage of an
electrochemical cell depends on the
difference in the reactivity of the two
electrodes used (S)

Students could make a fruit battery using citrus fruit
or potato by sticking two different metal strips fairly
close to each other in the fruit/ vegetable and
connecting them by a voltmeter.
More advanced students could look at different types
of cell (a dry cell could be cut in half with a hacksaw
to show its construction). They might also do some
research on the variety of cells, e.g. Daniell cell,
lithium cell.
Issues of toxicity of the heavy metals used in
batteries and hazards associated with their disposal
could also form extension work.

Demonstration: Mix aqueous copper(II) sulfate with zinc powder and demonstrate there is a temperature rise. Then make a cell of
copper and zinc and demonstrate there is a voltage.
Practical experiment measuring voltages of various combinations of metals (see p. 91 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 7.4 Fuel cells, pp. 923
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (including demonstration)

Describe the use of hydrogen as a potential fuel reacting with oxygen to generate electricity in a fuel cell (6.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
A hydrogenoxygen fuel cell
Introduce the idea that the hydrogenoxygen fuel cell is the opposite of the
More advanced students could look at the economics
produces only water as a product (S)
electrolysis of water. In electrolysis, electrical energy is used to decompose of using fuel cells, suggesting why they are not being
When they are working, fuel cells are water into hydrogen and oxygen, whereas in a fuel cell hydrogen and
used as widely as predicted and researching the
efficient and non-polluting (S)
oxygen combine to produce a voltage. The question can then be asked
different types of fuel cell.
When a fuel cell is working,
about how we can actually get hydrogen and oxygen to combine without
Less advanced students could make a model fuel cell
hydrogen loses electrons at the
combustion.
from a plastic box, a few pieces of cardboard and
cathode and oxygen gains electrons
Demonstrate a model fuel cell to produce a small voltage (see below).
some straws.
at the anode (S)
Show diagrams of fuel cells to get over the idea that the electrolyte is
involved in the process of water formation by providing the necessary ion,
but that hydroxide or hydrogen ions are reformed.
Go over the electrodes reactions in an alkaline and acidic fuel cell.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the use of hydrogen as a
Demonstration of a hydrogenoxygen fuel cell (see p. 92 of Chemistry for IGCSE). The electrodes should be very close and the
fuel in a fuel cell (S)
voltage produced will be very transient.
Describe the use of fuel cells
containing acidic or alkaline
electrolytes in the production of
electricity (S)
Be able to write equations for the
reactions at each electrode in a fuel
cell given sufficient information (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 7.1 Heat changes in chemical reactions, pp. 867

Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions (6.1 core)
Describe bond breaking as endothermic and bond forming as exothermic (6.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Exothermic reactions give out heat
Introduce the lesson by reminding students that one characteristic of a
More advanced groups can draw energy profile
energy and endothermic reactions
chemical reaction is that there is an energy change when a reaction occurs.
diagrams label them with reactants, products,
absorb heat
Students can then measure the temperature rise of various combinations of
activation energy (if this has been introduced) and
Energy level diagram can be drawn
chemicals by adding various solids or solutions to each other and observing enthalpy change.
for exothermic and endothermic
the temperature change (see below).
They might also undertake more complex
reactions
If dataloggers are available these could be used with a temperature probe to calculations to determine the enthalpy change of a
measure the temperature changes using a suitable computer program.
reaction using bond energies, e.g. ammonia synthesis.
Energy is absorbed when bonds are
The terms exothermic and endothermic can then be introduced.
Students could also search the internet to find some
broken and energy is given out when The term enthalpy change could also be introduced.
examples of where exothermic (and endothermic)
new bonds are formed (S)
Energy diagrams could be introduced to help students understand why
reactions have been put to specific uses, e.g. in
In an exothermic reaction, the energy endothermic reactions have a positive enthalpy change and exothermic
handwarmers available for expeditions or heating
absorbed when bonds are broken is
reactions have a negative enthalpy change.
food inside tins for army rations.
less than the energy given out when
From here, the energy changes on bond breaking and bond forming can be
new bonds are made (S)
introduced. Students should realise that this is just a convenient book
In an endothermic reaction, the
keeping exercise in reality only certain bonds are broken and in a specific
energy absorbed when bonds are
order.
broken is more than the energy given
out when new bonds are made (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the meaning of the terms
The practical work for students could involve adding chemicals together in a polystyrene drinking cup with a lid and thermometer
exothermic and endothermic
(through a hole in the lid). A given volume of solution is poured into the cup and the temperature recorded. Add the second
Describe the heat changes taking
substance, stir with the thermometer and record the highest (or lowest) temperature. Suitable combinations of chemical are:
place on making and breaking bonds
magnesium + aqueous copper(II) sulfate; hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide; potassium carbonate + hydrochloric acid;
(S)
citric acid solution + sodium hydrogencarbonate; ammonium nitrate + water.
Be able to calculate the energy
change in a reaction using ideas
about bond energies and sufficient
information (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 7.2 Fuels and energy production, pp. 889

Name the fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum (14.2 core)
Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas (14.2 core)
Describe hydrogen as a fuel (6.2 core)
Describe the production of heat energy by burning fuels (6.2 core)
Learning Objectives
Coal, natural gas and hydrogen are
The main point of this section is to introduce the variety of fuels, especially Less advanced students could make a poster about
fuels that are polluting when burnt
in terms of release of energy.
the advantages and disadvantages of using various
Methane is the main constituent of
Start by giving examples of ranges of fuels and commenting on their state
fuels.
natural gas
and volatility. For example, coal and wood are not easy to ignite and not
More advanced students could compare the use of
Hydrogen can be used as a fuel
volatile but burn for a long time once ignited; whereas ethanol and many
ethanol as a fuel with fossil fuels.
A calorimeter and thermometer can
other liquid fuels are very volatile and release their energy fairly rapidly.
be used to compare the energy
Students then do an experiment to compare the energy released by different
released when different fuels are
fuels. It is best to use liquid fuels such as alcohols to reduce the production
burnt
of toxic vapours (see below).
Teachers might find this a convenient point to introduce the concept of
combustion and perhaps get students to write some equations, starting with
the burning of carbon in air and finishing with the complete combustion of
ethanol.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to name a variety of fuels:
Compare the energy released by different alcohols on burning (see p. 88 in Chemistry for IGCSE). An empty ring-pull can with a
hydrogen, coal natural gas and
domed base can be used as a disposable calorimeter. To save time, each group could do the experiment with one fuel under the same
petroleum
conditions, e.g. use 100 cm3 water, burner same distance from flame etc., then compare results. This is a useful experiment for
Describe the production of heat
reminding students of the meaning of a fair test.
energy by burning fuels
Describe an experiment to compare
the energy given out when a fuel is
burnt
Chemistry for IGCSE, 17.1 Organic chemistry, pp. 2089
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (including model making)

Name and draw the structures of methane, ethane, ethanol, ethanoic acid (14.1 core)
State the type of compound present given a chemical name ending in -ane, -ene, -ol or oic acid or a molecular structure (14.1 core)
Describe the term homologous series as a family of similar compounds with similar properties due to the presence of the same functional group (14.3 core)
Describe the general characteristics of an homologous series (14.3 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Organic compounds contain carbon,
A section of organic chemistry is introduced early so that students get an
More advanced students could compare the volatility
usually hydrogen, and perhaps some
idea of the range of molecular substances that are used as fuels. Introduce
of compounds by looking at their boiling points and
other elements
the idea that many of the compounds students will be studying in more
trying to relate these to the number of carbon atoms
A functional group is an atom or
detail here are fuels, e.g. methane, ethane, ethanol.
present and to the homologous series to which they
group of atoms that gives an organic
Establish the rules relating the combining powers of carbon, hydrogen and
belong.
compound its particular chemical
oxygen (links to valency and group number). They should also realise that
properties
all organic compounds are largely covalently bonded.
An homologous series is a group of
Ball and spoke models of methane, ethane, ethanol and ethanoic acid can
organic compounds with the same
be made to consolidate students knowledge of the full structural formulae
functional group and similar
given and show the three dimensional structure of organic compounds.
chemical properties
The flammability of various organic compounds could be demonstrated to
Name a limited range of organic
show how well they burn as fuels (see below).
compounds: methane, ethane, ethanol, Introduce the idea of functional groups. This could be reinforced by
ethanoic acid and draw their structures students using flash cards of various more complex organic compounds
where students have to identify the functional groups present.
The compounds in an homologous
Introduce the term homologous series and go over their characteristics.
series also have a general formula
and have physical properties which
vary gradually (S)
Learning Outcomes
Define the terms homologous series Carbon chemistry model kits. If these are not available, ball and stick models can be made from Plasticine or (modelling) clay and
and functional group
straws or cocktail sticks.
Name and draw the structures of
Demonstrate flammability (use a fume cupboard) of ethanol, hexane, hexene and hexanoic acid. Put a small quantity of each (one or
methane, ethane, ethanol and
two drops) on a watchglass or tile and set light to the sample. Compare the smokiness and ease of burning.
ethanoic acid
Chemistry for IGCSE, 17.2 Hydrocarbons, pp. 21011

Describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons (14.2 core)
Name and draw the structures of the unbranched alkanes containing up to four carbon atoms (14.1 supplement)
Describe and identify structural isomerism (14.3 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Know that petroleum is a mixture of
The purpose of this section is to introduce the main components of
More advanced students could draw and make
hydrocarbons
petroleum fractionation rather than going into the properties of alkanes in
models of a wide range of hydrocarbons, e.g. up to 10
Know that hydrocarbons are
detail.
carbon atoms.
compounds containing carbon and
Go over the names of the alkane homologous series using prefixes if this
They could also be asked how many isomers there
hydrogen only
has not been done previously.
are possible for a given carbon chain length, e.g. how
Know that the prefixes meth-, eth-,
Introduce petroleum as mixture of alkanes, some of which are very
many isomers are there of pentane? This could be
amongst others, give information
complex.
done as a competition with the first group to
about the number of carbon atoms
Introduce the concept of isomerism.
complete drawings of all the isomers without any
present in a straight-chained organic
Students could build models of isomers of hydrocarbons using model kits
errors being the winner.
compound
or substitutes (see below).
Less advanced students could draw and make models
Flash cards could be used to test students on the prefixes by using a wider
of a range of hydrocarbons with up to 6 carbon
Name and draw the structures of
range of organic compounds, e.g. what is the prefix for the chemical with
atoms.
unbranched alkanes with up to 4
the formula CH3CH2CH2CH2OH?
carbon atoms (S)
Structural isomers are compounds
with the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae (S)
Learning Outcomes
Define the terms hydrocarbon and
Carbon chemistry model kits. If these are not available, ball and stick models can be made from Plasticine or (modelling) clay and
alkane
straws or cocktail sticks.
Be able to name and draw the
structure of the alkanes having up to
4 carbon atoms (S)
Describe and identify structural
isomerism (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 17.3 Fuels, pp.21213

Name the fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum (14.2 core)
Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas (14.2 core)
Describe hydrogen as a fuel (6.2 core)
Describe the properties of alkanes as being generally unreactive, except in terms of burning (14.4 core)
Describe the formation of carbon dioxide as a product of complete combustion of carbon containing substances (11 core)
Learning Objectives
Know that a good fuel releases a lot
Start by reintroducing fuels, especially those derived from petroleum, as
More advanced students can consider the advantages
of heat energy per gram and is noncomplex mixture of hydrocarbons.
and disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel. Possible
polluting
Introduce the term fraction so students have a fear idea of what this term
issues include high cost due to energy cost of
The fractional distillation of
means before petroleum fractionation is discussed.
electrolysis / cracking; hydrogen is difficult to store
petroleum provides us with a variety
Demonstrate the experiment to show the combustion products that are
there is a need for need for pressurised tanks;
of liquid and gaseous fuels many of
formed when hydrocarbons are burnt (see below).
hydrogen is non-polluting when burnt the only
which are hydrocarbons
Students could then write equations for the complete combustion of various product is water.
The products of the complete
hydrocarbons.
combustion of hydrocarbon fuels are
The fact that there may be soot on the funnel in the last experiment can lead
carbon dioxide and water
to a discussion of incomplete combustion. Students could also write
equations for the incomplete combustion of various hydrocarbons.
Finish off by discussing what makes a good fuel.
Compare hydrogen with fossil fuels such as coal or oil fractions in terms of
hazards/ storage / method of manufacture/ pollutant gases produced / long
term future / renewable as opposed to non-renewable fuel.
Learning Outcomes
Name a range of gaseous and liquid
fuels
Describe what makes a good fuel
Describe the fuels obtained from
petroleum
Describe the products of the
combustion of hydrocarbon fuels

Demonstration of methane burning to form carbon dioxide and water (see p. 213 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
This could also be done using a burning candle (long-chained hydrocarbon).
Video on hydrogen as a fuel/ relative merits of fuels (but not petroleum fractionation).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 17.4 Petroleum, pp. 21415
Approximate timing for this section: 20 minutes (if no activities)

Describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into useful fractions by fractional distillation (14.2 core)
Use of the fractionating column referring to the fractional distillation of crude oil (2.2b core)
Name the uses of the fractions as: refinery gas for bottled gas and for heating and cooking, gasoline fraction for fuel (petrol) in cars, naphtha fraction for making chemicals,
kerosene/ paraffin fraction for jet fuel, diesel oil/ gas oil for fuel in diesel engines, fuel oil fraction for fuel for ships and home heating systems, lubricating fraction for
lubricants, waxes and polishes, bitumen for making roads (14.2 core)
Learning Objectives
Petroleum is separated into different
Start by discussing the range of products made from crude oil, e.g. fuel,
Students could make an oil diary to show how things
fractions by fractional distillation
detergents, plastics, paints, fibres so there is a need for oil not just as an
used in everyday life might depend on petroleum
Each fraction has hydrocarbons with energy source but for making other chemicals.
products.
a narrow range of boiling points
The extraction of oil can be discussed by means of a virtual visit to an oil
More advanced students could find out about the
The hydrocarbons are separated by
platform on the web.
origins of oil and do some research to show how
fractional distillation because of the
Follow this by describing the fractionation process. The main points to
petroleum from different parts of the world differs in
difference in their boiling points
consider are: the different masses of the molecules, the different boiling
composition.
Know the different fractions from the points of the fractions and the temperature gradient in the column in
There are plenty of opportunities for display work/
distillation of petroleum and their
relation to the point where the fractions condense.
making posters. Students might find pictures on the
uses as specified above
A demonstration of petroleum fractionation could be carried out (see
internet or collect articles made from petroleum
below) to stress the differences in boiling points and properties of the
fractions (or draw these). These could then be
fractions.
mounted on a large outline of a fractionating column
Finish off by showing a computer simulation of fractionation if available or showing where the fractions emerge and showing the
suitable video clips about the refining of oil.
boiling point ranges and number of carbon atoms.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the use of the fractionating
Demonstration fractionation of a petroleum mixture using various non-toxic petroleum ether fractions. The mixture can be placed
column in the distillation of
in a conventional distillation apparatus and distilled. Collect a range of fractions as they distil off, noting the temperature range at
petroleum
which each fraction is taken. The fractions can then be tested for viscosity and flammability.
Describe the separation of petroleum Video clips about petroleum fractionation.
into the different fractions specified
in the syllabus
State the uses of the fractions
specified in the syllabus
Chemistry for IGCSE, 8.1 Rate of reaction, pp. 967
Approximate timing for this section: 45 minutes (including demonstrations / computer simulations)
Describe a practical method for investigating the speed of a reaction involving gas evolution (7.1 core)
Devise a suitable method for investigating the effect of a given variable on the speed of a reaction (7.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Know how to follow the progress of
If they are available, start by showing computer simulations of two ways of More advanced students could be introduced to a
a reaction involving gas evolution
measuring the progress of a reaction involving the evolution of a gas
further range of methods for following a reaction, e.g.
(volume of gas or loss of mass of
(volume of gas and mass lost).
variation in electrical conductivity or pH.
reactants)
The reaction between marble / limestone chips and dilute hydrochloric acid
can be used to show how a reaction can be followed by measuring the
Know there are other methods for
volume of a gas evolved (see below). The importance of trial experiments
following the progress of a reaction,
can be demonstrated by showing that if the chips are too small of the acid
e.g. time taken for a precipitate to
too concentrated, the reaction will go too fast and the gas syringe or
make a word disappear from view
measuring cylinder will not be able to read accurately enough.
(S)
Students should be given the opportunity to experiment with different ways
Know how to investigate the effect
of measuring speed of reaction, e.g. decrease in mass of substance. The
of a given variable on the rate of
experiments may also be carried out using a data logger attached to
reaction (S)
computer to show decrease in mass if a suitable electronic balance is
available. The use of a light sensor to measure the light transmitted when a
precipitate is formed in a reaction could also be discussed, e.g. in the
reaction of sodium thiosulfate with hydrochloric acid.
Learning Outcomes
Describe a practical method for
Demonstrate the methods of following a reaction using apparatus (see p. 97 in Chemistry for IGCSE) for following the reaction by
measuring speed of reaction where a
measuring gas volumes (gas syringe or upturned measuring cylinder over water), or for demonstrating the change of mass of the
gas is produced
reaction mixture in a reaction where a gas is evolved (see p. 96 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Understand that speed of reaction
involves quantity of material and
time
Describe how to investigate the
effect of a given variable on the
speed of a reaction (S)
Understand the principles of using
other methods to investigate the
speed of reaction when given suitable
information (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 8.2 Interpreting data, pp.989

Interpret charts and graphs (mathematical requirements all candidates)
Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with speed of reaction (7.1 supplement)
(Calculations involving) limiting reactants (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Speed of reaction is calculated by
Ask students to suggest some reactions that are very fast or very slow
For more advanced students problems including
dividing change in the amount of
(explosions, formation of many precipitates, cement setting, rusting).
limiting reagents could be set.
reactant or product by time
Video clips could be used to get over the ideas of the wide variety of
Less advanced students could concentrate on
As a reaction proceeds, the rate of
reaction rates.
analysing graphs in terms of calculating the volume
reaction decreases as one or more of
It is important that students realise that rate of reaction involves time as
of gas produced at certain time intervals and vice
the reactants gets used up
well as amount of material changed. This could be introduced with a
versa.
Know how to interpret graphs of rate kinaesthetic activity by timing how long it takes students to move the same
of reaction
number of heavy and light bags one at a time from one end of the class to
the other.
A reaction stops when the limiting
Graphical techniques can be introduced here. Students need to be able to
reactant is completely used up (S)
interpret graphs by drawing a curve of best fit with the data.
From here students could analyse how the gradient of the graph, e.g. of
volume of gas with time, changes when the reaction is slower or faster.
They should also understand how the final volumes of gas obtained in the
reaction between marble chips and various concentrations of hydrochloric
acid compare when excess acid is used and when excess marble chips are
used.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to interpret graphs of
If available, computer simulations can be used to show how the final volumes of gas obtained in the reaction between marble chips
volume of gas produced against time
and various concentrations of hydrochloric acid compare when excess acid is used and when excess marble chips are used.
Be able to interpret graphs of mass of
reactant changing with time
Understand how to investigate the
effect of a given variable on the rate
of a reaction (S)
Calculate which reactant is limiting
in a reaction (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 8.3 Surfaces and reaction speed, pp.1001
Approximate timing for this section: 100 minutes (including practicals on surface area and catalysis)
Describe the effect of particle size on the speed of reaction (7.1 core)
Describe the application of the above factors to the danger of explosive combustion with fine powders, e.g. flour mills; and gases, e.g. mines (7.1 core)
Describe the effect of catalysts on speeds of reaction in terms of collisions between reacting particles (7.1 core)
Learning Objectives
Increasing the surface area of a solid Start by demonstrating how the surface area of a solid increases when it is
More advanced students could find out more
reactant increases the rate of reaction cut up. This can be shown by cutting a cube of Plasticine or by a set of 8
examples of catalysts used in industry. They could
Smaller particles of solid have a
childs building blocks stacked in a cube with their inside surfaces coloured also discuss how catalysts work in terms of lowering
larger surface area than larger ones
a different colour from the outside.
the activation energy of the reaction, therefore
with the same total volume
Students can then carry out a standard experiment to show how the size of
lowering the energy demand of industrial processes,
Know that fine powders, e.g. flour,
the particles affects the rate of reaction (see below). This could also be
so conserving fossil fuels and increasing profitability.
and gases in mines can combust
demonstrated by a computer simulation if available.
Less advanced students could make a flickbook to
explosively
This can be reinforced with the burning milk powder experiment (see
show the bombardment of particles of hydrochloric
A catalyst speeds up the rate of a
below). This can also serve to introduce the idea of the explosive nature of
acid with the surface of a solid (to include the
chemical reaction but is not used up
fine powders and the build-up of gases/ coal powder etc. in mines. The role products moving away into solution and escaping as
itself
of methane as an explosive gas when mixed in the correct proportions with
a gas).
oxygen and a spark applied is also conveniently discussed here.
The theory behind the increased rate of reaction with increased surface area
is then explained in terms of increased collisions because of increased
reacting particles on the surface of the solid.
If available, computer simulations can be used to demonstrate the increased
collision rate when the particle size is smaller.
Catalysts can be introduced in terms of speeding up a rate of reaction by the
experiment on the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (see below).
Enzymes can be discussed later when fermentation is studied for
reinforcement.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the effect of particle size on Student practical on how the size of marble chips affects the rate of reaction with 1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid (see p.100 in
the speed of reaction
Chemistry for IGCSE). The apparatus shown on p.102, or the equivalent collecting the gas over water using a measuring cylinder
Understand that catalysts speed up a
could also be used.
reaction without changing the
You could demonstrate the experiment of burning milk powder (see p.101 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
reactants or products and are not used A simple experiment on catalysis can be carried out using a fixed volume (20 cm3 of 20 volume hydrogen peroxide and adding
up in the reaction
Explain why fine powders can cause
explosions, e.g. in flour mills and
mines
(approximately) the same amount of different potential catalysts, e.g. manganese( IV) oxide, lead(IV) oxide, copper(II) oxide,
magnesium oxide. The volume of oxygen released after a fixed time can be measured. Alternatively, if the reaction is done in
measuring cylinders with the catalyst in the bottom and a few drops of washing up liquid, the height of the foam produced on the
addition of the hydrogen peroxide, gives an indication of the rate of reaction.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 8.4 Concentration and rate of reaction, pp.1023

Describe the effect of concentration on speeds of reaction (7.1 core)
Describe and explain the effect of concentration on speeds of reaction in terms of collisions between reacting particles (7.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Increasing the concentration of a
Start by reminding students that a more concentrated solution contains
Less advanced students could show the effect of
reactant increases the rate of a
more particles in a given volume than a less concentrated one.
concentration on rate by a kinaesthetic activity,
reaction
Students could do an experiment to show the effect of increasing the
(blindfolded?) students moving about at the same
concentration on the rate of reaction (see below). Alternatively (if
speed and joining together and moving away
Increasing the concentration of
available) a computer simulation can be used to show how the volume of
(forming products) when collision has occurred. This
reactants increases the rate of
gas changes with time for different concentrations of hydrochloric acid.
can be repeated with the students further apart.
reaction by increasing the frequency
The theory behind the increased rate of reaction with increased
of collision of the particles (S)
concentration is then explained in terms of increased collisions because the
particles are closer together and more likely to collide.
collision rate with increased concentration. Students could also make two
flickbooks: one to show the reaction at low concentration of hydrochloric
acid and the other at high.
Learning Outcomes
Describe how concentration affects
the speed of a reaction
Explain in terms of colliding
particles why increasing
concentration of the reactants speeds
up a reaction (S)
Explain why increasing the surface
area of a solid increases the speed of
a reaction (S)

Students can carry out an experiment to show how increasing the concentration of hydrochloric acid affects the rate of reaction of
reaction of marble chips with the acid (see p.102 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Computer simulations to model how rate changes with increased concentration.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 8.5 Temperature and rate of reaction, pp.1045

Describe the effect of temperature on speeds of reaction (7.1 core)
Describe and explain the effect of temperature on speeds of reaction in terms of collisions between reacting particles (7.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The higher the temperature the faster Start by getting the students to suggest reactions which go faster at a
More advanced students can use the idea of
the rate of reaction
higher temperature, e.g. the hotter the weather, the quicker you feel tired,
activation energy to explain why an increase in
sugar dissolves quicker in hot teas than in cold.
temperature increases the rate of reaction.
Rate of reaction increases with
Students can the carry out an experiment to investigate the effect of
temperature because the particles
increasing the temperature on the rate of reaction (see below).
have more energy at higher
The theory behind the increased rate of reaction with increased temperature
temperatures, so they collide with
is then explained in terms of more collisions having sufficient energy to be
greater force and are more
successful because the particles have more energy at higher temperatures.
likely to react. (S)
At higher temperatures, there are
force of the collisions with increased temperature. Students could also
more particles having the necessary
make two flickbooks: one to show the reaction at low temperature and the
energy to react when they collide
other at high temperature.
(activation energy) (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe how temperature affects the Students can react solutions of sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid at different temperature and time how long it takes for
speed of a reaction
some writing placed below the reaction vessel to disappear as a precipitate of sulfur forms (see p.104 in Chemistry for IGCSE)
The reaction could also be carried out using a light meter connected to a data logger and computer.
Explain how temperature affects the
speed of reaction in terms of
collisions between reactant particles
having a minimum energy to react
when they collide (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 8.6 Light-sensitive reactions, pp.1067
Approximate timing for this section: 30 minutes (including demonstrations)

Describe the effect of light on the speed of reactions (7.1 supplement)
Describe the use of silver salts in photography as a process of reduction of silver ions to silver (7.1 supplement)
Describe photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight (energy) to produce glucose (1.7 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Photochemical reactions are
Introduce photosynthesis by the experiment shown on p.106 of Chemistry
More advanced students can research more deeply
reactions whose rate is increased in
for IGCSE. Only the overall reaction describing photosynthesis needs to be into the photographic reaction and photography, e.g.
the presence of light (S)
explained, together with the fact that the interaction of the light with the
the use of sodium thiosulfate as a fixer.
Photosynthesis is the conversion of
chlorophyll results in the splitting of the water, leading to further
Less advanced students can research more generally
carbon dioxide and water to glucose
reactions.
into the history of photography.
and oxygen in the presence of light
The photographic reaction may be introduced by reference back to the
(when chlorophyll is present as a
darkening of a silver halide precipitate when exposed to light. Produce a
catalyst) (S)
silver bromide precipitate by adding aqueous silver nitrate to aqueous
In the photographic reaction, silver
potassium bromide. Students should observe that it goes grey slowly in the
bromide is decomposed to silver and
presence of light.
bromine in the presence of light, the
A simple experiment building on this reaction can then be performed (see
silver ions undergoing reduction (S)
below).
The relevant half equations for the reaction should be given.
Suggest why silver bromide is used in traditional photographic paper rather
silver chloride: silver chloride goes purply grey too quickly.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the effect of light on the
rate of some reactions (S)
Describe the use of silver salts in
photography (S)
Describe the process of
photosynthesis in simple terms (S)

Demonstrate the darkening of silver bromide paper or photographic paper (see p.107 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 10.1 How acidic? pp.1201

Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH (whole numbers only) measured using Universal Indicator paper (8.1 core)
Learning Objectives
The pH scale is used to show relative Introduce the pH scale and demonstrate universal indicator as a mixture of
More advanced students could be asked to design an
acidity or alkalinity
dyes.
experiment to test the pH of some soil. Adding a
Solution below pH 7 are acidic,
The students can then test a range of laboratory acids and alkalis as well as
small amount of barium sulfate to a filtered sample of
solutions above pH 7 are alkaline
a number of foods and household products (preferably as concentrated
soil will help soil settle quicker. Students could be
If a solution has a pH of 7 it is said to solutions if they are not liquids) to find their pH values using universal
asked to bring a range of soil into school from
be neutral
indicator paper, e.g. fruits, soap, vinegar, dishwashing liquid, washing
different places.
Universal indicator can be used to
powder, toothpaste, milk etc.
A pH meter could also be demonstrated as an
find the pH of a solution
Students can then arrange the solutions in terms of acidity/ basicity on the
electrical method of measuring pH.
pH scale.
Core students could make a poster on soil pH and
how well certain plants grow at particular pH values.
Learning Outcomes
Describe how the pH scale indicates
Using universal indicator to test the pH of a variety of solutions.
relative acidity and alkalinity
Describe how universal indicator
can be used to measure pH
Chemistry for IGCSE, 10.2 Properties of acids, pp.1223

