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Chapter 3
CONCRETE
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Concrete a composite man made material, is the most widely used material
in the construction industry. It consist of a rotationally chosen mixture of
binding material such as lime or cement, well graded fine and coarse
aggregate, water and admixture. In a concrete mix, cement and water form a
paste or matrix which fills the voids of the fine aggregate and binds them (fine
and coarse) together. The mixture than placed in forms and allowed to cure
and becomes hard like stone. The hardening of concrete is caused by
chemical reaction between water and cement and it continues for a long time,
and consequently the concrete grows stronger with age.
Water
Fine Aggregate
Coarse
Aggregate
Cemen
t
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
31
The strength, durability and other characteristic of concrete depend upon the
properties of its ingredients, the proportion of the mix, the method of
compaction and other controls during placing and curing. Basically, concrete
can be classified into two stages namely;
i)
ii)
Fresh concrete
Hardened concrete
Fresh concrete is a mixture of water, cement,
aggregate and admixture. The constituent materials
should be uniformly distributed after mixing within
the concrete mass during handling and placing.
Harden concrete is a
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
___
3.1
Properties of Fresh Concrete
Certain properties are desired of the freshly mixed concrete even though for
a short time only because it affects the quality and cost of hardened concrete.
The properties are defined as follows;
a)
b)
c)
Workability of the fresh concrete that is the ease with which concrete
is placed and consolidated.
3.2
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
34
Cubes, cylinders and prisms are the three types of compression test
specimens used to determine the compressive strength. The cubes
are usually of 100 mm or 150 mm side, the cylinders are 150 mm
diameter by 300 mm height, and the prisms are 100 mm x l00 mm x
500 mm in size.
To estimate the load at which the concrete members may crack,
normally flexural tensile strength test will be conducted. From this test,
the flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture is thus
determined. The modulus of rupture is determine by testing standard
test specimens of 150 mm x 150 mm x 700 mm over a span 600mm or
100mm x 100mm x 500mm over a span 400 mm under symmetrical
two point loading.
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
35
3.3.1.1
Factors Influencing the Strength of Concrete
There are several factors that influence the strength development of
concrete. Normally as time passes by, with proper curing the concrete
strength should increase. Nevertheless the strength gain can be put to a
halt and consequently creating durability problems if proper curing is not
done and the durability aspects are not considered. Factors influencing the
strength of concrete can be grouped into two categories:
1)
2)
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
36
3.4
Characteristic Strength
(N/mm2)
7
10
7.0
10.0
Mass concrete
15
15.0
20
25
20.0
25.0
30
30.0
40
50
60
40.0
50.0
60.0
Concrete Preparation
1)
Weight batching
For most large and important jobs the batching of materials is usually
done by weighing. Batching by weight eliminates error due to
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
37
Volume Batching
For most small job, volume batching is adopted by the amount of each
solid ingredient is measured by loose volume using measuring boxes,
gauge box, hopper or wheel barrows. In batching by volume,
allowance has to be made for the moisture present in sand which
results in its bulking. It also advisable to set the volumes in term of
whole bags of cement.
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
38
Machine mixing
Machine mixing can either be in rotation or stirring operation. The
rotation operation is used in tilting drum mixer, non-tilting drum mixer,
and dual drum mixer and continues mixer, while the stirring operation
is used in pan-type mixer see Figure 3.5.
(a)
(b)
Hand mixing
There may be occasions when the concrete has to be mixed by hand,
and because of this case uniformity is more difficult to achieve,
therefore particular care and effort are necessary.
The aggregate should be spread in a uniform layer on a hard, clean
and non-porous base. Cement is then spread over the aggregate and
the dry material are mixed by turning over from one end of the heap to
another and cutting with a shovel until the mix appear uniform. The
water is gradually added to the trough formed by the uniform dry mix
and the mix is turned over until a homogeneous mixture of uniform
color and consistency is obtained.
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
39
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.7: (a) Wheel barrow; (b) Bucket
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
41
3.4.6 Compaction
The objective of compaction is to eliminate air holes and to achieve
maximum density of concrete.
