VIBRATIONS OF

SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS

CE 283 Structural Dynamics
Fall, 2007
This document describes the free- and forced- response of single degree of freedom (SDOF) systems. A single degree of freedom system is a
spring-mass-damper system in which the spring has no damping or mass,
the mass has no stiffness or damping, the damper has no stiffness or mass.
Furthermore, the mass is allowed to move in only one direction. The horizontal vibrations of a single-story building can be conveniently modeled as
a single degree of freedom system. In part 1 of this document we examine
some useful trigonometric identities. In part 2 of this document we determine how lightly-damped SDOF systems vibrate freely after being released
from an initial displacement with some initial velocity. In part 3 of this
document we determine how lightly-damped SDOF systems respond to a
persistent sinusoidal forcing. Lastly, in part 4, we determine how damped
SDOF systems respond to persistent periodic forcing.
The general form of the differential equations describing a SDOF oscillator are
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t),

x(0) = do , x(0)

= vo

(1)

where x(t) is the position of the mass, m is the mass, c is the damping
rate, k is the stiffness, and f (t) is the external dynamic load. The initial
displacement is do , and the initial velocity is vo .
1

Trigonometric and Exponential Forms for Oscillations

We expect the free vibrational response of lightly damped systems to

decay over time. Note that damping may be introduced into a structure
through diverse mechanisms, including linear viscous damping, nonlinear
viscous damping, visco-elastic damping, friction damping, and plastic deformation. All but linear viscous damping are somewhat complicated to

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

Figure 1. The proto-typical single degree of freedom oscillator.

analyze with closed-form expressions, so we will restrict our attention to

linear viscous damping, in which the damping force fD is proportional to
the velocity, fD = cx.

1.1 Constant Amplitude

In general a constant-amplitude oscillation, x(t), of frequency can

be described by sinusoidal functions. These sinusoidal functions may be
equivalently written in terms of complex exponentials eit with complex
coefficients, X = A + iB and X = A iB. The complex constant X is
the complex conjugate of X.
x(t) = a cos(t) + b sin(t)
= X eit + X eit

(2)
(3)

Proof:
X eit + X eit = (A + iB) (cos(t) + i sin(t)) +
(A iB) (cos(t) i sin(t))

(4)

= A cos(t) + iA sin(t) + iB cos(t) B sin(t) +

A cos(t) iA sin(t) iB cos(t) B sin(t) (5)

= 2A cos(t) 2B sin(t)

= a cos(t) + b sin(t)

(6)
(7)

Comparing these forms, we see that a = 2A and b = 2B. Note that all
of the above expressions are exactly equivalent. Equation (2), is exactly

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

the same as equation (3). Equation (2) is easier to interpret as describing

a sinusoidal oscillation, however equation (3) is much easier to work with,
mathematically. We will endeavor to use both forms in this document, just
to emphasize how the two forms are one and the same.
Equations (2) and (3) describe a sinusoidal oscillation with a constant
amplitude. The amplitude, |X|, of the oscillation x(t) can be found by
adding the magnitudes of the complex amplitudes X and X , or by solving x(
t) = 0 for t, and substituting into equation (2). Either way, the
amplitude of the oscillation is

|X| = a2 + b2 ,
(8)
The oscillation attains its maximum and minimum values at times t, where
tan( t) = b/a. The oscillation attains a value of zero at times t where
tan( t) = b/a. The oscillation can be expressed with a single sine term
with a phase-shift.
x(t) = |X| sin(t s )

= |X| sin(t) cos(s ) |X| cos(t) sin(s )

(9)
(10)

Setting x(t) = 0 results in tan( t) = tan(s ), and,

b
(11)
a
The oscillation can also be expressed as a single cosine term, with a different
phase-shift.
tan(s ) =

x(t) = |X| cos(t c )

= |X| cos(t) cos(c ) |X| sin(t) sin(c )

Setting x(t) = 0 results in tan( t) = cot(c ), and,

a
tan(c ) =
b

(12)
(13)

(14)

Note, again, that equations (2) and (3) are equivalent to one-another
and are also equivalent to equations (9) and (12) using the definitions for
|X|, s , and c given above.

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

Figure 2. A constant-amplitude oscillation.