Describe the characteristic properties of acids as reactions with metals, bases, carbonates and effect on litmus (8.1 core)
Learning Objectives
Many metals react with acids to form Demonstrate the reaction of litmus paper with a variety of acids.
More advanced students could do an internet search
a salt and hydrogen
Students could do test tube reactions to demonstrate the properties of acids, to find out whether the properties of all acids are the
Acids react with metal oxides and
i.e. the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid, the reaction of
same, to include acids which are good oxidising
hydroxides to form a salt and water
calcium oxide with acid, the reaction of sodium hydroxide with
agents e.g. nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid.
Acids react with carbonates to form a hydrochloric acid, the reaction of sodium carbonate with hydrochloric acid. More advanced students could write ionic equations
salts, water and carbon dioxide
Students could observe the change in pH as the acid is neutralised (see
for the reactions.
Acids turn blue litmus paper red
below).
The concept of neutralisation is then introduced with reference to the
experiments above.
Equations for the reactions could then be written.
Learning Outcomes
Describe how litmus can be used to
The reactions of acids can be done as simple test tube experiments using very small amounts of materials. It is suggested that the
test for acids
reaction of magnesium with acid is done in this way as well. Sufficient gas is released to give a pop with a lighted splint rather than
Describe how acids react with
collecting a large volume of gas in a measuring cylinder.
metals, metal oxides and metal
For the last three reactions the acid can be put into the test tube first with a few drops of universal indicator solution. The carbonate,
carbonates
metal oxide or hydroxide is then added until it is in excess and the indicator colour change noted as the reaction proceeds.
The carbon dioxide evolved from the reaction of an acid with a carbonate could be tested for using a drop of limewater suspended
above the solution.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 10.3 Bases, pp.1245

Describe the characteristic properties of bases as reactions with acids and with ammonium salts and the effect on litmus (8.1 core)
Name some uses of lime and slaked lime as in treating acid soil (13 core)
Learning Objectives
A base is a substance that can
Reintroduce the idea of bases and alkalis by referring to the experiments
More advanced students could do an experiment to
neutralise an acid
done in the previous section.
calculate the amount of magnesium hydroxide in
An alkali is a soluble base
The use of bases to neutralise stomach acidity, i.e. magnesium hydroxide,
magnesia tablets (see below). They could also write
Bases react with acids to form a salt
and in the treatment of some insect stings could be used as a context for this equations for more complex example of
and water
work. The addition of sodium hydroxide to (acidic) detergent in shower gel neutralisation, i.e. using the base calcium hydroxide.
Ammonia is released when
or washing up liquid could be mentioned.
Less advanced students could make a poster of the
ammonium salts are heated with an
The effect of adding an alkali to an ammonium salt could then be
uses of alkalis.
alkali
demonstrated (see below). This forms a link with the test for ammonium
Crushed limestone or lime are added salts.
to neutralise excess acidity in the soil
Learning Outcomes
Describe how litmus can be used to
Demonstration of the reaction of sodium hydroxide with ammonium salts to include testing the ammonia liberated with damp red
test for alkalis
litmus paper (see p.125 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Describe how bases react with acids
More advanced students could do an optional experiment to find the mass of magnesium hydroxide in an indigestion tablet, i.e. Milk
and ammonium salts
of Magnesia tablet. The magnesia tablet is weighed then crushed and made into a slurry with a known amount of water in a titration
Understand the importance of bases
flask. A few drops of screened methyl orange are added to the flask and the contents titrated with hydrochloric acid. Care needs to
in controlling soil acidity
be taken to let the magnesium hydroxide dissolve (be released from the fillers in the tablet) as the acid is added during the titration
process.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 10.4 More about acids and bases, pp.1267

Define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer limited to aqueous solutions (8.1 supplement)
Describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases (8.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
An acid is a proton donor and a base
Introduce the idea that hydrogen ions (protons) as causing acidity and
More advanced students could be asked to identify
is a proton acceptor (S)
hydroxide ions causing alkalinity. This can be done by reference to the
the acids and bases in more complex equations.
Strong acids and weak bases are
formulae of a range of acids and alkalis.
completely ionised in water (S)
Then refine this idea to introduce acids as proton donors and bases as
Weak acids and weak bases are only
proton acceptors.
slightly ionised in water (S)
Students could be asked (in groups) to work out the ionic equation for the
reaction of specific acids with specific alkalis, each group being given a
different acid and alkali. They then report back to the class and find out that
the ionic equation is the same in each case.
The difference between strong and weak acids and bases could then be
demonstrated (see below).
Summarise the ideas of hydrogen ions as proton donors, and strong and
weak acids by means of a computer simulation if available.
Learning Outcomes
Define acids and bases in terms of
For the demonstrations of strong and weak acids three experiments are suggested:
proton transfer (S)
If a conductivity meter is available, measure the conductivity of 0.1 mol/dm3 solutions of ethanoic acid and hydrochloric acid.
Understand the difference between
Measure the pH of 1 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid and 1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
strong and weak acids and bases (S)
Compare the rate of reaction of 1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid with magnesium ribbon with the rate of reaction of 1 mol/dm3
Be able to write ionic equations for
ethanoic acid.
acidbase reactions (S)
The first two experiments can be repeated with a weak and strong acid and base.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 10.5 Oxides, pp.1289

Classify oxides as either acidic or basic related to metallic and non-metallic character (8.2 core)
Further classify other oxides as neutral or amphoteric (8.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Know that most metals form basic
Demonstrate the behaviour of selected metal oxides and non-metal oxides
More advanced students could suggest some
oxides and that the oxides of most
when they react with water and measure the pH of the resulting solutions
reactions of other amphoteric oxides, e.g. tin, lead.
non-metals are acidic oxides
(see below).
They could also see that the neutralisation of a basic
Demonstrate the reaction of acid with a less reactive metal oxide to show
oxide by an acid is exothermic by using a
Nitrogen(I) oxide, nitrogen(II) oxide
that not all basic oxides dissolve/ react with water to form alkalis but they
thermometer to monitor the temperature change in
and carbon monoxide are neutral
do react with acids.
the reaction.
oxides (S)
Introduce neutral oxide and then amphoteric oxides, perhaps by a
The oxides of aluminium and zinc
demonstration experiment (see below).
are amphoteric they react with
both acids and alkalis (S)
Learning Outcomes
To be able to classify oxides as either For a metal oxide, add a little calcium hydroxide to water with few drops of universal indicator solution to show that an alkaline
acidic or basic according to their
solution is formed.
metallic or non-metallic properties
For non-metal oxides, bubble carbon dioxide through water (or use carbonated water) and measure the pH with a pH meter or
universal indicator. A solution of sulfur dioxide in water may also be tested to show that it is acidic. Add a few drops of concentrated
To be able to classify other oxides as sulfuric acid to a sulfite and pass the gas through water.
neutral or amphoteric (S)
The amphoteric nature of zinc oxide can be shown by first showing that it reacts with hydrochloric acid and then showing that it
dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.1 Making salts (1), pp.1323

Describe the preparation, separation and purification of salts as examples of some of the techniques specified in section 2 and the reaction specified in section 8.1
(8.3 core)
Suggest a method of making a given salt from suitable starting material given appropriate information (8.3 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The salt of a metal above hydrogen
Start by revising the processes of filtration and crystallisation.
Students could be given the names of salts to prepare
in the reactivity series can be made
Students can then carry out the preparation of a salt by adding excess metal by this method and suggest the reactants required.
by reaction of the metal with an acid to an acid or excess metal oxide to an acid. Different groups of students
Salts can be made by the reaction of
could be given different salts to prepare.
an insoluble base with an acid
Know how to prepare a salt by the
above two methods
Learning Outcomes
Describe how to make a salt from a
A typical example of the procedure is shown on p.133 of Chemistry for IGCSE.
metal or insoluble base
Suggest a method of making a given
salt from suitable starting materials
(S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 5.7 Titrations pp.667 (solution concentration has already been covered) + p.134 (How to carry out a titration)
Approximate timing for this section: 90 minutes to include titration

Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of volume including burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders (2.1 core)
(8.3 core)
Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses involving solutions (4.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Know how to use a burette, pipette
The purpose of this section is to provide students with an opportunity to
More advanced students could also attempt other
and indicator in a titration experiment apply volumetric analysis techniques using an acidbase titration as an
types of titration, e.g. a redox titration potassium
example.
manganate(VII) with an iron(II) salt or an iodine
Know how to carry out a titration to Start off by reminding students of the various pieces of equipment and their thiosulfate titration.
calculate an unknown solution
uses.
Plenty of opportunity should be given for students to
concentration (S)
Students then carry out a titration of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric
undertake calculations to deduce the concentration of
acid using either (screened) methyl orange or phenolphthalein as an
a solution of acid or alkali using the titration method.
indicator. If burettes and pipettes are not available, students can carry out a
rough titration using a measuring cylinder for putting the alkali into the
flask and a number of drops from a dropping pipette for simulating a
burette the volume of the drop can be approximated by reference to how
many are needed to make 1 cm3 using a 10 cm3 measuring cylinder.
Students calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide in the flask.
The method of carrying out and analysing the results of titration
experiments and how to calculate the concentration of the unknown should
be gone over thoroughly.
Learning Outcomes
Understand how to carry out an acid For titration instructions, see p.134 in Chemistry for IGCSE.
base titration
Understand how to calculate the
concentration of a solution from the
results of a titration experiment (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.2 Making salts (2): Titration method, pp.1345

(8.3 core)
Learning Objectives
A titration is used to make a soluble
The emphasis in this section is to use a titration to make a soluble salt by
Students could look up some names and uses of
salt from an acid and an alkali
neutralising an alkali with an acid followed by partial evaporation of the
soluble salts. They could also make a list of soluble
When making a salt by the titration
solution and crystallisation (see below).
and insoluble salts and try and make some solubility
method, the titration is first carried
No calculations are required in this section.
rules for these in preparation for the next section.
out using an indicator and then
This could simply be done on the basis of an
repeated without an indicator
alphabetical list supplied by the teacher stating
Know the procedure for making a
whether the salt is soluble or insoluble.
salt by the titration method
Learning Outcomes
Describe how to make a salt by
The formation of the salt potassium sulfate from sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide is shown on p.135 of Chemistry for IGCSE.
titrating an alkali with an acid
Suggest a method of making a given
salt from suitable starting materials
(S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.3 Making salts (3): precipitation, pp.1367

(8.3 core)
Describe the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation (8.3 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Know that insoluble salts are made
Start by discussing the solubility rules (which might be worked out by the
Students could investigate the solubility of soil
by precipitation by mixing solutions
students themselves from a previous homework/ extension activity).
minerals by adding acid or alkali of different pH
of two soluble salts (S)
Demonstrate the preparation of an insoluble salt (by precipitation) from two values to small samples of calcium chloride,
All salts of Group I elements,
soluble salts (see below).
ammonium nitrate, iron(III) chloride, potassium
ammonium salts and nitrates are
chloride and aluminium chloride to show how
soluble in water (S)
particular pH value may solubilise some minerals but
Most chlorides, bromides and iodides
remove others.
are soluble but those of lead and
Core students could concentrate on the reactions
silver are insoluble (S)
involved, linking back to qualitative analysis rather
Know how to prepare a salt using a
than studying this as a method for salt formation.
precipitation reaction (S)
Learning Outcomes
Understand solubility rules (S)
The experiment is best demonstrated using the reaction between lead nitrate and sodium chloride (this is best done as a
Understand how to make a salt using demonstration since lead compounds are poisonous (see p.136 in Chemistry for IGCSE). A suitable salt preparation involving
a precipitation reaction (S)
precipitation for students to undertake themselves is the reaction of iron(II) chloride with sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia.
Suggest a method of making a salt
from suitable starting materials (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.1 The Periodic Table, pp.1467

Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements and its use to predict properties of elements (9 core)
Describe the relationship between group number, number of valency electrons and metallic/ non-metallic character (9.1 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Know that elements in some groups
This is mainly a revision section to introduce the study of particular groups More advanced students could study the trends in
of the Periodic Table have similar
of elements.
Group II elements.
properties
Discuss the trends in particular groups in the Periodic Table, e.g. compare
There are trends in properties down a the boiling points of some of the elements in selected groups to get over the
group as well as across a period
ideas of a trend.
Know the relationship between group Discuss also the fact that for some groups in the Periodic Table there is a
number, number of valency electrons similarity of chemical properties, but that this does not apply to all the
and metallic/ non-metallic character
groups e.g. compare the metallic/ non-metallic properties of carbon, silicon,
(S)
tin and lead and their boiling points.
Introduce the idea of valency and relate valency to the position of the
elements in the Periodic Table. Stress the difference between valency and
number of valence electrons.
Finish off by accounting for some of the similarity of properties in terms of
the similarity in the number of valency electrons.
Learning Outcomes
Describe trends in the Periodic Table None but selected video clips could be shown relating to trends in the Periodic Table.
Describe the relationship between the
group number, valency electrons and
metallic and non-metallic character
Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.2 The Group I metals, pp1489

Describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group I as a collection of relatively soft metals showing a trend in melting point, density and reaction with water (9.2 core)
Predict the properties of other elements in Group I given data where appropriate (9.2 core)
Learning Objectives
The melting points and hardness of
Start by demonstrating the tarnishing of lithium, sodium and potassium in
If not done previously, students could investigate the
the Group I elements decrease down by leaving freshly cut pieces exposed to the air. This could be done using a
trends in physical and chemical properties of the
the group whilst the density
digital microscope and screen if available.
Group II metals.
increases (apart from sodium)
Demonstrate the reaction of the Group I metals with water by adding small
Group I elements all react with water pieces to a trough (a plastic food tub is suitable) and then adding universal
to produce hydrogen and a solution
indicator to the solution. Focus on the similarity of the reactions and then
of the alkali metal hydroxide
the trends. The reactions can be conveniently displayed to the class using
The chemical reactivity of the alkali
an overhead projector focussed on the surface of the liquid where the
metals increases down the group
reaction is taking place.
The properties of other elements in
Ask students what they might observe when more reactive elements are
the group can be predicted from
added to water. Make sure that students can distinguish between
general trends
observations and inference, i.e. the observation is that bubbles are
produced; the inference is that a gas is given off.
Video clips of the reactions of other Group I metals could be shown these
are available on-line, e.g. on Youtube.
Students can be asked to write balanced equations for the reactions and be
asked to predict the properties of other Group 1 elements, e.g. boiling
points.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the trends in physical
properties of the Group I metals
Describe how lithium, sodium and
potassium react with water
Be able to predict the properties of
other Group I metals

