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Contents
A4 Electric motor power
measurement and analysis
Over the next three issues of AppliedAutomation, we will discuss a
three-step process for making precision electrical and mechanical
power measurements on a variety of motors and variable speed drive
systems. We will also show how these measurements are used to
calculate the energy efficiency for motor and drive systems.

A4

A8 Selecting the right control chart

Knowing right way to look at collected manufacturing or process data turns
numbers into valuable information; heres how to choose the right control
chart to make real-time control monitoring more valuable.

A12 Linear position sensors gain acceptance

Todays industrial process control applications increasingly use automated
systems to optimize operations and ensure a safer, more productive process.
Linear position sensors used in these automated systems provide highly
accurate feedback on product parameters, control states, and outputs to
machine controllers.

A12

C OMME NT
Finding system integration resources

Jack Smith
Edit or

ystem integrators represent a significant

demographic of the AppliedAutomation
readership. Regardless of whether
automation end users are discrete,
process, batch, or hybrid manufacturers, or
whether they are utilities or municipalities,
chances are your organization has had some
contact with automation system integrators.
Automation system integration is among
the many information channels on the Control
Engineering and Plant Engineering Websites.
Content specific to this topic can be located by
searching the archives maintained by both of
these CFE Media publications.
Several types of media are included in this
content. For example, Control Engineering
magazine publishes the Automation Integrator
Guide annually. Each issue features articles
about automation system integration best
practices, industry outlooks, and an industry
directory with profiles of automation system
integrators. The online version of this directory

is a tool for identifying automation system

integrator talent. This searchable guide provides
information about company size, industries
supported, engineering specialties, product
experience, professional affiliations, and other
important search criteria.
Webcasts and training videos are available
online by accessing the Education & Training
and People and Training tabs on the Control
Engineering and Plant Engineering Websites,
respectively.
Each year, a panel of Control Engineering
editors and industry expert judges select
System Integrator of the Year Award winners
by evaluating business skills, technical
competence, and customer satisfaction.
Winners are then inducted into the Control
Engineering System Integrator Hall of Fame.
Control Engineering also names System
Integrator Giants, the 100 largest automation
system integration firms, according to revenue,
that respond to the magazines annual survey.

Applied Automation

April 2014

A3

cover story

Electric motor power

measurement and analysis
Understand the basics to drive greater efficiency.
By Bill Gatheridge
Yokog awa

FIRST OF THREE PARTS

APRIl: Electric motor power measurement and analysis

In electrical systems, voltage

is the force required to move
electrons. Current is the rate of the
flow of charge per second through
a material to which a specific
voltage is applied. By taking the
voltage and multiplying it by the
associated current, the power can

JunE: Selecting the right instruments

nergy is one of the highAuguST: Electrical power measurements
est cost items in a plant
for a 3-phase ac motor.
or facility, and motors
often consume the lions
be determined.
share of plant power, so making sure motors
are operating optimally is vital. Accurate power
P = V x I where power (P) is in watts, voltage (V) is in
measurements can help to reduce energy consumption, as
volts, and current (I) is in amperes.
measurement is always the first step toward better performance and can also help extend the life of a motor. Small
A watt (W) is a unit of power defined as one Joule
misalignment or other issues are often invisible to the
per second. For a dc source the calculation is simply
naked eye, and the slightest wobble in a shaft can negathe voltage times the current: W = V x A. However,
tively affect productivity and quality, and even shorten the
determining the power in watts for an ac source must
life of the motor.
include the power factor (PF), so W = V x A x PF for ac
Over the next three issues of AppliedAutomation, we
systems.
will discuss a three-step process for making precision
The power factor is a unitless ratio ranging from -1 to
electrical and mechanical power measurements on a
1, and represents the amount of real power performing
variety of motors and variable speed drive (VSD) syswork at a load. For power factors less than unity, which is
tems. We will also show how these measurements are
almost always the case, there will be losses in real power.
used to calculate the energy efficiency for motor and
This is because the voltage and current of an ac circuit are
drive systems.
sinusoidal in nature, with the amplitude of the current and
In addition, we will provide an understanding of how to
make precision power measurements on complex distorted voltage of an ac circuit constantly shifting and not typically
waveforms, as well as what instruments to use for different in perfect alignment.
Since power is voltage times current (P = V x I), power
applications.
is highest when the voltage and current are lined up
Basic electrical power measurements
together so that the peaks and zero points on the voltage
and current waveforms occur at the same time. This would
Electric motors are electromechanical machines that
be typical of a simple resistive load. In this situation, the
convert electric energy into mechanical energy. Despite
two waveforms are in phase with one another and the
differences in size and type, all electric motors work in
power factor would be 1. This is a rare case, as almost all
much the same way: an electric current flowing through
loads arent simply and perfectly resistive.
a wire coil in a magnetic field creates a force that rotates
Two waveforms are said to be out of phase or phase
the coil, thus creating torque.
shifted when the two signals do not correlate from point to
Understanding power generation, power loss, and the
different types of power measured can be intimidating, so point. This can be caused by inductive or nonlinear loads.
In this situation, the power factor would be less than 1,
lets start with an overview of basic electric and mechaniand less real power would be realized.
cal power measurements.
Due to the possible fluctuations in the current and the
What is power? In the most basic form, power is work
voltage in ac circuits, power is measured is a few differperformed over a specific amount of time. In a motor,
ent ways.
power is delivered to the load by converting electrical
Real or true power is the actual amount of power being
energy per the following laws of science.