1.2 Decaying Amplitude

To describe an oscillation which decays with time, we can multiply

the expression for a constant amplitude oscillation by a positive-valued
function which decays with time. Here we will use a real exponential, et ,
where < 0. Multiplying equations (2) through (3) by et ,
x(t) = et (a cos(t) + b sin(t))

(15)

= et (Xeit + X eit )

(16)

= Xe(+i)t + X e(i)t

(17)

= Xet + X e

(18)

Again, note that all of the above equations are exactly equivalent. The
exponent is complex, = + i and = i. If is negative,
then these equations describe an oscillation with exponentially decreasing
amplitudes. Note that in equation (15) the unknown constants are , , a,
and b. Angular frequencies, , have units of radians per second. Circular
frequencies, f = /(2) have units of cycles per second, or Hertz. Periods,
T = 2/, have unites of seconds.
In the next section we will find that for an un-forced vibration, and
are determined from the mass, damping, and stiffness of the system. We
will see that the constant a equals the initial displacement do , but that the
constant b depends on the initial displacement and velocity, as well mass,
damping, and stiffness.

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Figure 3. A decaying oscillation.

2 Free response of systems with mass, stiffness and damping

Using equation (18) to describe the free response of a single degree of
freedom system, we will set f (t) = 0 and will substitute x(t) = Xet into
equation (1).
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = 0 ,

x(0) = do , x(0)

= vo ,

(19)

m2 Xet + cXet + kXet = 0 ,

(20)

(m2 + c + k)Xet = 0 ,

(21)

Note that m, c, k, and X do not depend on time. For equation (21) to

be true for all time,
(m2 + c + k)X = 0 .
(22)
Equation (22) is trivially satisfied if X = 0. The non-trivial solution is
m2 + c + k = 0. This is a quadratic equation in which has the roots,
1,2

v
u

u
c
c
=
t
2m
2m

!2

k
.
m

(23)

The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation

requires two independent initial conditions, an initial displacement and an
initial velocity. These two initial conditions are used to determine the coefficients, X and X (or A and B) of the two linearly independent solutions
corresponding to 1 and 2 .
The level of damping, c, qualitatively affects the quadratic roots, 1,2 ,
and the free response solutions.

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

Case 1 c = 0 undamped
If the system has no damping, c = 0, and
q

1,2 = i k/m = in .

(24)

This is called the natural frequency of the system. Undamped systems

oscillate freely at their natural frequency, n . The solution in this case
is
x(t) = Xein t + X ein t ,
(25)
which is a real-valued function. The amplitudes depend on the initial
displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .
Case 2 c = cc critically damped

If (c/(4m))2 = k/m, or, equivalently, if c = 2 mk, then the discriminant of equation (23) is zero, This special value of damping is called
the critical damping rate, cc ,

cc = 2 mk .
(26)
The ratio of the actual damping rate to the critical damping rate is
called the damping ratio, .
=

c
.
cc

(27)

The two roots of the quadratic equation are real and are repeated at
1 = 2 = c/(2m) ,

(28)

and the two basic solutions are equal to each other, e1 t = e2 t . In

order to admit solutions for arbitrary initial displacements and velocities, the solution in this case is
x(t) = x1 e(cc /2m)t + x2 t e(cc /2m)t .

(29)

where the real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial
displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo . Details regarding this
special case are at the end of this document.

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Case 3 c > cc over-damped

If the damping is greater than the critical damping, then the roots,
1 and 2 are distinct and real. If the system is over-damped it will
not oscillate freely. The solution is
x(t) = x1 e1 t + x2 e2 t ,

(30)

which can also be expressed using hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions. The real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the
initial displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .
Case 4 0 < c < cc under-damped
If the damping rate is positive, but less than the critical damping
rate, the system will oscillate freely from some initial displacement
and velocity. The roots are complex conjugates, 1 = 2 , and the
solution is
x(t) = X e1 t + X e2 t .
(31)
where the complex amplitudes depend on the initial displacement, d o ,
and the initial velocity, vo .
We can re-write the dynamic equations of motion using the new dynamic
variables for natural frequency, n , and damping ratio, . Note that
v

u
c
k
k
k
1
c
c u
= c = = 2 t = 2n .
(32)
m
k m m
k m m
2 km m
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t),
(33)
c
k
1
x(t) + x(t)
+ x(t) =
f (t),
(34)
m
m
m
1
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n 2 x(t) =
f (t),
(35)
m
The expression for the roots 1,2 , can also be written in terms of n and .
1,2

v
u

u
c
c
=
t
2m r 2m

!2

k
,
m

(36)

= n (n )2 n 2 ,

(37)

= n n 2 1 .