Demonstration of reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with water (see p 148 in Chemistry for IGCSE)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.3 The Group VII elements, pp.1501

Describe chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII as a collection of diatomic non-metals showing a trend in colour and state and their reaction with other halide ions (9.2
core)
Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII given data where appropriate
Learning Objectives
Halides are compounds formed when The appearance of the halogens could be shown, either by showing actual
The uses of selected halogens might be discussed,
halogen combine with metals,
samples or through photographs or pictures on the web. Show models of
especially in terms of their antiseptic nature and use
hydrogen or ammonia
the halogens to stress that they are diatomic molecules.
as bleaches (chlorine and chlorine compounds).
Halogens are diatomic non-metals
Students could be asked to research the physical properties of chlorine,
More advanced students could be asked to write ionic
which get darker in colour down the
bromine and iodine (appearance, melting and boiling points) and predict the equations for the displacement reactions. They might
group; chlorine being a gas, bromine
properties of other elements in the group.
also be asked to find out how fluorine differs in its
a liquid and iodine a solid at room
The displacement reactions of the halogens with halides can be done as a
chemical properties from other halogens.
temperature
demonstration or a class practical (see below).
The reactivity of the halogens
Relevant equations for the reactions of halogens with halides should be
decreases down the group
written.
A more reactive halogen displaces a
less reactive halogen from a solution
of its halide
The properties of other elements in
the group can be predicted from
general trends
Learning Outcomes
Describe the trends in the physical
The reaction of the halogens with the halides may be carried out as detailed on p.151 of Chemistry for IGCSE. The reactions may be
properties of the halogens
done in test tubes but, if chemicals are at a premium, the reactions may be conveniently carried out on a spotting tile. A few drops of
Describe and explain how the
hexane added to each mixture after the reaction can be used to distinguish between iodine (purple in hexane) and bromine (orange in
halogens react with halide ions
hexane).
To be able to predict the properties
of other elements in Group VII
Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.4 The noble gases and more, pp.1523

Describe the noble gases as being unreactive (9.4 core)
Describe the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert atmosphere, i.e. argon in lamps, helium for filling balloons (9.4 core)
Identify trends in other groups given information about the elements concerned (9.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The noble gases are unreactive
Introduce the noble gases in terms of their presence in the air at low
The uses of the noble gases could be extended by
because they have a full outer shell of concentrations.
students undertaking an internet search.
electrons
Suggest how they might be extracted from the air link with separation of
More advanced students could try to identify trends
Know the uses of the noble gases
oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air which will be discussed later.
in other groups in the Periodic Table by selecting
often depend on them providing an
Ask students about the electronic structure of the noble gases and why they specified information from chemistry books or from
inert atmosphere, e.g. argon in lamps, are used for particular jobs, i.e. in light bulbs, balloons and in the extraction the internet.
helium in balloons
of reactive metals.
The uses of the noble gases could be extended by students undertaking an
Know how to identify trends in other internet search and reporting back their finding to the rest of the class/
groups of the Periodic Table when
group.
given sufficient information (S)
Learning Outcomes
Understand why the noble gases are
Selected parts of a video about the use of the noble gases could be shown.
unreactive
Describe some uses of the noble
Gases
Identify trends in groups other than I,
VII and 0 given information about
the elements concerned (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.5 Transition elements, pp.1545

Describe the transition elements as a collection of metals having high densities, high melting points and forming coloured compounds and which, as elements and
compounds, often act as catalysts (9.3 core)
Learning Objectives
Transition elements are metals with
Introduce transition elements via pictures of the metals from books or the
Find out other chemical reactions and industrial
high melting and boiling points and
internet.
processes which use transition elements or
high densities
Show that a transition element is hard by its ability to scratch other metals
compounds as catalysts.
Compounds of transition elements
(such as lead, tin and aluminium).
are highly coloured
Show examples of coloured compounds of transition elements compared
Transition elements have several
with non-transition elements (chlorides and sulfates are best). Show that
oxidation states in their compounds
similar compounds of the same element with different oxidations states,
e.g. Fe(II) and Fe(III) have different colours. This can be linked back to the
colours of the precipitates obtained in qualitative analysis. The colours of
ions of iron(II), iron(III), copper(II), manganese in potassium
manganate(VII) could be mentioned.
The uses of transition elements (and their compounds) as catalysts can be
linked to further parts of the course, e.g. nickel in the hydrogenation of fats
and oils, platinum and rhodium in catalytic converters, iron in the Haber
process and vanadium(v) oxide in the production of sulfuric acid.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the typical properties of the Demonstrate that transition elements are hard by the ability of iron/ steel (or other transition metals) to scratch metals such as tin,
transition elements
lead and aluminium.
Describe the differences between
A selection of coloured compounds of transition elements is useful for demonstration purposes.
transition metals and non-transition
metals
Chemistry for IGCSE, 13.2 The metal reactivity series, pp.1601

Describe the general chemical properties of metals (10.1 core)
Place in order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper by reference to the reactions, if any, of the metals with water or
steam and dilute hydrochloric acid (10.2 core)
Learning Objectives
Metals can be placed in order of
Start by demonstrating the reactions of calcium with acid.
reactivity by comparing how fast
Students can then add other metals to acid and put them in order of
they react with water, steam and
reactivity by reference to the rate of bubble formation. The more reactive
hydrochloric acid
metals produce bubbles more rapidly.
Only metals above hydrogen in the
Demonstrate the reactivity of metals with water or steam, e.g. calcium with
reactivity series react with dilute
cold water, magnesium with water and steam, iron with steam, and use the
hydrochloric acid, water or steam
results of these experiments to consolidate the reactivity series.
If a metal reacts with cold water a
Students could then make predictions about metal reactivity by reference to
metal hydroxide and hydrogen are
their position in the reactivity series.
formed, but if it only reacts with
steam a metal oxide and hydrogen
are formed
Learning Outcomes
To be able to place metals in order of Student experiment using about a 2 cm depth of 2 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid in test tubes and noting the rate of bubble formation.
their reactivity by referring to their
Suitable metals to use include small pieces of magnesium, iron (cleaned with sandpaper), zinc and copper. All of approximately the
reactions with water, steam and
same area.
hydrochloric acid
Demonstration of the reaction of iron with steam (see p.160 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
To be able to deduce an order of
reactivity from information given
Chemistry for IGCSE, 13.3 More about metal reactivity, pp.1623

Describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a metal to form its positive ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with the aqueous ions of the other
listed metals (10.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
A more reactive metal displaces a
Start by reminding students of the order of reactivity obtained when metals
Students could include solutions of nickel, tin, lead
less reactive metal from a solution of react with water or acids.
and silver salts in their test tube experiments to make
its salt (S)
Demonstrate the thermit reaction to show that a more reactive metal can
a more complete reactivity series.
A more reactive metal loses its
remove the oxygen from a less reactive metal oxide (see below).
valency electrons more readily than a Alternatively, this could be demonstrated as a starter for section 13.4 on
less reactive metal (S)
using carbon as a reductant. There are also videos available showing this
reaction.
After this, students can carry out test tube experiments on metal/ metal ion
displacement reactions (see below). There is plenty of practice in making
observations and drawing conclusions about relative metal reactivity from
these experiments.
Make predictions about metal reactivity by reference to position in
reactivity series.
Discuss the reactivity series in terms of electron transfer and change in
oxidation state.
Students could test their knowledge of the reactivity series by a game
involving two shuffled piles of cards; one with metal names the other with
the names of aqueous salts. The students choose a card from each pile and
predict whether a reaction occurs or not (and possible observations)
Learning Outcomes
To be able to place metals in a
reactivity series by referring to the
reaction between metals and metal
ions (S)
Explain the reactivity of metals in
terms of the ease of formation of
metal ions (S)

Demonstration of the thermit reaction (see p.162 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 13.5 Thermal decomposition, pp.1667

Describe the action of heat on the hydroxides and nitrates of the listed metals (10.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Thermal decomposition is the
Thermal decomposition is approached from the point of view of ease of
breakdown of a compound into two
breakdown of hydroxides and nitrates and linked to metal reactivity.
or more different products by heat
Start by discussing the breakdown of hydroxides. Most hydroxides
decompose at very high temperatures so this reaction cannot be
The more reactive the metal the more demonstrated. The equations for the reactions can be written.
stable is its nitrate or hydroxide to
Demonstrate the decomposition of Group II nitrates and Group I nitrates by
heat (S)
heating them carefully in a fume cupboard.
Most nitrates decompose to either
Equations for the decompositions can be written.
nitrites and oxygen, or to oxides,
The pattern that the rate of decomposition is faster, the less reactive the
nitrogen dioxide and oxygen on
metal can be ascertained from the data.
heating (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the action of heat on
selected hydroxides and nitrates (S)
Be able to link the ease of thermal
decomposition of nitrates and
hydroxides to the reactivity of the
metal (ion) in the compound (S)

The experiment can be repeated using the thermal
decomposition of carbonates as an example (see
below).
More advanced students could consider the size and
charge on the cation as the factor in determining
stability (although ideas about polarisation not
necessary).
The decomposition could also be presented as a data
analysis activity with students comparing
(equilibrium) decomposition temperatures for
hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates. They can then
analyse the figures in relation to the reactivity of the
metals.

Demonstration to show the comparative decomposition of Group II nitrates (see p.167 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
For a demonstration of the decomposition of Group I nitrates (but not lithium nitrate), heat a little of the nitrate in a test tube and test
for oxygen with a lighted splint at the mouth of the tube.
If time is available, the thermal decomposition of Group II carbonates could be demonstrated. Connect a hard glass test tube
(containing the carbonate) to a bent delivery tube dipping into limewater. Heat the carbonate and time how long it takes for the
limewater to just turn milky.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 16.5 The limestone industry, pp. 2045
Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes (including practical but excluding role play)
Describe the manufacture of lime (calcium oxide) from calcium carbonate (limestone) in terms of the chemical reaction involved (13 core)
Name some uses of lime and slaked lime as in treating acidic soils and neutralising acidic industrial waste products, e.g. flue gas desulfurisation (13 core)
Name the uses of calcium carbonate in the manufacture of iron and cement (13 core)
Learning Objectives
Calcium oxide (quicklime / lime) is
Start by showing students samples of calcium carbonate rocks, e.g.
Students could find out details about how cement is
made by heating limestone in a kiln
limestone, chalk, clunch.
manufactured and about the reactions which harden
Limestone is used in the extraction of Demonstrate the action of heat on a limestone chip and the subsequent
cement.
iron and the manufacture of cement
addition of water (see below). On adding water, the solution becomes very
They could also analyse a piece of old concrete and
Quicklime and slaked lime are used
alkaline indicating that calcium hydroxide has been formed.
test the pH on the surface and (after breaking the
to treat acidic soil and to neutralise
Discuss how limestone is decomposed into calcium oxide on an industrial
concrete) test the pH inside to show the effect of
acidic waste products in industry
scale.
carbon dioxide from the air reacting with the
(flue gas desulfurisation)
Go over the importance of limestone and lime to the building industry but
concrete.
that they and their products can be attacked by acid in the air.
Students can participate in a role play exercise about limestone extraction
which raises issues about the exploitation of mineral resources on a large
scale. An enquiry is set up into a proposed limestone quarry in an area of
natural beauty. There should be a chairperson and representatives in favour
of the quarry (the quarrying company/ industrial users / trade unions) and
against (National Parks or world heritage commission/ local authority /
local community (although many may want this for employment)).
The use of calcium oxide and hydroxide should then be discussed including
flue gas desulfurisation.
A summary could include a video clip about the uses of limestone in
neutralising acid lakes and the use of calcium oxide in agriculture.
Learning Outcomes
State some uses of calcium
For the practical, heat a small limestone chip very strongly for 20 minutes. Calcium oxide is formed on the surface which will react
carbonate, calcium oxide and calcium with water giving off a lot of heat in the process (see p.204 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
hydroxide
Describe how lime is manufactured
Chemistry for IGCSE, 13.4 From metal oxides to metals, pp.1645

Place in order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper by reference to the reduction of their oxides, if any, with carbon
(10.2 core)
Describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a meal to form its positive ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with the oxides of the listed metals (10.2
supplement)
Account for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of the oxide layer which adheres to the metal (10.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Metal oxides below carbon in the
Remind students about the reactivity series of metals.
Students could find out which metals are produced
reactivity series are reduced by
If not done earlier, the thermit reaction could be demonstrated here or a
industrially by reduction with carbon and which are
carbon when heated
video of the reaction shown.
extracted by electrolysis.
When a more reactive metal is heated Students could heat copper oxide with carbon in a test tube to demonstrate
with the oxide of a less reactive
the extraction of copper by reduction of the oxide with carbon (see below).
metal, the more reactive metal acts as An alternative is to heat a mixture of lead oxide and carbon heated in
a reducing agent
crucible to produce a bead of lead (see below).
Introduce the idea that more reactive metals need more energy to reduce
Explain the reactivity of metals in
them from their compounds.
terms of the ease of electron transfer
The existence of an unreactive oxide layer on aluminium can be shown by
from the more reactive metal to form comparing the reaction of hydrochloric acid with aluminium with a sample
a metal oxide with greater ease (S)
of aluminium which has just been cleaned by rubbing with sandpaper.
The apparent lack of reactivity of
Contrast the role of the impervious layer on aluminium with the layer of
aluminium is due to an unreactive
rust on iron which readily flakes off causing the iron to oxidise (rust)
oxide layer that forms rapidly on its
further.
surface (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the use of carbon as a
For the reaction of copper(II) oxide with carbon, see p.164 in Chemistry for IGCSE.
reducing agent for some metal oxides An alternative experiment to show the ability of carbon to reduce some metal oxides is to heat a mixture of lead( II) oxide with
carbon in a crucible in the absence of oxygen (add some more carbon on top of the mixture). Beads of lead are produced at the
Explain the use of carbon as a
bottom of the crucible.
reducing agent (S)
Explain the apparent unreactivity of
aluminium (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 14.1 Metals from their ores, pp.1701
approximate timing for this section 30 minutes

Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores by relating the elements to the reactivity series (10.3a core)
Name the main ore of aluminium as bauxite (10.3a core)
Describe in outline the extraction of zinc from zinc blende (10.3a supplement)
Learning Objectives
Metal oxides below carbon in the
Start by discussing the difference between rock and mineral and define
reactivity series are reduced by
ore.
carbon when heated
Samples of ores and the pure metals from which they are extracted could be
An ore is a rock from which a
shown or pictures of these.
commercial amount of an element
It is important that students recognise that the energy demand required for
can be extracted
extracting a metal determines its price and that the use of large amounts of
Metals more reactive than carbon in
energy has implications for recycling and use of fuels.
the reactivity series are extracted by
The extraction of zinc can then be discussed. Key points include the
electrolysis
roasting of the sulfide ore to produce the oxide, the redox reactions
involved and the separation of the zinc from the reaction mixture by
Zinc is extracted from zinc blende
vaporisation and condensation. The high energy demand of the process and
(S)
the pollution caused by the sulfur dioxide released from roasting the ore
In the extraction of zinc, zinc oxide
form important links to other parts of the course.
is heated in a furnace with carbon or
Students can participate in a role play exercise about mineral extraction in a
carbon monoxide as a reductant (S)
similar way to that for the limestone enquiry in section 16.5. This could be
tailored to the local mineral resources mined or quarried.
Learning Outcomes
Describe bauxite as an ore of
Samples of metal ores and minerals.
aluminium
Describe how the ease of obtaining
metals from their ores depends on the
position of the metal in the reactivity
series
Describe the extraction of zinc from
zinc blende (S)

Students could suggest how they might extract
copper from malachite ore (calcium carbonate) using
methods they are familiar with from earlier in the
course.
Students could also research the extraction of
different metals, e.g. name/ occurrence in nature (ore
or native)/ how extracted/ cost per tonne/ uses/ is it
recycled easily? They could gather the data in a table
or spreadsheet and draw out patterns of reactivity
related to price / use.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 14.2 Extracting iron, pp.1723
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (with video clips)

Describe the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from haematite (10.3a core)
Learning Objectives
The raw materials used in the
The story of iron extraction could be put in an historical context with a
extraction of iron in the blast furnace discussion of why copper was used for tools earlier than iron.
are haematite (iron ore), coke,
Refer back to the thermit process for extracting iron and ask why it is not
limestone and air
used to extract iron from haematite on a large scale.
In the blast furnace, carbon
The main reactions in a modern blast furnace can then be discussed.
monoxide reduces iron(III) oxide to
Students need to know an outline schematic drawing of the blast furnace,
iron
the raw material and waste outputs.
The thermal decomposition of
The relevant equations for the redox reactions taking place in the blast
limestone in the blast furnace
furnace should then be discussed as well as for slag formation.
produces calcium oxide, which reacts A summary could include relevant clips from a video on the blast furnace
with silicon(IV) oxide impurities in
or iron and steel production.
the iron ore to form slag
Learning Outcomes
State that iron can be extracted from
Video on the production of iron.
haematite ore
Information from books or internet on iron production.
Describe the essential reactions in
the blast furnace for the production
of iron

Students could make a list of differences between the
extraction of zinc and the extraction of iron as well as
a list of similarities.
Other issues that could be discussed in relation to
other parts of the course are the local environmental
effects of large scale mining of haematite/ the
economic and environmental costs of the high energy
demand (burning coke), the large input of fossil fuel,
the need to collect and deal with the poisonous
carbon monoxide released from the furnace, the
disposal of the slag and the need to recycle iron.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 14.3 Iron into steel, pp.1745
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes with video clips

Describe the conversion of iron into steel using basic oxides and oxygen (10.3a core)
Learning Objectives
Iron from the blast furnace contains
Samples of cast iron could be shown, indicating its brittleness and less of a
impurities, most of which are carbon
ringing sound compared with steel.
Impurities are removed from iron (to The conversion of iron into steel may then be discussed, including the
make steel) using a basic oxygen
reasons for the oxygen blast and the purpose of the calcium oxide.
converter
A summary could include relevant clips from a video on the production of
The percentage of carbon in steel is
steel.
controlled by the amount of oxygen
blown into the converter
The oxygen converts sulfur to sulfur
dioxide and carbon to carbon dioxide
or carbon monoxide, which escape
from the converter
Calcium oxide is added to form a
slag by combining with silicon(IV)
oxide and phosphorus(V) oxide,
which have been formed by oxidation
of silicon and phosphorus impurities
in the furnace
Learning Outcomes
Describe how iron is converted into
Video on the production of steel.
steel
Information from books or internet on steelmaking.
Understand the role of basic oxides
and oxygen in steelmaking

Students could find out about what different grades of
steels are used for apart from mild steel and stainless
steel.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.7 Preventing rust, pp.1923

Describe methods of rust prevention, specifically paint and other coatings to exclude oxygen (11 core)
Describe sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series of metals and galvanising as a method of rust prevention (11 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Both water and oxygen are need for
Start by showing examples of rusted materials showing where rusting is
Students could investigate the effect of salt on rusting
iron to rust
greatest, e.g. on the joins of sections of the iron/ steel.
as extension work, or research the areas in everyday
Rusting can be prevented by
Compare powdered iron(III) oxide or tri-iron tetroxide with the colour of
life where rusting is costly and ironwork needs
painting, metal plating, coating with
rust. From the comparison, it might seem that rust is largely iron(III) oxide.
constant maintenance.
plastic or greasing
Students could investigate different methods of rust prevention, e.g. coating More advanced students could identify the parts of an
nails with oil, grease, paint, using zinc foil or putting a pieces of
object where rusting has just started by using a
Galvanising involves covering iron
magnesium in close contact with the nail (see below).
corrosion indicator (see below).
with a layer of zinc. When scratched, Discuss rusting as an oxidation reaction and talk about methods of
the zinc acts as a sacrificial metal (S) protection involving covering the surface of the iron with a layer to prevent
Sacrificial protection involves
oxygen and water from getting in. The protection of the undercarriage of
placing a metal more reactive than
cars with plastic sealant can be used as a context for this discussion.
iron in contact with the steel (S)
A old bicycle could be brought into class to look for the parts which are
In sacrificial protection, the more
most affected by rust, and students could consider why the bicycle
reactive metal corrodes in preference handlebars used to be plated with chromium and why aluminium alloy
to the steel because it loses its
wheels are now used instead of steel wheels.
electrons and forms ions more readily Sacrificial protection can be discussed in terms of galvanising and the
(S)
placing of magnesium or zinc bars in close contact with the steel surfaces
of ships hulls, the legs of oil rigs and on underground steel pipes.
Learning Outcomes
Explain why rusting occurs
Describe how paint and other
coatings prevent rusting
Describe galvanising and sacrificial
protection (S)

Practical work what are the best conditions for rusting? (See p.192 in Chemistry for IGCSE.)
For extension work, the most likely areas where rusting starts can be found by pouring a corrosion indicator on an iron/ steel nail in
a Petri dish. The corrosion indicator is made from 5 g gelatine in 100 water with 0.2 g potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) added. This
detects iron(II) ions, which are formed from the iron before being oxidised to iron(III) ions. The effect should be seen after about half
an hour. Ferrodoxyl rust indicator could also be used.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 14.4 Uses of metals, pp.1767

Name the uses of aluminium in the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and low density, and in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion (10.3b core)
Describe the idea of changing the properties of iron by the controlled use of additives to form steel alloys (10.3b core)
Name the uses of mild steel (car bodies and machinery) and stainless steel (chemical plant and cutlery) (10.3b core)
Name the uses of zinc for galvanising and for making brass (10.3b supplement)
Name the uses of copper related to its properties (electrical wiring and in cooking utensils) (10.3b supplement)
Learning Objectives
The properties of iron are changed by This could be introduced by getting students to carry out a steel survey
Research which elements are added to make different
adding controlled amounts of other
using a magnet to identify where iron and steel are used, e.g. food and
types of steel/ alloy or research how easy it is to
metals or carbon to make steels
drinks cans, vehicles, paper clips. For each use, students should be able to
recycle alloys.
Mild steel is used in building and for suggest the properties of steel which are most important in its choice for
making car bodies
this use.
Stainless steel is used for making
Reinforce ideas about alloys with a discussion about the reasons for
chemical plants and cutlery
increased hardness (in terms of the layers being able to slip) or greater
Aluminium is used in the
resistance to chemical attack due to the nature of the alloying metal, e.g.
manufacture of aircraft because of its chromium.
strength and low density, and for
Students could understand how to analyse the metals present in an alloy by
food containers because of its
using chromatography (see below).
resistance to corrosion
Name the uses of zinc for
galvanising and copper related to its
properties (electrical wiring and
cooking utensils) (S)
Learning Outcomes
Explain why aluminium is used to
make aircraft bodies and food
containers
Describe why different steel alloys
are used for specific purposes
Describe the uses of zinc and copper
and describe how their uses are
related to their properties (S)

Magnets for steel survey.
In order to analyse the metals present in an alloy, the alloy (a coin or piece of brass) is dissolved in aqua regia (3 parts hydrochloric
acid and 1 part nitric acid). This need not been done because of the corrosive nature of the mixture. A diluted portion of the solution
obtained from the reaction mixture can be chromatographed. If students are to carry out the chromatography, it is suggested that a
prepared mixture of ions is used, e.g. a mixture of soluble silver, copper(II), iron(III) and nickel(II) ions. A suitable solvent is 90%
propanol + 5% hydrochloric acid + 5% water. The coloured ions may be made more visible by spraying with concentrated aqueous
ammonia.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.1 Water, pp.1801

Name some uses of water in industry and in the home (11 core)
Describe a chemical test for water (11 core)
Describe in outline the purification of the water supply in terms of filtration and chlorination (11 core)
Learning Objectives
Water is used in the home for
Start by considering ideas of evaporation and condensation in the water
drinking and washing, and in
cycle links with Biology and Geography
industry as a coolant and as a solvent
Students could evaporate measured volumes of different types of water
A test for water is that it turns white
(pure water/ river water/ tapwater and bottled water) and estimate the
(anhydrous) copper sulfate blue
dissolved mass of solid in the water per litre. They could also analyse labels
Water is purified by filtration to
from bottled water and compare the water composition from different
remove solid particles and by
sources.
chlorination to kill bacteria
This is a convenient point to introduce a test for water by using anhydrous
copper(II) sulfate.
Other activities could focus on water use, e.g. keeping a 24-hour water-use
diary to include the quantities used. The average water-use in different
countries could also be analysed.
Purification of water could be discussed with the aid of a simple
experiment using a water filtration column (see below). The role of chlorine
in eradicating water-borne diseases in many countries by chlorinating the
water supplies should also be discussed.
Learning Outcomes
Describe some uses of water in
industry and in the home
Describe a chemical test for water
Describe how water is purified in
terms of filtration and chlorination

More advanced students could study the solubility of
oxygen and mineral salt in water and understand why
these are important for aquatic life.
Additional experiments related to the purification of
the water supply might be:
(i)
to show the effect of aluminium
sulfate or iron(III) sulfate on a
suspension of clay,
(ii)
to demonstrate the use of charcoal
in absorbing chemicals: shake a large
spatulaful of charcoal with a dye
solution, e.g. litmus, then filter off the
charcoal and show that much of the
colour of the dye has been removed.

Students can set up their own water filtration column using bands of successively smaller gravel, sand and coal or chalk dust. They
can test its effectiveness (compared with filter paper) by filtering a mixture of soil and water through the column and comparing the
amount of solids in the filtered sample with the unfiltered sample (by evaporation).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.2 Air, pp.1823
Approximate timing for this section: 30 minutes (excluding demonstration)

Describe the composition of clean air as being approximately 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and the remainder as being a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon
dioxide (11 core)
Describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air by fractional distillation (11 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Clean air is approximately 79%
Students could investigate the composition of the air using text books and
For more advanced students, discuss the burning
nitrogen, 20% oxygen, the remainder internet sources, including the data using bar charts, etc.
candle experiment (where a small lighted candle is
being a mixture of noble gases,
A demonstration of the removal of the reactive part of the air, oxygen, can
put on a cork circle in a gas jar of air standing in a
water vapour and carbon
be shown (see below).
trough of water). Discuss why the volume of air
dioxide
The extraction of nitrogen and oxygen from liquid air is only explained in
decreases in the gas jar considering that carbon
simple terms. Remind students about fractional distillation the main point dioxide gas is given off as well as used up in
Oxygen and nitrogen are separated
to stress being how distillation depends on the boiling points of the
combustion. (This experiment is sometimes said,
by the fractional distillation of liquid
substances in the mixture.
incorrectly, to show that air is 20% oxygen.)
air due to the difference in their
Students could also use text books, CD Roms or the
boiling points (S)
internet to find out what nitrogen and oxygen are
used for.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the composition of the air
The approximate percentage of oxygen in the air may be found by passing air repeatedly over heated copper to form copper oxide
(see p.182 in Chemistry for IGCSE).
Describe the separation of nitrogen
and oxygen from liquid air (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.3 Air pollution, pp.1845