A4 April 2014

Applied Automation

Figure 1: The slightest wobble in a shaft can negatively affect productivity and quality. All graphics courtesy: Yokogawa

used in a circuit, and its measured in watts. Digital power

analyzers use techniques to digitize the incoming voltage
and current waveforms to calculate true power, following
the method in Figure 2:

Figure 2: True power calculation.

In this example the instantaneous voltage is multiplied

by the instantaneous current (I) and then integrated over a
specific time period (t). A true power calculation will work
on any type of waveform regardless of the power factor
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: These equations are used to calculate a true power measurement and true RMS measurements.

Harmonics create an additional complication. Even

though the power grid nominally operates at a frequency
of 60 Hz, there are many other frequencies or harmonics
that potentially exist in a circuit, and there can also be a

dc or dc component. Total power is calculated by considering and summing all content, including harmonics.
The calculation methods in Figure 3 are used to provide a true power measurement and true root mean
square (RMS) measurements on any type of waveform,
including all harmonic content, up to the bandwidth of the
instrument.

Power measurement
Well next look at how to actually measure watts in a
given circuit. A wattmeter is an instrument that uses voltage and current to determine power in watts. The Blondel
Theory states that total power is measured with a minimum of one fewer wattmeter than the number of wires. For
example, a single-phase two-wire circuit will use one wattmeter with one voltage and one current measurement.
A single-phase three-wire split-phase system is often
found in common housing wiring. These systems require
two wattmeters for power measurement.
Most industrial motors use three-phase three-wire
circuits that are measured using two wattmeters. In the
same fashion, three wattmeters would be necessary for a
three-phase four-wire circuit, with the fourth wire being the
neutral.
Figure 4 shows a three-phase three-wire system with
load attached using the two-wattmeter method for measurement. Two line-to-line voltages and two associated
phase currents are measured (using wattmeters Wa and

Applied Automation

April 2014 A5

cover story
Wc). The four measurements (line-to-line and phase current
and voltage) are utilized to achieve the total measurement.

the voltage and current (Cos ). This is defined as the

displacement power factor, and is correct for sine waves
only. For all other waveforms (non-sine waves), the power
factor is defined as real power in watts divided by apparent power in voltage-amperes. This is called the true
power factor and can be used for all waveforms, both sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.

Figure 6: Total power factor is determined by summing the total

watts divided by the total VA measurement.

Figure 4: Measuring power in a three-phase three-wire system

with two wattmeters.

Since this method requires monitoring only two current

and two potential transformers instead of three, installation
and wiring configuration are simplified. It can also measure
power accurately on a balanced or an unbalanced system.
Its flexibility and low-cost installation make it a good fit for
production testing in which only the power or a few other
parameters need measurement.
For engineering and research and development work,
the three-phase three-wire with three-wattmeter method is
best as it provides additional information that can be used
to balance loading and determine true power factor. This
method uses all three voltages and all three-currents. All
three voltages are measured (a to b, b to c, c to a), and all
three-currents are monitored.

Figure 7: Using the two-wattmeter method, the sum of the total

watts (W1 + W2) is divided by the VA measurements.