(38)

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

Some useful facts about the roots 1 and 2 are:

1 + 2 = 2n

1 2 = 2 2 1 n
n 2 = 14 (1 + 2 )2 14 (1 2 )2

n = 1 2
= (1 + 2 )/(2n )
2.1 Critical Damping

The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation requires two initial conditions, an initial displacement and an initial
velocity. These two initial conditions are used to determine the coefficients
of the two linearly independent solutions corresponding to 1 and 2 . If
1 = 2 , then the solutions e1 t and e2 t are not independent. In fact they
are identical. In such a case, a new trial solution can be determined as
follows. Assume a new solution of the form
x(t) = u(t)x1 e1 t ,

(39)

1 t
x(t)

= u(t)x

+ u(t)1 x1 e1 t ,
1e

(40)

1 t
x(t) = u(t)x1 e1 t + 2u(t)

, +u(t)21 x1 e1 t
1 x1 e

(41)

substitute these expressions into

x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n 2 x(t) = 0 ,
collect terms, and divide by x1 e1 t , to get
u(t) + (2n + 2(n ))u(t)

=0
which is a first order ordinary differential equation for u(t).

The solution
of this ordinary differential equation is
u(t)

=C ,

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

from which the new trial solution is found.

u(t) = x2 t
and
x(t) = x1 e(cc /2m)t + x2 t e(cc /2m)t .

(42)

2.2 Free response of underdamped systems

If the system is under-damped, then < 1,

2
1 is imaginary, and

1,2 = n in | 2 1| = i.
q

(43)

The frequency n | 2 1| is called the damped natural frequency, d ,

q

d = n | 2 1| .

(44)

It is the frequency at which under-damped SDOF systems oscillate freely,

With these new dynamic variables (, n , and d ) we can re-write the
solution to the damped free response,
x(t) = en t (A cos d t + B sin d t),
= Xet + X e t .

(45)
(46)

Now we can solve for X, (or, equivalently, A and B) in terms of the initial
conditions. At the initial point in time, t = 0, the position of the mass is
x(0) = do and the velocity of the mass is x(0)

= vo .
x(0) = do = Xe0 + X e

(47)

= X + X

(48)

= (A + iB) + (A iB) = 2A = a.

(49)

= X + X ,

(51)

= ( + id )(A + iB) + ( id )(A iB),

(52)

x(0)

= vo = Xe0 + X e 0 ,

= A + id A + iB d B +
A id A iB d B,

= 2A 2B

= n do 2 d B,

(50)

(53)
(54)
(55)

10

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

from which we can solve for B or b.

B =
b

vo + n do
2d
vo + n do
d

(56)
(57)

Putting this all together, the free response of a lightly-damped system to

an arbitrary initial condition, x(0) = do , x(0)

= vo is
x(t) = e

n t

vo + n do
sin d t .
do cos d t +
d
!

(58)

Figure 4. Under-damped response.

2.3 Free response of over-damped systems

If the system is over-damped, then > 1, and

roots are both real and negative
q

2
1 is real, and the

1,2 = n n 2 1 = d .

(59)

Substituting the initial conditions x(0) = do and x(0)

= vo into the
solution (equation (30)), and solving for the coefficients results in
vo + do (n + d )
,
2d
= do x1 .

x1 =

(60)

x2

(61)

11

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Substituting the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine expressions for the
exponentials results in
x(t) = e

n t

vo + n do
do cosh d t +
sinh d t
d

(62)

The undamped free response can be found as a special case of the

under-damped free response. While special solutions exist for the critically
damped response, this response can also be found as limiting cases of the
under-damped or over-damped responses.

Figure 5. Critically-damped and over-damped response.

To review, some of the important equations of this section are:

m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = 0
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n 2 x(t) = 0
v
u
u
t

k
m
c
c
= =
cc
2 mk
n =

d = n | 2 1|

12

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

Response of systems with mass, stiffness, and damping to sinusoidal forcing

If the SDOF system is dynamically forced with a sinusoidal forcing

function, then f (t) = |F | cos(t), where is the frequency of the forcing,
in radians per second. If f (t) is persistent, then after several cycles the
system will respond only at the frequency of the external forcing, . Lets
suppose that this steady-state response is described by the function
x(t) = a cos t + b sin t,

(63)

x(t)

= (a sin t + b cos t),

(64)

x(t) = 2 (a cos t b sin t).

(65)

then
and
Substituting this trial solution into equation (1), we obtain
m 2 (a cos t b sin t) +
c

(a sin t + b cos t) +

(a cos t + b sin t) = |F | cos t.

(66)

Equating the sine terms and the cosine terms

(m 2 a + cb + ka) cos t = |F | cos t
(m 2 b ca + kb) sin t = 0,

(67)
(68)

which is a set of two equations for the two unknown constants, a and b,

k m 2
c
c
k m 2

for which the solution is

a
b

|F |
,
0

c
|F |
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2
k m 2
b() =
|F |.
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2

a() =

(69)

(70)
(71)

The forced vibration solution (equation (63)) may be written

x(t) = a() cos t + b() sin t = |X()| cos(t + c ).