During mixing of concrete a considerable quantity of air is entrapped and
during its transportation there is a possibility of partial segregation taking
place. If the entrapped air is not removed and the segregation of coarse
aggregate not corrected, the concrete may be porous, non-homogeneous
and reduced the concrete strength.
Therefore the process of removal of entrapped air and of uniform placement
of concrete to form homogeneous dense mass is termed compaction.
To compact the concrete, it should be mechanically vibrated or hand spading
as it goes into the form. The reason for compaction are to ensure the
requirement of strength, impermeability and durability of harden concrete.
The process of compaction consists of elimination of entrapped air and
forcing the particles into a close configuration.
Method of compaction can either be hand compaction or machine
compaction;
a)
Hand Compaction
Hand compaction methods consist of rodding, tamping and spading
with suitable tools. Concrete mixes that normally use for hand
compaction are of fairly workable mix if the sections are at narrow and
the reinforcement closely packed.
b)
Machine compaction
Compaction by using vibrators makes possible the placement of stiff,
harsh concrete mixes that cannot be placed and consolidated readily
by hand. Vibration makes it possible to use less workable mixes,
resulting in increased strength and lower drying shrinkage for given
mix proportions. Vibrating machines are usually operated by petrol
engines, compressed air or electricity. The vibrating machines that are
suitable for site use are of 3 main types, namely:
o Internal vibrator-pocker
o External vibrator-clamp to formwork
o Vibrating tables
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
43
Water Curing
Curing by flooding, ponding, or mist spraying is widely used. It is the
most effective of all known curing methods for the prevention of mix
water evaporation. This method is not always practical, however,
because of job conditions. Continuous sprinkling with water is also
an excellent method of curing. If the sprinkling is done at intervals,
the concrete must not be allowed to dry between applications of
water. A constant supply of water prevents the .possibility of crazing
or cracking due to alternate wetting and drying.
2)
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
44
4)
Chemical Membranes
Chemicals can be sprayed on the surface to cure concrete. Liquid
membrane-forming curing compounds retard or prevent the
evaporation of moisture from the concrete. The chemical application
should be made as soon as the concrete is finished. If there is any
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
45
delay in the application, the concrete must be kept moist until the
membrane is applied. The membrane curing compound must not be
applied when there is free water on the surface or after the concrete
is dry.
5)
Steam Curing
In steam curing, the heating of the concrete products is caused by
steam either at low pressure or high pressure. The method ensures
even heating of products all over, even if the space between the
stacked precast concrete products is very small.
Steam curing is more favourable to mixes of concrete with low watercement ratio than mixes with higher water-cement ratio. The choice of
steam curing cycle will be governed by:
3.5
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
46
Plan view
Side view
Figure 3.13: Mould for Slump test
The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a
vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is
measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested (Fig.
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
48
the concrete from the top. During this process, the cylinder should be
covered by the trowels. Immediately after the concrete has come to rest, the
cylinder is uncovered, the trap-door of the lower hopper is opened, and the
concrete is aIIowed to fall into the cylinder. The excess of concrete remaining
above the level of the top of the cylinder is then cut off.
The weight of the concrete in the cylinder is then determined to the nearest l0
g as the weight of partiaIIy compacted concrete. The cylinder is refilled with
concrete from the same sample in layers of approximately 50 mm, the layers
being heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full compaction.
The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is carefully struck off level
with the top of the cylinder. The compacting factor is defined as the ratio of
the weight of partially compacted concrete to the weight of fully compacted
concrete. It is normally stated to the nearest second decimal place.
c)
Vebe Consistometer Test
The test determines the time required for transforming, by vibration, a
concrete specimen in the shape of a conical frustum into a cylinder. The
apparatus (Figure 3.16) consists of a vibrator table resting upon elastic
supports, a metal pot, a sheet metal cone, open at both ends, and a standard
iron rod.
A slump test as described earlier is performed in the cylindrical pot of the
consistometer. The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is moved and
placed just on the top of the slump cone in the pot and before the cone is
lifted up, the position of the concrete cone is noted by adjusting the glass disc
attached to the swivel arm . The cone is then lifted up and the slump noted
on the graduated rod by lowering the glass disc on top of the concrete cone.