However, if the load is unbalanced (the phase currents

are different), this could introduce an error in calculating the power factor because only two VA measurements
are used in the calculation. The two VAs are averaged
because its assumed theyre equal; however, if theyre
not, a faulty result is obtained.
Therefore, its best to use the three-wattmeter method
for unbalanced loads because it will provide a correct
power factor calculation for either balanced or unbalanced loads.

Figure 8: With the three-wattmeter method, all three VA measurements are used in the above power factor calculation.

Power analyzers use the method above, which is

called the 3V-3A (three-voltage three-current) wiring
method. This is the best method for engineering and
design work because it will provide a correct total power
factor and VA measurements for a balanced or unbalanced
three-wire system.
Figure 5: When designing motors and drives, seeing all three voltages and currents is key, making the three-wattmeter method in
the figure above the best choice.

Power factor measurement

In determining the power factor for sine waves, the
power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle between

A6 April 2014

Applied Automation

Basic mechanical power measurements

In an electric motor, the mechanical power is defined as
the speed times the torque. Mechanical power is typically
defined as kilowatts or horsepower, with 1 W equaling 1
Joule/sec or 1 Nm/sec.

Figure 9: Mechanical power measurements in watts are defined as

2 times the rotating speed (rpm) divided by 60 times the torque
(Nm).

Horsepower is the work done per unit of time. One

hp equals 33,000 lb-ft/min. Converting hp to watts is
achieved using this relationship: 1 hp = 745.69987 W.
However, the conversion is often simplified by using 746
W/hp (Figure 10).

On a quarterly basis, Plant Engineering

conducts research studies on the
various topics as they pertain to the
manufacturing industries.
Studies include

Energy
Management
Workforce
Development
Safety

Figure 10: Mechanical power measurement equations for horsepower often use a rounded figure of 1 hp = 746 W.

For ac induction motors, the actual or rotor speed is

the speed at which the shaft (rotor) rotates, typically
measured using a tachometer. The synchronous speed is
the speed of the stators magnetic field rotation, calculated as 120 times the line frequency divided by the number
of poles in the motor. Synchronous speed is the motors
theoretical maximum speed, but the rotor will always turn
at a slightly slower rate than the synchronous speed due
to losses, and this speed difference is defined as slip.
Slip is the difference in the speed of the rotor and the
synchronous speed. To determine the percentage of
slip, a simple percentage calculation of the synchronous
speed minus the rotor speed divided by the synchronous
speed is used.
Efficiency can be expressed in simplest form as the
ratio of the output power to the total input power or
efficiency = output power/input power. For an electrically driven motor, the output power is mechanical while
the input power is electrical, so the efficiency equation
becomes efficiency = mechanical power/electrical input
power.
Bill Gatheridge is a product manager at Yokogawa. He is
a member and vice chairman of the ASME PTC19.6 committee on electrical power measurements for utility power
plant performance testing.

Applied Automation

April 2014

A7

Maintenance

Download the Plant EngineeringEditorial Research Studies:

www.plantengineering.com/
media-library/research

DATA CAPTURE

Selecting the right control chart

For real-time monitoring, a control chart is a statistical tool to analyze the past and
predict the future. Choosing the wrong one from among hundreds increases the risk
of errors. Advice follows on how to choose the right control chart.
Steve Wyse
I n fi n i ty QS I nternat ional

nowing right way to look at collected manufacturing or process data turns numbers into
valuable information; heres how to choose
the right control chart to make real-time control monitoring more valuable.
Would a manufacturer knowingly embark
on a fixed-cost job without first understanding the risks
of losing money, shipping defective product, missing
the delivery schedule, running on incapable equipment,
or using unqualified employees? While all these risks

are understood because the price quoted for the job

includes an allowance for their associated costs, many
of these risk items are actually either unknown or not
fully defined. Thus, decisions to pursue a job are usually
based on history, opinion, and faith alone.
Luckily, the chance of a catastrophic financial hit
due to these unknowns is relatively small as long as
the profit margins remain high enough after negotiations. However, as margins are squeezed and demands
increase, manufacturers must understand these uncertainties better to ensure they avoid the financial breaking point. The good news is that understanding risk and
making better business decisions is as simple as applying statistical monitoring and analytics.