Name the common pollutants in the air as being carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds (11 core)
State the source of each of these pollutants: carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances, sulfur dioxide from the combustion of
fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds leading to acid rain (11 core)
State the adverse effect of common pollutants on buildings and on health (11 core)
Learning Objectives
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas Students could be put into groups. Each student does research on a
More advanced students could learn about the effect
formed by the incomplete
particular pollutant gas in the air (for homework) and then reports back to
of carbon monoxide on the red blood cells in the
combustion of carbon-containing
the group. Specific questions need to be asked, e.g. what is the formula of
body, bonding to the iron in haemoglobin to prevent
compounds
the pollutant? what is the source of the pollutant and what problems does it
oxygen binding.
The source of acid rain is the sulfur
cause?
Most governments monitor and publish data about air
present in fossil fuels which burns to
The presence of carbon monoxide in the air can be linked not only to the
quality some of this information is available on the
form sulfur dioxide an acidic oxide
smelting of ores but also to central heating boilers where they have not
internet. Students can analyse this data to show
which dissolves in rainwater
been serviced and incomplete combustion is occurring.
whereabouts air pollution is highest and to compare
Acid rain kills trees and acidifies
Mention that the reduction of lead content in petrol is a success story driven air quality in different seasons and over several years.
lakes leading to the death of fish. It
by some governments subsidising unleaded petrol, but that other sources
Less advanced students could make a poster about air
also erodes buildings made from
such as old formula paints also contain lead and are gradually being phased pollution and its effects on the environment and on
carbonate rocks
out.
health.
Lead pollution from petrol paint and
The link between the non-metal oxides sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
old water pipes can hinder brain
and acid rain can then be explained. The acidic nature of sulfur dioxide can
development especially in children
be demonstrated using litmus paper.
The problems associated with acid rain can be demonstrated (action of
sulfuric acid on limestone and on metals).
Summarise with clips from a video on acid rain.
Learning Outcomes
Describe some sources of the carbon A solution of sulfur dioxide (made by the action of sulphuric acid on a sulfite) can be tested for acidity and compared with the
monoxide, lead compounds and
acidity of the weaker acid carbonic acid which is naturally present in rainwater. A solution of carbonic acid can be obtained simply
sulfur dioxide found in polluted air
by using a bottle of carbonated water).
State the adverse effects of each of
these pollutants
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.4 The nitrogen oxide problem, pp.1867

Name the common pollutants of the air as being oxides of nitrogen (11 core)
State the source of (each of these) pollutants (11 core)
State the adverse affect of common pollutants on buildings and on health (11 core)
Describe and explain the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car exhausts and their catalytic removal (11 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Nitrogen oxides are formed in car
Introduce the sources and effects of nitrogen oxides.
More advanced students could research into the
engines by nitrogen and oxygen
Demonstrate that when nitrogen dioxide reacts with water an acidic
nature of smog and how it is formed.
reacting under high pressures and
solution is formed (see below).
temperatures
The combination of nitrogen and oxygen in the car engine under high
Nitrogen oxides can cause smog and
pressure and temperature can then be discussed. This leads on to the
lead to breathing difficulties. They
purpose of the catalytic converter for removing nitrogen oxides and carbon
also contribute to acid rain.
monoxide. The idea of this section builds on ideas of redox reactions from
previous sections.
Nitrogen oxides and carbon
Link the honeycomb or sponge structure of the catalytic converter to the
monoxide can be removed from car
need to expose a large surface area for the catalyst to react, as well as
engine exhausts by passing them
possible for a good rate of reaction.
through a catalytic converter (S)
If available, show video clips relating to the nitrogen oxide problem and the
In a catalytic converter, carbon
role of catalytic converters in reducing the harmful emissions.
monoxide is oxidised to carbon
dioxide and nitrogen oxides are
reduced to nitrogen (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe some sources of nitrogen
An acidic solution of nitrogen dioxide can be formed by bubbling the nitrogen dioxide from the decomposition of magnesium
oxides in the atmosphere
nitrate into 2 cm depth of water to which some universal indicator solution has been added.
Describe the adverse effects of
nitrogen oxides
Describe and explain how catalytic
converters remove oxides of nitrogen
(S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.5 Global warming, pp.1889

State that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases and may contribute to climate change (11 core)
State the sources of methane, including decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals (11 core)
Learning Objectives
Methane and carbon dioxide are
Introduce the greenhouse effect with the analogy of the greenhouse
As extension work, students could look at news
greenhouse gases
trapping heat.
reports and information on the internet about the
Methane is produced from rice paddy Then explain that the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere also traps the heat
melting of the ice sheets, especially those at the
fields and as a result of digestion in
when it is reflected from the Earth.
North Pole.
cows and sheep
If available, show a computer simulation of the greenhouse effect.
More advanced students could comment critically
Greenhouse gases cause an increase
Relate the increase in carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere to a
about data relating carbon dioxide concentration in
in global warming by absorbing heat
possible increase in global warming, but figures of temperature of the
the atmosphere to increased global warming.
energy radiated from the Earths
atmosphere against concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are
surface
not clear cut show these from figures obtained from the internet.
An increase in global warming may
Students should be able to understand the possible effects of increased
lead to climate change, melting of
global warming.
polar ice and a rise in sea levels
A summary could include video clips / clips from news reports about global
warming and climate change.
Learning Outcomes
Be able to state the names of some
As an analogy of the greenhouse effect, a demonstration could be set up of a piece of glass placed over a cardboard box and
greenhouse gases
comparing the temperature inside with a similar box without the glass. The box should be put out in the Sun for half an hour and the
Describe the sources of these
temperature in each box then measured. The effect is most obvious when the air temperature is not too warm and not too cold.
greenhouse gases
Describe how greenhouse gases may
contribute to climate change
Chemistry for IGCSE, 15.6 The carbon cycle, pp.1901

Describe the formation of carbon dioxide as a product of the complete combustion of carbon containing substances, as a product of respiration and as a product of the
reaction between an acid and a carbonate (11 core)
Describe the carbon cycle in simple terms to include the processes of combustion, respiration and photosynthesis (11 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The carbon cycle keeps the
Start by summarising the main processes that put carbon dioxide into the
Discuss approaches that governments are taking
concentration of carbon dioxide in
atmosphere, including respiration and combustion of fossil fuels. Then use
round the world to combat climate change.
the atmosphere fairly constant (S)
flow charts to show processes occurring which absorb carbon dioxide from More advanced students can include the uptake and
The amount of carbon dioxide
the atmosphere. Students should know the equations for respiration and
release of carbon dioxide into the oceans in their
produced in respiration is balanced
photosynthesis.
discussions. The solubility of carbon dioxide in water
by the amount absorbed in
Students could make the carbon cycle for themselves by arranging the
and the increased warming of the oceans can also
photosynthesis (S)
various carbon sinks and sources in a logical fashion on the page and
affect climate change, because the seas are such as
If we continue to burn large amounts drawing the arrows showing carbon flow in the correct directions.
large sink for carbon dioxide.
of fossil fuels we might unbalance
Les advanced students could make a poster of the
the carbon cycle which will lead to
carbon cycle to include drawings representing sinks
increased global warming (S)
and sources.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the carbon cycle (S)
Posters of the carbon cycle.
Describe the factors that regulate the
amount of carbon in the atmosphere
(S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 9.1 Reversible reactions, pp.11011

Describe the idea that some chemical reactions can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions limited to the effect of heat on hydrated salts (7.2 core)
Concept of equilibrium (7.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
In a reversible reaction, the products
Students have already used anhydrous copper(II) sulfate to test for water.
Students can use matching pair cards to link
can react to form the original
They now see that this is a reversible reaction by heating hydrated copper
statements about equilibrium with the correct
reactants again
sulfate then when cool, adding water.
answers.
When a coloured hydrated salt is
A further series of reversible reactions can be demonstrated (see below).
Heated, it loses its water of
The idea of an equilibrium as a reaction in balance is then built up, where
crystallisation and changes colour.
the concentration of the reactants and products remain constant unless the
Adding water to the anhydrous salt
equilibrium is interfered with.
reverses this reaction.
The characteristics of equilibrium are then discussed. The necessity for a
closed system can be demonstrated by repeating the experiment on heating
An equilibrium reaction can only
ammonium chloride (see below).
take place in a closed system (S)
At equilibrium, the forward reaction
happens at the same rate as the
reverse reaction (S)
At equilibrium, the concentrations of
the reactants and products remain
constant (S)
Learning Outcomes
Explain the term reversible reaction Other simple reversible reactions that can be demonstrated are:
(i)
Heating a little ammonium chloride in a stoppered test tube to form ammonia and hydrogen chloride. On cooling
Understand the concept of
the ammonia and hydrogen chloride recombine.,
equilibrium (S)
(ii)
Adding iodine to sodium hydroxide. The iodine is decolourised. When excess acid is added, the reaction is
reversed and iodine reforms.
The necessity for a closed system can be shown by repeating experiment (i), but heating the ammonium chloride slowly in a fume
cupboard in a warm crucible so that the vapours escape.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 9.2 Shifting the equilibrium, pp.11213
Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes (with demonstrations)

Predict the effect of changing the conditions (temperature and pressure) on other reversible reactions (7.2 supplement)
Learning Objectives
In an equilibrium reaction, increasing Introduced the shifting of equilibrium by altering concentration by
Students could look at equations with unfamiliar
the concentration of a reactant
demonstrating the effect of acid and alkali on the sodium chromate/
reactions to determine the effect of pressure and
moves the reaction in the direction of dichromate equilibrium (see below).
temperature on the equilibrium, including some
more products (S)
The iodine monochloride chlorine / iodine trichloride equilibrium can be reactions in which all the products and reactants are
Increasing the pressure on an
demonstrated or discussed (see below).
gases.
equilibrium reaction moves the
The effect of changing the amount of the products or reactants on
reaction in the direction of a lower
equilibrium is then discussed.
number of gas molecules (S)
The effect of changing pressure and temperature can also be discussed in
For an endothermic equilibrium
terms of the reaction trying to overcome the effect of the change to the
reaction, increasing the temperature
reaction.
moves the reaction in favour of the
As a summary, video clips or computer simulations describing the effect of
products. If the reaction is
changing concentration, pressure and temperature on an equilibrium
exothermic, the reaction moves in
reaction could be shown.
favour of the reactants (S)
Learning Outcomes
Predict how changing the
Add a few drops of acid to a concentrated solution of (yellow) sodium chromate it turns orange (dichromate). Now add a few
concentration of reactants or products drops of alkali it turns back yellow. This can be repeated several times.
alters a given equilibrium reaction
For the iodine monochloride and chlorine / iodine trichloride equilibrium, chlorine is produced by the action of hydrochloric acid on
(S)
bleaching powder or sodium chlorate(I). The chlorine is passed through water (to remove hydrogen chloride) and then through silica
Predict how changing the pressure
gel to dry it. The apparatus is shown on p.112 of Chemistry for IGCSE, but it is cumbersome to set up in a fume cupboard and it is
alters a given equilibrium reaction
probably better to talk through the experiment or find a video clip of the experiment.
(S)
Video clips or computer simulations of equilibrium showing particles shuttling back and forth.
Predict how an increase or decrease
in temperature shifts the position of
equilibrium (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 16.2 Making ammonia, pp.1989

Describe the essential conditions for the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process, including the sources of the hydrogen and nitrogen i.e. hydrocarbons or steam and
air (11 supplement)
Learning Objectives
The raw materials for the Haber
process for ammonia manufacture are
air (for the nitrogen) and ethene (or
steam + methane) (for the hydrogen
(S)
The conditions used in the Haber
process are 200 atmosheres pressure,
a temperature of 450oC and an iron
catalyst (S)
A compromise temperature is used in
the Haber process, which gives a
good yield of ammonia at a fast
enough rate of reaction (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the sources of the raw
material used to make ammonia (S)
Describe and explain the essential
conditions used in the Haber process
(S)

Start by explaining why the manufacture of ammonia is so important
More advanced students could research into what the
nowadays, i.e. ammonia is used as a source of nitrogen for plants because
important factors were that led to the development of
nitrogen gas is inert and denitrifying bacteria remove nitrogen from the
the HaberBosch process in Germany at the
soil.
beginning of the last century.
The equation for ammonia synthesis and the raw materials used for the
Other aspects of ammonia synthesis that could be
process could then be discussed.
discussed include recycling the mixture of hydrogen
Video clips or computer simulations describing the effect of changing
and nitrogen and the function of the catalysts in terms
concentration, pressure and temperature on the equilibrium reaction could
of lowering the energy demand so saving fuel.
be shown.
The importance of the catalyst can then be introduced.
Students could examine the effect of temperature and pressure on the yield
of ammonia and draw conclusions about the best conditions for ammonia
synthesis taking into account their knowledge of reaction rates.
As a summary, students could draw a flow diagram for the synthesis of
ammonia starting from the raw materials.
Video clips or computer simulations of ammonia synthesis showing particles shuttling back and forth, the whole process of
ammonia manufacture or the reaction happening in the converter are useful for students to realise that the process is not static.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 16.1 Fertilisers, pp.1967
Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (excluding making fertiliser)

Describe the need for nitrogen- , phosphorus- and potassium-containing fertilisers (11 core)
Describe the displacement of ammonia from its salts (11 core)
Learning Objectives
Fertilisers are added to the soil to
Start by discussing the need for fertilisers.
Further work could be done on the effect of different
replace the essential elements lost
Suitable video clips could be shown about the importance of fertilisers.
minerals on plant growth. There are links here to
when plants are harvested
Students could look at the labels from fertiliser bags to see the elements
discussing plant growth under a variety of conditions.
Fertilisers also increase the yield of
most commonly present. Alternatively, they could look at labels on the side Photographs could be shown of plants grown lacking
crop plants by providing minerals
of bottles or packets of plant food for gardeners.
particular elements, especially nitrogen, phosphorus
needed for growth
Students could then make a fertiliser such as ammonium nitrate or
and potassium.
NPK fertilisers contain nitrogen,
ammonium sulfate from aqueous ammonia using the titration method and
There is opportunity for revision on calculating the
phosphorus and potassium
the appropriate acid and then crystallise it (see below).
percentage of nitrogen in a variety of fertilisers to see
Ammonia is displaced from its salts
The basic flow chart of making fertilisers in a fertiliser plant could then be
which has the greatest percentage by mass of
under alkaline conditions
discussed.
nitrogen.
Revise the effect of alkalis on ammonium salts releasing ammonia and
relate this to putting lime on the soil (which could lead to loss of ammonia
from ammonium salt added as fertilisers).
Learning Outcomes
Describe why we need to use
Students could make ammonium nitrate fertiliser by a neutralisation reaction between nitric acid and ammonium nitrate (see p.197
fertilisers
in Chemistry for IGCSE).
To be able to state the major
components in fertilisers
Describe the displacement of
ammonia from ammonium salts
Chemistry for IGCSE , 16.3 Sulfur and sulfuric acid, pp. 2001