The electrical vibrator is switched on and the concrete is allowed to spread
out in the pot. The vibration is continued until the whole concrete surface
uniformly adheres to the glass disc and the time taken for this to be attained
is noted with a stop watch. The consistency of the concrete is expressed in
VB-degree which is equal to the recorded time in seconds. The required
slump is obtained on the basis of the consistency scale given in Table 3.1.
The curve in Figure 3.17 indicates the relationship between slump in mm and
the degrees covered by the consistency scale given in Table 3.1.
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Destructive test
1)
Cube test (BS 1881: Part 116)
This is currently the most common type of destructive test for concrete, owing
to the cheapness of the cube moulds and the comparative simplicity of
manufacture and testing of cubes.
Carefully obtained samples of the concrete mix are placed and compacted in
accurately formed steel moulds, with machine inner surface. Bonding with the
steel mould is prevented by coating with release agent. The surface of each
cube is covered with impermeable sheet or the entire mould sealed. After 24
hours the cube is removed and cured under water at about 20oC, until tested
at age of 7th, 14th and 28th days.
At the testing day, the cube with size of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm or
100mm x 100mm x 100mm, then place centrally between the platens of a
compression testing machine, trowelled face sideways, and the load is
applied such that the stress increase at a given constant rate until failure.
The maximum load is recorded and the values were divided with the cross
sectional area of the cube to obtained the compressive strength of the cube.
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
52
2)
Cylinder Splitting Test (BS 1881: Part 117)
In this test, cylinders which are typically 300mm long and 150mm in diameter,
are loaded in a compression tester with their cylindrical axes horizontal,
stress concentrations being avoided by use the hardboard or plywood strips
about 12mm wide.
The successful operation of the test requires careful alignment of the cylinder
(or use of a jig) and packing strips should be used once only to ensure
uniform bedding, especially in the case of weak concretes, for which plywood
is more suitable material. Except near the packing pieces, a tensile stress is
induced by concrete on the vertical plane and the tensile strength ft at failure
is given by:
ft =
2W
p DL
Equation 3.1
Where;
W = Load at failure
D = Diameter of cylinder
L = Length of cylinder
Note that, since the failure area is DL, the expression is the same as
ft =
load
2
failure _ area p
Equation 3.2
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
53
Figure 3.19: The cylinder splitting test for measurement of the tensile
strength of concrete
b)
Non-destructive tests
These tests are useful to: (1) quality control; (2) determination of the time for
form removal; and (3) help assess the soundness of existing concrete
structures.
Surface Hardness Methods - One of the oldest nondestructive tests,
developed in Germany in the 1930's. Basically, the surface is
impacted with a mass and the size of the resulting indention is
measured. The accuracy of these types of tests is only 20 to 30%.
Rebound Hardness - The most common nondestructive test is the
rebound test. The test measures the rebound of a hardened steel
hammer impacted on the concrete by a spring. This method has the
same limitations as the surface hardness tests. The results are
affected by: (1) surface finish; (2) moisture content; (3) temperature;
(4) rigidity of the member being tested; (5) carbonation of the surface;
and (6) direction of impact (upward, downward, horizontal). Most
useful in checking the uniformity of concrete.
Penetration Resistance - Resistance of concrete to penetration by a
steel probe driven by a given amount of energy is measured. This test
is not affected by surface hardness or carbonation as the above tests,
however, the mix proportions and material properties are still
important.
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
3.6
54
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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3.6.3 Permeability
Concrete has a tendency to be porous due to the presence of voids formed
during or after placing. To produce concrete of low permeability, full
compaction and proper curing is essential. For a given aggregate, the
permeability of concrete can be reduced by reducing the water content or by
increasing the cement content. Low permeability of concrete is important in
increasing resistant to frost action and chemical attack and in protecting
embedded steel against corrosion.
Therefore the study of permeability of concrete is important in case of
reinforced concrete, ingress of moisture and air will result in corrosion of steel
which leads to an increase in the volume of steel, and to cracking and
spalling of concrete cover.
Factors influencing permeability are:
Water-cement ratio.
Workability
Type of structure.
Method of compaction.
Soundness and porosity of the aggregate.