Variable control chart decision tree

1) What is the sample size? 2) Will multiple parts be combined on the same chart?
3) Will test characteristics with different target values be combined on the same chart? For
example, if the sample size is 1, multiple parts will be combined, but all the targets are the
same, so the perfect control chart to use is the Group IX-MR. Alternately, if the sample size
is 5 with multiple parts and different targets, the chart to use is the Group Target Xbar-R.
Courtesy: InfinityQS International

A8 April 2014

Applied Automation

Real-time monitoring,
control charts
Statistics is the science of predicting the future. Industrial statistical methods are the application
of statistical methods where the
population of things to measure
is produced in real time. For realtime monitoring, the prescribed
statistical tool is a control chart.
Academic training introduces students to three types of variables
charts (Xbar-R, Xbar-s, and IX-MR)
and four types of attribute charts
(p, np, u, and c). There are hundreds of control charts from which
to choose. Regardless of statistical
background, not having the right
control chart increases the risk of
encountering Type I (false positive)
and Type II (false negative) errors.
The purpose of a control chart is
to describe a processs personality
in terms of normal versus abnormal levels of variation. When using
control charts for real-time decision making, corrective actions are
recommended only when variation
levels or patterns exceed the statis-

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DATA CAPTURE

tically defined levels of whats normal. When inferior sampling strategies are implemented or the wrong
control chart is deployed, the risk of
making unwise adjustments (Type I
error) or missing a signal that warrants attention (Type II error) is
elevated.

Pick the best statistical

monitoring tool(s) unique
to each machines input
and product output
complexities.

Why invest time and effort in collecting and analyzing data just to
make wrong decisions? Taking the extra step to learn
how to pick the right chart could mean the difference
between failure and success.

Ask these questions to choose a control chart

Fortunately, selecting just the right control chart
requires answering only a handful of questions that
will pinpoint the perfect chart to use from a pool of 12
potential, standard variables charts.
Basic questions for variables data are:
1. What is the sample size?
2. Will multiple parts be combined on the same
chart?
3. Will test characteristics with different target values
be combined on the same chart?

level of machine flexibility. In these

cases, one must create customized
sampling strategies and pick the
best statistical monitoring tool(s)
unique to each machines input and
product output complexities.
Items to consider in a sampling
strategy include sampling frequency, sample size, test characteristics, measurement devices, and
methodologies. These decisions help define the best
way to illustrate and update the visual output as new
data is captured. Essentially, the data describes the
processs personality so it is easier to understand what
normal variation one can expect and what constitutes a
significant deviation from the norm.

Variation, different units

With a strategic sampling strategy in place, it is
much easier to answer the questions necessary to use
the variable control chart decision tree (see graphic).
In addition to a sampling strategy, more complicated
scenarios require only two more questions:
1. Will within-piece and piece-to-piece variation be
monitored?
2. Will different types of tests with different units of
measure be combined on the same
chart?

To answer these questions

properly and ultimately select the
Taking the extra step to
correct control chart, a thoughtful
sampling strategy is key. In some
Adding these two questions
learn how to pick the
cases, simple strategies will suffice
expands the list of potential control
where a machine is set up to run
charts to 48. With each of those 48
right chart could mean
the same part for weeks or months,
charts, one could apply even more
and only one or two characteristics
taking the potential
the difference between refinements,
are measured to monitor the health
number of charts into the hundreds.
of that process. For example, a
Above all, remember that a
failure and success.
machine that makes 0.07 mm pencil
control chart is the vehicle that
lead will be busy as long as 0.07
will help those involved to remain
mm mechanical pencils are being used and this parengaged with the data collected. By engaging with the
ticular product is being sold. Of course, there are many right data and using the right control chart, no fortunecontributing factors that will cause a lead machine to
teller is needed to predict risks and make better busimisbehave, but as far as a statistical sampling stratness decisions.
egy, diameter and length may be all thats monitored.
Depending on the historical adjustment frequencies,
Steve Wise is vice president of statistical methods,
five leads may need to be collected only once an hour.
InfinityQS International Inc.
Though this may be a common case for textbooks, it
reflects the real world for only a few industries.
For most manufacturers, machines are used to run
Go online
many different shapes, sizes, weights, materials, colwww.controleng.com/archives
ors, and features. To accomplish this, one machine is
March, with this article, link to process details in
designed to accept different programs, tooling, fixtures,
an InfinityQS International whitepaper, A Practical
speeds, feeds, pressures, temperatures, flow rates,
Guide to Selecting the Right Control Chart.
and others. The uncertainties and combinations of
www.infinityqs.com
things that could go wrong multiply with every added