Name some sources of sulfur (12 supplement)
Name the use of sulfur in the manufacture of sulfuric acid (12 supplement)
Name the uses of sulfur dioxide as a bleach in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper and as a food preservative (by killing bacteria) (12 supplement)
Describe the properties of dilute sulfuric acid as a typical acid (12 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Sulfur is used for vulcanising rubber
Samples of sulfur could be shown and its combustion in air or oxygen to
More advanced students could write equations for
and making sulfur dioxide (S)
form sulfur dioxide (in a fume cupboard). Moist potassium dichromate
hydrogensulfite formation when sulfuric acid is
Sulfur dioxide is used to bleach
paper placed above the burning sulfur will turn green.
limiting. They could also study concentrated sulfuric
wood pulp and as a food preservative The uses of sulfur and sulfur dioxide can then be introduced.
acid as an oxidising agent.
(because it kills bacteria) (S)
Students could look at a selection of food labels (especially preserved
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid which
meats and wine) to see if sulfites are present. Sulfites release sulfur dioxide
exhibits typical reactions of acids
in acidic conditions and hence kill bacteria.
with metals, metal oxides and metal
The typical acidic reactions of dilute sulfuric acid could be demonstrated,
carbonates (S)
or students could do these themselves as simple test tube experiments (see
below).
Learning Outcomes
Be able to state some sources of
sulfur (S)
Be able to state some uses of sulfur
and sulfur dioxide (S)
Describe the properties of sulfuric
acid (S)

The typical acidic reactions of dilute sulfuric acid could include:
(i)
the reaction of sulfuric acid with magnesium (and testing for hydrogen released),
(ii)
the reaction of sulfuric acid with a solution of calcium hydroxide (to give a precipitate of calcium sulfate),
(iii)
the reaction of sulfuric acid with sodium carbonate (to release carbon dioxide).
Chemistry for IGCSE, 16.4 Manufacturing sulfuric acid, pp. 2023

Describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the Contact process, including essential conditions (12 supplement)
Learning Objectives
In the Contact process, sulfur is first
Start by explaining why the manufacture of sulfuric acid is so important
More advanced students could study other aspects of
burnt to form sulfur dioxide (S)
nowadays, i.e. in the production of fertilisers and a wide variety of
the Contact process, such as the effect of catalyst
Sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfur
chemicals.
change of the functioning of the plant, the reasons
trioxide at 450oC and atmospheric
The main points about the Contact process could then be discussed,
why sulfur trioxide is not simply added to water to
pressure in the presence of a catalyst
including the raw materials and the importance of the catalyst. The sulfur
form sulfuric acid and the comparative use of
of vanadium(V) oxide (S)
dioxide / trioxide equilibrium could be accessed by showing video clips or
different sulfur sources as raw materials.
The sulfur trioxide is absorbed into
computer simulations describing the effect of changing the pressure and
98% sulfuric acid to form oleum
temperature on the equilibrium reaction.
(which is then mixed with a little
This leads on to a discussion about why high pressure not used (although
water to form more acid) (S)
theoretically it would be beneficial).
Students could examine graphs of temperature and pressure on the yield of
sulfur trioxide and draw conclusions about the best conditions for synthesis,
taking into account their knowledge of reaction rates.
The formation of oleum and its dilution to produce 98% sulfuric acid could
also be discussed.
As a summary, students could draw a flow diagram for the manufacture of
sulfuric acid starting from the raw materials.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the manufacture of sulfuric Video clips or computer simulations of the sulfur dioxide / sulfur trioxide equilibrium showing particles shuttling back and forth, the
acid by the Contact process (S)
whole process of sulfuric acid manufacture or the reaction happening in the converter are useful for students to realise that the
Describe and explain the essential
process is not static.
conditions used in the Contact
process (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 18.1 Alkanes, pp.21819

Name and draw the structures of methane and ethane (14.1 core)
Describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being generally unreactive except in terms of burning (14.4 core)
Describe the bonding in alkanes (14.4 core)
Describe substitution reactions of alkanes with chlorine (14.4 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Alkanes are covalently bonded
Start by revising the structure and bonding of alkanes.
Students could plot the melting points and boiling
The alkanes show a trend in their
Students could build three-dimensional models of the alkanes and revise
points of the straight-chained alkanes against the
physical properties
the concept of isomers.
number of carbon atoms in the chain. The boiling
Alkanes are generally unreactive
The generally unreactive nature of alkanes could then be discussed,
points of isomers of some of the compounds can also
except for combustion
followed by the two reactions that the students have to know.
be compared with the straight-chained compounds of
Combustion can be dealt with in more general terms, and the fire triangle
the same relative molecular mass. The data can be
gathered from data books or on-line databases. There
Alkanes do not react with chlorine in could be introduced. The difference in combustion products in complete
and incomplete combustion should also be stressed.
is an opportunity for spreadsheet work here from
the dark but react in the light by a
The
reaction
of
alkanes
with
chlorine
in
the
light
can
then
be
discussed.
which a graph can be generated. The results could be
substitution reaction where chlorine
This can be modelled using modelling kits in terms of bond breaking and
discussed in terms of relative molecular mass or
replaces one or more of the hydrogen
bond making of particular bonds only. A relevant demonstration experiment surface area exposed for weak intermolecular forces.
atoms (S)
of bromine on hexane may also be demonstrated (see below). This also
emphasises the similarly in the reactions of the halogens.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the properties of alkanes
Describe the bonding in alkanes
Describe the reaction of alkanes with
chlorine (S)

Organic chemistry modelling kits. If molecular modelling kits are not available, students can use cocktail sticks or drinking straws
for the bonds and Plasticine or (modelling) clay for the atoms.
For the demonstration of the reaction of halogens with alkanes put 5 cm3 of hexane in a test tube, then add several drops of 2%
bromine in an inert solvent. Loosely stopper the tube and leave it in the sunlight. Prepare another tube in the same way, but leave it
in the dark. The bromine will react in the light and will be decolourised after a time, but the tube in the dark will show no change.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 18.2 Cracking alkanes, pp. 2201

Describe the manufacture of alkenes and of hydrogen by cracking (14.5 core)
Learning Objectives
The demand for some petroleum
Start by comparing the supply and demand charts for petroleum fractions.
fractions is greater than the supply
The question then arises how can we get more of the fractions we need
Cracking is the breaking of longbut not waste the fractions of which we have excess?
chained alkanes into alkenes and
The cracking of alkanes can then be introduced by way of a laboratory
shorter-chained alkanes
experiment or demonstration in which paraffin oil is cracked to form
Hydrogen can be made by cracking
alkenes (mainly ethene) and shorter chained hydrocarbons (see below).
ethane
Students can make observations and interpret the experiments in terms of
Cracking is carried out at a high
the states of the products, i.e. small molecules boil at lower temperature
temperature and a catalyst is often
than larger ones so the conversion of liquid to gas (plus liquid which
used, e.g. aluminium oxide
condenses in the tube) suggests cracking has occurred.
Students should be given the opportunity to write possible equations for
cracking from a variety of long-chained alkanes.
If suitable video material or computer simulations are available about
cracking, these could be shown at this stage.
The industrial process of cracking can now be introduced: points to
emphasise are the complex nature of the catalyst, the need to clean the
catalyst and the continuous nature of the process.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the manufacture of alkenes
by cracking
Understand the importance of
cracking

Students could compare the laboratory experiment on
cracking with the industrial process and comment on
similarities and differences.
Students could test the gas collected in the test tube
with aqueous bromine (see section 18.3) to confirm
that it is an alkene.

The laboratory cracking of alkanes may be demonstrated as shown on p.220 of Chemistry for IGCSE. Students can do this
experiment, but it does require considerable skill to set up and there are safety issues with suckback. Large margarine tubs can be
used in place of troughs.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 18.3 Alkenes, pp. 2223

Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons from molecular structures and by reaction with aqueous bromine (14.5 core)
Name and draw the structures of alkenes containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule (14.1 supplement)
Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with bromine, hydrogen and steam (14.5 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain
Start by introducing the terms saturated and unsaturated in terms of
Students could test various vegetable oils for
one or more C=C double bonds (or
molecular structures. This can be put into the context of healthy eating by
unsaturation as well as melted animal fats (see
triple bonds) but saturated
reference to saturated and unsaturated fats.
below).
hydrocarbons only have single bonds The difference between saturated and unsaturated compounds in terms of
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
structure can be reinforced by students building models of alkenes and
decolourise aqueous bromine but the
comparing their structures with alkanes.
aqueous bromine remains an orange
Students can then carry out a test to see whether a compound is saturated or
colour with saturated hydrocarbons
unsaturated (see below).
Alkenes have a C=C functional
The addition reactions of the alkanes can then be discussed with the help of
group
model making.
The redox nature of the catalytic addition of hydrogen to ethene can be
Know the structure of the first four
explained in terms of addition of hydrogen being a reduction reaction. This
members of the alkene homologous
reaction can be put into the context of the hydrogenation of unsaturated
series (S)
fatty acids to make margarine.
Alkenes undergoes addition reactions
with bromine (to form
dihalogenoalkanes), hydrogen (to
form alkanes and with steam (to form
alcohols) (S)
Learning Outcomes
Distinguish between saturated and
Students can compare the action of aqueous bromine on cyclohexene and cyclohexane in separate tubes. Add a small amount of
unsaturated hydrocarbons from
cyclohexene to a test tube, then add a few drops of aqueous bromine, stopper the tube and shake (see p.222 in Chemistry for
molecular structures and reaction
IGCSE). The aqueous bromine decolourises. Repeat using cyclohexane.
with aqueous bromine
Students could also test various vegetable oils and melted animal fats for unsaturation. A sample of the oil is dissolved in a
hydrocarbon solvent and bromine dissolved in an organic solvent is added with a dropping pipette or from a burette drop by drop
Describe the addition reactions of
(shaking the tube all the time). Count the number of drops needed for the colour of the bromine to just become visible.
alkenes with bromine, steam and
Organic chemistry modelling kits. If molecular modelling kits are not available students, can use cocktail sticks or drinking straws
hydrogen (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 18.4 Alcohols, pp. 224 5

Describe the formation of ethanol by fermentation and by the catalytic addition of steam to ethene (14.6 core)
Describe the properties of ethanol in terms of burning (14.6 core)
Name the uses of ethanol as a solvent and as a fuel (14.6 core)
Name and draw the structures of alcohols containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule (14.1 supplement)
Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol by fermentation and with acidified potassium manganate( VII) (14.7 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Alcohols have an OH functional
Alcohols, especially ethanol, can be introduced in terms of their uses as
More advanced students could study the isomers of
group
solvents for perfumes and cosmetics there is a useful link to diffusion
alcohols (position isomerism of the OH group).
Ethanol can be made by the addition
here. The relatively non-toxic nature and ease of evaporation of ethanol
Students could also discuss the importance of ethanol
of steam to ethene in the presence of
increases its usefulness as a fast-drying solvent in glues.
as a renewable fuel and its importance in countries
a catalyst
Remind students that one way of making ethanol is by the catalytic addition where sugar cane is a large crop, e.g. Brazil.
Ethanol can be made by fermentation of steam to ethene.
Ethanol is used as a solvent and as a
Models of different alcohols may then be made.
fuel
The combustion of alcohols has been studied in the section on fuels, but the
equations could be written here.
Ethanoic acid can be made by the
The oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid using acidified potassium
oxidation of ethanol with acidified
manganate(VII) might be demonstrated (see below). The oxidation of
potassium manganate(VII) using a
ethanol could also be put in the context of the spoilage of wine by
method called refluxing (S)
oxidation, including bacterial action.
Ethanoic acid can also be made by
The formation of esters could also be mentioned here. This is discussed,
the oxidation of ethanol in a
however, in section 18.5.
fermentation reaction (S)
Learning Outcomes
Describe the formation of ethanol by Organic chemistry modelling kits. If molecular modelling kits are not available students can use cocktail sticks or drinking straws
fermentation and by the addition of
steam to ethene
The oxidation of ethanol can be carried out as described on p.225 in Chemistry for IGCSE.
Describe the uses of ethanol
structures of alcohols with up to four
carbon atoms (S)
Describe how to make ethanoic acid
by oxidation of ethanol (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 20.4 Fermentation, pp.2445

Describe the formation of ethanol by fermentation (14.6 core)
Describe the effect of enzymes on the speed of reaction (7.1 core)
Learning Objectives
An enzyme is a biological catalyst
This section can be introduced by reference to enzymes as catalysts and
If there is time, you could demonstrate the distillation
which is protein in nature
that enzymes are protein catalysts present in living things.
of ethanol from the yeast suspension.
The fermentation of glucose to
Students may carry out an experiment to show the effect of enzymes as
Students could study the effect of temperature on
carbon dioxide and ethanol is
catalysts (see below).
enzyme activity (or get the information from books
catalysed by enzymes in yeast
From this, describe yeast as an organism which has catalysts which break
or the internet) so they have an awareness of the
Fermentation occurs in the absence
down glucose into alcohol by a complex series of reactions in the absence
limitations of industrial production using
of oxygen
of oxygen. This process is called fermentation.
fermentation.
Too high a temperature (above 40oC) A demonstration of fermentation can be done within half an hour if the
More advanced students could be asked to compare
will prevent fermentation because the yeast is already in suspension (see below). Students should then be asked
the two methods of production of ethanol
enzymes will not work
how (relatively) pure alcohol can be separated from the reaction mixture.
(fermentation and catalytic addition of steam) and
Awareness of the limitations of industrial production since no high
describe the advantages and disadvantages of each
temperature can be used due to the labile nature of enzymes.
method.
Learning Outcomes
Describe enzymes as proteins that
A simple experiment on enzyme catalysis can be carried out using a fixed volume (20 cm3 of 20 volume hydrogen peroxide) and
act as biological catalysts
adding (approximately) the same amount of different potential biological catalysts, e.g. chopped liver, chopped potato, chopped
Describe the fermentation of simple
celery or horseradish. The volume of oxygen released after a fixed time can be measured. Alternatively, if the reaction is done in
sugars
measuring cylinders with the catalyst in the bottom and a few drops of washing up liquid, the height of the foam produced on the
addition of the hydrogen peroxide gives an indication of the effectiveness of the catalyst.
Compare two methods of producing
The demonstration of fermentation can be carried out as shown on p.244 in Chemistry for IGCSE.
ethanol: fermentation and the
reaction of steam with ethene (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 18.5 Carboxylic acids, pp.2267
Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including practicals)