(72)

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

13

Figure 6. The amplitude of the sum of two oscillations in quadrature.

The amplitude of this oscillation is |X|, |X| = a2 + b2 . The angle c is

the phase between the force f (t) and the response x(t), and
cw
a
(73)
tan c = =
b
k m 2
Note that c is negative, regardless of frequency, meaning that the response
always lags the force. The ratio of the response amplitude |X| to the forcing
amplitude |F | is
1
|X|
=q
.
(74)
|F |
(k m 2 ) + (c)2
This equation shows how the response amplitude |X| depends on the amplitude of the forcing |F | and the frequency of the forcing , and has units
of flexibility.
Lets re-derive this expression using complex exponential notation. The
equations of motion are
1
1
(75)
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = |F | cos t = |F |eit + |F |eit .
2
2
In a solution of the form, x(t) = Xeit + X eit , the coefficient X corresponds to the positive exponents (positive frequencies), and X corresponds
to negative exponents (negative frequencies). Positive exponent coefficients
and negative exponent coefficients may be found separately. Considering
the positive exponent solution, the forcing is expressed as F e it and the
partial solution Xeit is substituted into the forced equations of motion,
resulting in
(m 2 + ci + k) X eit = F eit ,
(76)

14

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

from which

X
1
=
,
F
(k m 2 ) + i(c)
which is complex-valued. This complex function has a magnitude
|X|
=
|F |

1
,
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2

(77)

(78)

which is the same as equation (74).

Equation (74) may be written in terms of the dynamic variables, n
and . Dividing the numerator and the denominator of equation (74) by
k, we obtain
|X|
=
|F |
=

|X| =
|X|
=
xst

1/k
r
v
u
u
t


m 2 2

+
1/k

2 ! 2

2 ,
c
k


+ 2 n

|F |/k

(1 2 )2 + (2)2
1

(1 2 )2 + (2)2

(79)

2

(80)

(81)

(82)

where the frequency ratio is the ratio of the forcing frequency to the
natural frequency, = /n , and the static deflection xst is the response to
a static load F , F = kxst . This equation is called the dynamic amplification
factor. It is the factor by which displacement responses are amplified due
to the fact that the external forcing is dynamic, not static. See figure 7.
3.1 Ground Motion Excitation

When the dynamic loads are caused by motion of the supports (or the
ground) the forcing on the structure equals the mass of the structure times
the ground acceleration, f (t) = m
z (t).

m( x(t) + z(t) ) + cx(t)

+ kx(t) = 0

(83)

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

15

Figure 7. The dynamic amplification factor for external forcing |X|/xst , equation (82).

Figure 8. The proto-typical SDOF oscillator subjected to base motions, z(t)

m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = m
z (t)

x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n 2 x(t) =
z (t)

(84)
(85)

If the ground displacements are sinusoidal z(t) = |Z| cos t, then the
ground accelerations are z(t) = |Z| 2 cos t, and f (t) = m|Z| 2 cos t.
Using the complex exponential formulation, we can find the dynamic amplification factor as a function of the frequency of the ground motion, .
1
1
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = mZ 2 cos t = mZ 2 eit + mZ 2 eit (86)
2
2

16

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

Again assuming a solution of the form x(t) = Xeit the dynamic amplification factor is
m 2
X
=
,
(87)
Z
(k m 2 ) + i(c)

and

m 2
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2
2
= q
(1 2 )2 + (2)2

|X|
=
|Z|

(88)
(89)

See figure 9.

Figure 9. The dynamic amplification factor for base-excitation |X|/|Z|, equation (89).

Finally, lets consider the total motion of the mass x(t) + z(t).
X
m 2
=
,
X
(k m 2 ) + i(c)
X
m 2 + (k m 2 ) + i(c)
X +Z
=
+1 =
,
Z
Z
(k m 2 ) + i(c)
k + i(c)
=
,
(k m 2 ) + i(c)

(90)
(91)

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

|X + Z|
=
|Z|
=

q
q

17

(92)

(93)

k 2 + (c)2
,
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2

1 + (2)2
= Tr().
(1 2 )2 + (2)2

This function is called the transmissibility ratio, Tr(). It determines the

ratio between the total response amplitude |X + Z| and the base motion
|Z|. See figure 10.

Figure 10. The transmissibility ratio |X + Z|/|Z| = Tr(), equation (93).