A10 April 2014

Applied Automation

2014
Global Automation
& Manufacturing
Summit
September 10, 2014
Control Engineering and Plant Engineering,
in partnership with Hannover Fairs USA,
will present the 2014 Global Automation &
Manufacturing Summit on Wednesday,
September 10, 2014, at the Industrial
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Building off the success of the inaugural
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SENSORS

Linear position sensors

gain acceptance
Linear variable differential transformers can deliver better machine operation.
By Eileen Otto

3. A movable magnetic armature or core.

Macro Sens ors

The primary winding is excited with an ac supply

generating a magnetic field which, when the core is
placed in the central or null position, includes equal
odays industrial process control applications
voltages in both of the secondaries. The secondaries
increasingly use automated systems to optimize
are wired series opposed so that their combined output
operations and ensure a safer, more productive
represents the difference in voltage indicated in them,
process. Linear position sensors used in these
which in this case is zero. As the core is moved left or
automated systems provide highly accurate
right, the difference in inducted voltages produces an
feedback on product parameters, control states,
output that is linearly proportional in magnitude to the
and outputs to machine controllers.
displacement of the core. Its phase changes 180-deg
Whether implemented as a stand-alone component or
as part of a control or safety system, the linear variable dif- from one side of the null position to the other.
In the oil and gas industry, compact LVDTs are used
ferential transformer (LVDT) is capable of providing linear
in the position feedback control of down-hole drilling
displacement measurements from micro inches to several
feet, under various operating and environmental conditions equipment such as bore scopes that measure the ID
of the drilled hole. The sensor coil assembly and sepawith high accuracy and reliability. Essentially, the LVDT
rable core inherent to the technology can withstand
plays an important role in machine control by providing
extremely high pressures of the environment as the
feedback about product location. To some extent, it is the
mechanical configuration of the coil assembly is vented
LVDT that ensures proper machine operation.
(pressure balanced)
Mechanics of a LVDT
to the pressure of the
nonconductive mediIn basic terms, a LVDT
ums. As the sensor coil
is an electromechanical
assembly can withstand
device that converts linear
a combination of high
position or motion to a
pressure, elevated temproportional electrical outperatures, shock, and
put (see Figure 1). More
vibration, the LVDT is
specifically, the LVDT proable to make measureduces an electrical output
ments in down-hole
signal directly proportional
drilling equipment posto the displacement of a
sible where space is
separate movable core.
at a premium and the
Typically, the ferrous
environment is hostile.
core within the LVDT is
In operation, the
attached to the moving
LVDTs primary winding
element on the piece of
is energized by alterequipment requiring posinating current of approtion feedback.
priate amplitude and
The basic LVDT design
frequency, known as
consists of three elements:
the primary excitation.
1. One primary winding
The LVDTs electrical
2. Two identical secondoutput signal is the difary windings
Figure 1: The basic LVDT design. All images courtesy: Macro Sensors

A12 April 2014

Applied Automation

ferential ac voltage between two secondary windings,

which varies with the axial position of the core within
the LVDT coil. Usually this ac output voltage is converted by suitable electronic circuitry to high-level dc
voltage or current for convenient use by a computer or
other digital output device.
Because there is normally no contact between
the LVDTs core and coil structure, no parts can rub
together or wear out. This means that a LVDT features
unlimited mechanical life. This factor is highly desirable
in many industrial process control and factory automation systems.