Name and draw the structures of (carboxylic) acids containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule (14.1 supplement)
Describe ethanoic acid as a typical weak acid (14.7 supplement)
Describe the reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol to give an ester (ethyl ethanoate) (14.7 supplement)
Learning Objectives
Carboxylic acids have a COOH
Students could be introduced to carboxylic acids through making models,
Students could research the uses of different
functional group
concentrating especially on the structure of the COOH group. The
carboxylic acids.
importance of ethanoic acid in vinegar and as a solvent should also be
Different groups of students could make different
Ethanoic acid is a typical weak acid,
explained.
esters to demonstrate the range of odours. They could
reacting slowly with metals and
Students could carry out test tube experiments to show that ethanoic acid is also find out which esters are responsible for
carbonates (S)
a typical (weak) acid (see below).
particular flavourings.
Know the structures of the first four
The esterification of ethanoic acid using ethanol can be demonstrated or the
members of the carboxylic acid
students could carry this out for themselves. Only minute amounts of
homologous series (S)
chemicals are required (see below).
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to
Students can make models of esters to help them understand the nature of
form an ester called ethyl ethanoate
the ester linkage.
(S)
Following the experiment, students should be able to smell the sweet sickly
Heat and an acid catalyst are required smell of the ester produced. This can lead to a discussion of the use of
for esterification (S)
esters in food flavourings and as cosmetic additives.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the properties of ethanoic
acid in terms of acid strength and
reaction with ethanol (S)
Students could carry out simple test tube experiments on ethanoic acid to include:
(i)
the (slow) reaction with magnesium (and testing for hydrogen released),
structures of carboxylic acids with up
(ii)
the reaction with a solution of sodium hydroxide (to neutralise it),
to four carbon atoms (S)
(iii)
the reaction with sodium carbonate (to release carbon dioxide slowly).
For the esterification reaction (see p.227 in Chemistry for IGCSE). Only tiny amounts of ethanol and ethanoic acid are required.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 19.1 What are polymers? pp. 2301

Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation of monomer units (14.5 core)
Describe macromolecules in terms of large molecules built up from small units (monomers), different macromolecules having different units and/ or different linkages (14.8
supplement)
Name some typical uses of plastics and man-made fibres (14.8a supplement)
Describe the pollution problems caused by non-biodegradable plastics (14.8a supplement)
Learning Objectives
Polymers are long-chained molecules Students could be introduced to polymers by looking at a collection of
There are opportunities to display work about the use
which are formed when simple
plastic products showing the international symbols for recycling and
of polymers for clothes, packaging and building.
molecules called monomers
identifying which polymers used for particular products.
More advanced students could work out approximate
combine
The idea of polymer structure in terms of the simple bead model can then
number of monomers in a polymer chain knowing the
In addition polymerisation, the
be introduced.
overall relative molecular mass and the relative
double bond between the carbon atoms A kinaesthetic activity can be used to model polymerisation with students
molecular mass of the monomer. They could also find
changes to a single bond and the
holding hand in pairs (or with paper between the hands) and then opening
out about the arrangement of polymer fibres in
monomers join together
out to join and form a polymer.
bundles in different types of poly(ethene).
Pollution problems with polymers can then be discussed. These could
Students could carry out a polymer survey to collect,
Nylon is used to make ropes,
include economic barriers to collection sorting and processing of waste
classify and weigh a weeks discarded plastic waste
poly(ethene) is used to make bowls
from recycling, the environmental effects of burning polymers and
for one or several households.
and plastic bags, and terylene is used problems with filling up landfill as well as the litter problem including
to make clothing (S)
blocking drains and harming wildlife.
Non-biodegradable plastics are
Finish by showing video clips about polymer recycling and disposal.
polluting because: if burnt toxic
fumes are produced, if thrown away
they cause a litter problem and build
up in the environment, if recycled
there are addition expenses (transport
and other energy costs) (S)
Learning Outcomes
Understand the terms
Collection of plastic products with international recycling symbols.
macromolecule, monomer and
Video clips of polymer uses, disposal/ recycling and polymer formation.
addition polymerisation with
reference to the formation of
poly(ethene)
Be able to state some uses of plastics

and man-made fibres (S)
Describe the pollution problems
caused by non-biodegradable plastics
(S)
Chemistry for IGCSE ,19.2 More about polymer structure, pp. 2323

Deduce the structure of a polymer product from a given alkene and vice versa (14.8a supplement)
Learning Objectives
The structure of an addition polymer The main point in this section is the writing of addition polymer and
Students could research the uses of addition polymers
can be drawn by linking the
monomer structures clearly and correctly.
and relate their structures to their uses.
monomers and changing the double
Start with the structure of ethene and poly(ethene) and progress to more
bond to a single bond (S)
complex structures with side chains.
The shorthand structure of a polymer Students can make models of polymers and join them together to make
can be drawn using square brackets
polymers.
(S)
The kinaesthetic activity done in the last section can be modified to model
Know how to draw the structure of a more complex polymers.
monomer from a given addition
Demonstrate the formation of an addition polymer e.g. poly(phenylethene)
polymer (S)
(see below).
Learning Outcomes
Deduce the structure of a polymer
from a given alkene (S)
Deduce the structure of a monomer
Poly(phenylethene) can be prepared by mixing 5 cm3 of phenylethene with 0.2 g of di(dodecanoyl) peroxide in a test tube. The test
from a given addition polymer (S)
tube is placed in boiling water for hr (in a fume cupboard). On cooling the polymer is seen to be very viscous or may even set
hard.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 19.3 Polyamides and polyesters, pp.2345

Describe the formation of nylon (a polyamide) and terylene (a polyester) by condensation polymerisation (using block diagrams as shown in the syllabus) (14.8a
supplement)
Learning Objectives
In a condensation reaction the
Start by showing examples of nylon clothing, fishing line and ropes if
Extension work could focus on the relative merits of
monomers join to form a polymer
available.
nylon and terylene used as clothing compared with
and a small molecule is eliminated
The formation of nylon can be demonstrated by the reaction of a diacid
natural material (wool- and cotton-based fibres).
(given off) (S)
chloride with a diamine (nylon rope trick) (see below).
Students could also investigate the modern method of
Polyamides, e.g. nylon, have a
Alternatively students can gently melt nylon granules on a tin lid in a fume
making nylon.
CONH linkage (an amide linkage)
cupboard and draw out a fibre using a glass rod.
(S)
There are opportunities for model making here.
Polyesters, e.g. terylene, have a
Stress the CONH linkage for polyamides.
COO linkage (an ester linkage)
Polyesters can be introduced by showing examples of terylene clothing.
(S)
The formation of a polyester can be demonstrated by making cellulose
acetate (see below).
For both nylon and terylene, simple models can be made to show the
principles of condensation polymerisation with the reacting groups at either
end. And just a block of Plasticine or modelling clay in the middle.
Learning Outcomes
Understand the terms polyamide
Samples of materials made from nylon and terylene.
and polyester (S)
For the nylon rope trick, put a solution of 0.7 g of hexane-1,6,-diamine in a small beaker and carefully layer on top of it 0.5 cm3 of
Be able to describe condensation
decanedioyl dichloride in 15 cm3 of hydrocarbon solvent. The nylon formed at the interface can be carefully pulled out with
polymerisation (S)
tweezers to form a long narrow tube.
Describe the formation of nylon and
To make cellulose acetate, first make a mixture of 20 cm3 ethanoic acid + 5 cm3 ethanoic anhydride + 2 drops of concentrated
terylene (S)
sulfuric acid. Put a small tuft of cotton wool in the mixture and leave for 24 hours. After 24 hours, pour the solution formed into 150
Distinguish between addition
cm3 of water, when cellulose acetate precipitates.
polymers and condensation polymers Organic chemistry modelling kits (or substitute) and modelling clay.
by their structure and from their
monomers (S)
Chemistry for IGCSE, 20.1 Natural macromolecules, pp. 2389

Name proteins, fats and carbohydrates as the main constituents of food (14.8b supplement)
Describe proteins as possessing the same (amide) linkages as nylon but with different units (14.8b supplement)
Describe the structure of proteins as shown in the syllabus (14.8b supplement)
Describe the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids (14.8b supplement)
Learning Objectives
Proteins, fats and carbohydrates are
The label on food packaging could be used as an introduction to a
the main nutrients in food (S)
discussion of natural macromolecules as foodstuffs.
Proteins have the same amide
The similarity and differences of proteins with nylon can then be
linkages as nylon but the units are
introduced through models or pictures of each.
different (S)
Note that structures of individual amino acids are not required.
Know the structure of proteins as
The hydrolysis of proteins can be demonstrated, but it does take a long time
shown in the syllabus (S)
so it is best to refer to the demonstration on p.239 in Chemistry for IGCSE.
Proteins can be hydrolysed to amino
The separation of amino acids by chromatography and their identification
acids by heating with hydrochloric
after spraying with a locating agent (ninhydrin) can then be discussed (see
acid (S)
p.243 in Chemistry for IGCSE for an example).
Learning Outcomes
Be able to state the main constituents
of food (S)
Describe the structure of proteins in
simple terms (S)
Describe the hydrolysis of proteins to
form amino acids (S)

Students could study food packaging labels in more
detail and identify the composition of various foods
in terms of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and
analyse healthy eating claims on labels.
More advanced students could study the structures of
a few of the simpler amino acids and write structures
for polymers of particular amino acids, e.g.
polyglycine / polyserine or for co-polymers.
More advanced students could also find out about the
use of chromatography as a diagnostic tool to identify
when patients lack a particular amino acid.

For details of the hydrolysis of amino acids see p.239 in Chemistry for IGCSE.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 20.2 Fats and soaps, pp.2401
Approximate timing for this section: 30 minutes (excluding practical)

Describe fats as esters possessing the same linkage as terylene but with different units (14.8b supplement)
Describe soap as a product of hydrolysis of fats (14.8b supplement)
Learning Objectives
Fats have the same ester linkage as
Start by introducing the building blocks of fats and oils (glycerol as an
terylene (S)
alcohol) and fatty acids (as carboxylic acids).
Fats are esters of glycerol and longThe similarity and differences of fats and oils with terylene can then be
chained carboxylic acids (fatty acids) introduced through models or pictures of each.
(S)
Simple models can be made to show the principles of condensation
Soap is made by the hydrolysis of
polymerisation by making an ester linkage by means of a block of clay or
fats or oils with sodium hydroxide
Plasticine with the reacting groups stuck into the blocks.
(S)
The hydrolysis of fats (or oils) to make a soap can be demonstrated (see
below).
Learning Outcomes
Describe the structure of fats (S)
Describe how soap is made by the
hydrolysis of fats (S)

Further issues for discussion could include the health
aspects of using vegetable oils in the diet rather than
more saturated fats like butter and lard.
The environmental and economic aspects of growing
food crops such as palm oil for fuel rather than as a
source of food could also be discussed.

Organic chemistry modelling kits (or substitutes) and modelling clay.
The hydrolysis of fats can be carried out with vegetable oil and concentrated sodium hydroxide as detailed on p.241 of Chemistry
for IGCSE.
Chemistry for IGCSE, 20.3 Mainly carbohydrates, pp.2423

Describe complex carbohydrates in terms of a large number of sugar units, considered as HO--OH joined together by condensation polymerisation (14.8b supplement)
Describe the acid hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates, e.g. starch to give simple sugars (14.8b supplement)
Describe in outline the usefulness of chromatography in separating and identifying the products of hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins (14.8b supplement)
Learning Objectives
The monomers that form complex
Start by reminding students that photosynthesis produces glucose which is
Students could revise the use of chromatography and
carbohydrates can be represented as
then converted to complex carbohydrates (cellulose and starch can be
calculate Rf values from diagrams of chromatographs.
HO--OH (S)
mentioned). An awareness of the importance of this reaction to the ability
More advanced students could also research the range
Complex carbohydrates are joined by of animals to absorb food for energy as soluble sugar from ingested
of carbohydrates and find out more about the
O linkages (S)
insoluble complex carbohydrates can be mentioned.
structure of starch and cellulose.
Complex carbohydrates can be
Students can build models of simple glucose models seen as a block with
hydrolysed to simple sugars by
an OH group at either end. They can then polymerise these by eliminating
hydrochloric acid (S)
the water. This can also be done using drawing of these, using scissors to
Paper chromatography can be used to break the relevant bonds.
identify the hydrolysis products of
The hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates to form the glucose (or other)
carbohydrates and proteins (S)
monomers can then be explained as well as the use of chromatography in
separating mixtures of carbohydrates.
Learning Outcomes
Describe the formation of complex
Organic chemistry modelling kits (or substitute) and modelling clay.
carbohydrates by the polymerisation
of simple sugars (S)
Describe how chromatography can
be used to identify the products of the
acid hydrolysis of carbohydrates (S)

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Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.1 Solids, liquids and gases, pp.

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 80 minutes (including experiments)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.2 Diffusion, pp. 45

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including experiments)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.3, Apparatus for measuring, pp. 67

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes

Chemistry for IGCSE, 11.4, Whats that gas? pp.13839

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.4 Paper chromatography, pp. 89 and p. 243

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including experiments)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.5 Is that chemical pure? pp.1011

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.6 Methods of purification, pp. 1213

Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including experiments)

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus Link (curriculum content numbers in brackets)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 1.7 More about purification, pp. 1415

Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes (including practical demonstrations)

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus Link (curriculum content numbers in brackets)

Extension and Consolidation

Practical Work and Resources

Chemistry for IGCSE, 12.1 The Periodic Table, p.146

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus Link (curriculum content numbers in brackets)

Extension and Consolidation

Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.1 Inside the atom, pp. 1819

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 25 minutes

Extension and Consolidation

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 30 minutes

Extension and Consolidation

Practical Work and Resources

(S refers to material in the supplement)

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 2.5 Metals and non-metals, pp. 267

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus Link (curriculum content numbers in brackets)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.1 Ionic bonding, pp. 3031

Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus Link (curriculum content numbers in brackets)

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes

more different types of atom (S)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.4 Ionic or covalent?, pp. 367

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including practical)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.5 Giant covalent structures, pp. 389

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 50 minutes

Describe the structure of silicon(IV)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 3.6 Metallic bonding, pp. 401

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 60 minutes (including practical demonstrations)

Chemistry for IGCSE, 13.1 Alloys, pp.1589

(S refers to material in the supplement)

Approximate timing for this section: 40 minutes