18

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

4 Response of systems with mass, stiffness, and damping to periodic forcing

Suppose the external forcing, f (t), is persistent and periodic with period
T.
= f (t 2T ) = f (t T ) = f (t) = f (t + T ) = f (f + 2T ) =

(94)

Any periodic function may be represented as a series expansion of sines

and cosines, as a Fourier series,

X
1
2qt X
2qt
f (t) = a0 +
+
,
aq cos
bq sin
2
T
T
q=1
q=1

(95)

where the Fourier coefficients, aq and bq are given by the Fourier integrals,
2 Z to +T
2qt
dt , q = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(96)
aq =
f (t) cos
T to
T
2qt
2 Z to +T
f (t) sin
bq =
dt , q = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(97)
T to
T
and the time to is arbitrary. Section 1 of this document emphasizes the
connection between various expressions for an oscillation. The Fourier
series (95) may also be represented using complex exponential notation.

X
1
2qt
2qt
f (t) = a0 +
aq cos
+ bq sin
2
T
T
q=1
#
"
q=
X
2q
=
t
Fq exp i
T
q=
"

q=
X

q=

Fq eiq t

(98)
(99)
(100)

as long as Fq = Fq
.
Proof:

f (t) =

q=
X

Fq eiq t

(101)

q=

=
=

q=0
X

Fq eiq t +

q=
q=
X

q=
X

Fq eiq t +

q=0

= F0 +

h
X

q=1

Fq eiq t

q=1
n=
X

(102)

Fq eiq t

(103)

q=1

Fq eiq t + Fq eiq t

(104)

19

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

= f0 +
= F0 +

h
X

q=1
h
X
q=1

(Fqr + iFqi ) (cos q t + i sin q t) + (Fqr iFqi ) (cos q t i sin q t) (105)

2Fqr cos q t 2Fqi sin q t

(106)

So, the real part of Fq , Fqr , is half of aq , the imaginary part of Fq , Fqi , is

. The complex coefficients may be found directly

half of bq , and Fq = Fq
from
#
"
1 Z to +T
2iqt
Fq =
dt .
(107)
f (t) exp
T to
T
Complex exponential notation allows us to directly determine the steadystate periodic response to general periodic forcing, in terms of both the
magnitude of the response and the phase of the response. Recall the relationship between the complex magnitudes X and F for a sinusoidallydriven spring-mass-damper oscillator, from equation (77),
1
Fq
(k mq2 ) + i(cq )
= H(q ) Fq

Xq =

(108)

Xq

(109)

The function H() is called the frequency response function for the dynamic system relating the input f (t) to the output x(t).
Because the oscillator is linear, if the response to f1 (t) is x1 (t), and
the response to f2 (t) is x2 (t), then the response to c1 f1 (t) + c2 f2 (t) is
c1 x1 (t) + c2 x2 (t). More generally, then,
x(t) =

q=
X

1
Fq eiq t
2
q= (k mq ) + i(cq )

(110)

where q = 2q/T .
q

Note that q is not the same symbol as n ; n = k/m, q = 2q/T .

The series expansion for the response x(t) converges with fewer terms
than the Fourier series for the external forcing, because |H(q )| decreases
as 1/q2 .

20

CE 283 Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2007

5 Fourier Transforms
Recall for periodic functions of period, T , the Fourier series expansion
is
f (t) =

q=
X

q=

Fq eiq t ,

(111)

where the Fourier coefficients, Fq , have the same units as f (t), and are
given by the Fourier integral,
1
Fq =
T

Z T /2

T /2

f (t) eiq t dt ,

(112)

in which the interval of integration arbitrarily starts at T /2.

Now, consider a change of variables, by defining a frequency increment,
, and a scaled amplitude, F (q ).
2
(q = q )
T
2

F (q ) =
T Fq =
Fq

=
1 =

(113)
(114)

Where the scaled amplitude, F (q ), has units of f (t) t or f (t)/.

Using these new variables,
X
1 q=
f (t) =
F (q ) eiq t ,
2 q=

F (q ) =

Z T /2

T /2

(115)

f (t) eiq t dt .

Finally, taking the limit as T , implies d and

1 Z
F () eit d ,

2 Z

F () =
f (t) eit dt .
f (t) =

These expressions are the famous Fourier transform pair.

(116)
P

(117)
(118)

21

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Table 1. Peak coordinates for various frequency response functions.

|H|2(, )
peak
|H|2peak
1
(12 )2 +(2)2

1 2 2

1
4 2 (1 2 )

2
(12 )2 +(2)2

1
4 2

4
(12 )2 +(2)2

1+(2)2
(12 )2 +(2)2

1
12 2

1
4 2 (1 2 )

((1+8 2)1/2 1)
2

1/2

complicated