Enhanced use in process control

Recent innovations in construction materials, manufacturing techniques, and low-cost microelectronics have
revolutionized the LVDTs into a more reliable and costeffective technology for process control applications. In
the past, electronics necessary to operate LVDTs properly were complicated and expensive, prohibiting their
wide use in process control applications for displacement
measurement.
Modern ASIC and microprocessors give LVDT technology more complex processing functions and enable
signal conditioning within the sensor housing so LVDTs
generate digital outputs directly compatible with computer-based systems and standardized digital buses. As a
result, todays linear position sensors can provide more
accurate and precise measurement of dimensions in a
wider variety of quality control, inspection equipment, and
industrial metrology applications including online parts
inspection, servo-loop positioning systems, and manufacturing process control.
For applications where sensors must operate in
extreme environments, the sensing element can be segregated from the electronic circuitry, unlike capacitive,
magnetostrictive, and other high-frequency technologies.
Connected by long cables up to 31 m (100 ft), ac-operated LVDTs can work with remotely located electronics
that power the sensors, and amplify and demodulate their
output. Output is, then, displayed on a suitable readout
and/or inputted into a computer-based data acquisition
system for statistical process control. This ability to transmit data to a remote computer has made linear position
sensors popular in quality assurance schemes.

Smaller diameters, new materials

While linear position sensors were once considered
too long for applications with limited space, new winding techniques and computer-based winding machines
allow the linear position sensor body to be reduced
while maintaining or increasing stroke length. With the
improved stroke-to-length ratio (now up to 80%), the
LVDT becomes a viable position measurement device for

Figure 2: In the oil and gas industry, compact LVDTs are used in the
position feedback control of down-hole drilling equipment such as
bore scopes that measure the ID of the drilled hole.

machine tool positioning, hydraulic cylinder positioning,

and valve position sensing.
Smaller, contactless linear position sensors also feature a lightweight low mass core that is ideal (see Figure
2) for process control applications having high-dynamic
response requirements, such as plastic injection molding
machines, automatic inspection equipment, and different
robotic applications requiring displacement feedback to
ensure proper machinery operation.
LVDTs are also configurable in a variety of mechanical and electrical designs to meet the measurement and
environmental requirements of various process control
applications. New corrosion-resistant/high-temperature
materials such as Monel or Inconel enable the LVDT to
operate in more hostile environments, including those
with high and low temperature extremes, radiation exposure, or vacuum pressure conditions. For applications
where sensors must withstand exposure to flammable
or corrosive vapors and liquids, or operate in pressurized fluid, its case and coil assembly can be hermetically
sealed using a variety of welding processes.
For example, in power generation applications (see
Figure 3), linear position sensors designed for high
temperature and mild radiation resistance can perform
in power plants to provide feedback on the position
of nuclear steam and gas turbine control valves for
increased plant efficiency and reduced operating costs.
In a typical power plant, steam turbines contain a
number of control valvesa reheat stop value, an interceptor valve, a governor valve, and a throttle valve.
Typically, plants have very precise control schemes for
valve position to increase operating efficiency and save
fuel. Operating within the harsh environment of a power
or steam plant, linear position sensors can determine if
valves are fully opened or closed to within a thousandth
of an inch, providing output to remote electronics that can

Applied Automation

April 2014 A13

SENSORS
LVDTs are installed on
be monitored by operators
presses so that the plunger
if something is not working
of the sensor is compressed
properly. The combination of
as the punch press comes in
LVDTs with modern computcontact with the metal being
erized turbine control systems
shaped. The output of the
saves power companies milLVDT is fed back into the
lions of dollars per year.
machines control system,
Sensors also play an
providing feedback on how
important role in the predicfar a press has moved and
tive maintenance of gas turwhen to stop.
bines as part of process conFigure 3: Hermetically sealed linear position sensors offer a
For more than six
trol systems used to monitor
highly accurate and long life solution for the position meadecades, LVDTs have served
shell expansion and bearing
surement of steam control valves in power generation plants.
as part of measurement and
vibration. When installed on
control systems, providing
turbine shells, hermetically
essential information without which many process consealed LVDTs measure shell expansion, providing linear
output that operators can utilize to determine proper ther- trol systems couldnt function. From its limited use as a
laboratory tool more than three decades ago, the LVDT
mal growth of a turbine shell during start-up, operation,
has evolved into a highly reliable and cost-effective linear
and shutdown.
feedback device, making it the preferred technology for
LVDTs designed to withstand shocks and heavy
critical and reliable linear displacement measurements in
pounding are used in the press and dye industry for the
an array of industrial process control applications.
mechanical control of machine operations as improper
operation can lead to broken dyes that result in downed
Eileen Otto is the sales and marketing manager at
machines, while the ambiguous force of presses can
Macro Sensors.
lead to misshapen and out-of-spec parts. Spring-loaded

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