Age - Permeability decreases with age. The decrease being greater
for wet mixes than for drier one.
Grading of aggregate.
Curing.
3.6.4 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a contraction deformation suffered by concrete even under no
load. The shrinkage of concrete is dependent on the amount of drying that
can take place. It is therefore influenced by the humidity and temperature of
the surrounding air, the rate of air flow over the surface and the proportion of
the surface area to volume of concrete.
The two types of shrinkage strains are: Plastic shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage.
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Conditions
Good control with weight batching, use
of graded aggregates, etc Constant
supervision.
Given the type of cement and aggregate, use Table 3.4 to obtain the
compressive strength at the specified ages that correspond to a free water
cement ratio of 0.5.
For example: ordinary Portland cement and crushed aggregate are used.
From the Table 3.4 of the compressive strength of 49 N/mm2 at 28 days (and
36 N/mm2 at 7 days and etc.)
In Figure 3.21 follow the starting line to locate the curve which passes
through the point. (49 N/mm2, w/c=0.5), in this particular case, it is the third
curve from the top of the figure. This curve shows that to obtain our target
mean strength of 43 N/mm2, we need a water/cement ratio of 0.54.
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
59
If the w/c ratio obtained in previous step exceeds the maximum w/c ratio
specified for durability(Table 3.5 BS8110) then adopt the lower valueresulting in a concrete having a higher strength than required.
Table 3.4: Approximate compressive strengths of concrete made with a
free water/cement ratio of 0.5 according to the DOE Method
Type of
cement
Ordinary
Portland
(Type I)
Rapidhardening
Portland
(Type III)
Type of
coarse
aggregate
28
91
Uncrushed
22 (3200)
30 (3200)
42 (6100)
49 (7100)
Crushed
27 (3900)
36 (5200)
49 (7100)
56 (8100)
Uncrushed
29 (4200)
37 (5400)
48 (7000)
54 (7800)
Crushed
34 (4900)
43 (6200)
55 (8000)
61 (8900)
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Mild
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
Maximum free w/c ratio
Minimum cement content (kg/m3)
Concrete fcu (N/mm2)
25
0.65
275
30
20
35
0.60
300
35
20
30
40
50
0.55
325
40
20
20
25
30
0.45
400
50
2)
Determining the water content
Given the slump or VB time, determine the water content from Figure 3.21.
Using Table 3.4, when coarse aggregate and fine aggregates of different
types are used, the water content W is estimated as follows:
Wf
Wc
2
W
3
1
W
3
(Equation 3.4)
Table 3.6: Approximate free water contents required for various level of
workability according to the 1988 DOE Method
Aggregate
Max. Size
mm (in.)
10 (3/8)
20 (3/4)
40 (11/2)
Type
Uncrushed
Crushed
Uncrushed
Crushed
Uncrushed
Crushed
Slump
mm (in.)
Vebe
time, s
60 80
(2 - 7)
> 12
6 12
36
03
150 (255)
180 (305)
135 (230)
170 (285)
115 (195)
155 (260)
180 (305)
205 (345)
160 (270)
190 (320)
140 (235)
175 (295)
205 (345)
230 (390)
180 (305)
210 (355)
160 (270)
190 (320)
225 (380)
250 (420)
195 (330)
225 (380)
175 (295)
205 (345)
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
61
3)
Determining the cement content
The value given by Equation 3.1 should be checked against any maximum or
minimum cement contents that may have been specified for durability. Refer
Table 3.5.
Cement content (kg/m3)
waterconte nt
water cement ratio
(Equation 3.5)
= 1-
Where,
c = 3150 kg/m3 is density of cement particles
w = 1000 kg/m3 is the density of water
Therefore;
Total aggregate content (kg/m3) = a x Volume occupied by aggregate
(Equation 3.7)
Where,
a, is the density of the aggregate particles. The DOE recommends that if no
information is available a should be taken as 2600 kg/m3 for uncrushed
aggregates and 2700 kg/m3 for crushed aggregate.
5)
Determining of the fine and coarse aggregate contents
Total aggregate content consists of fine aggregate will depends on the
grading zone 1, 2, 3 and 4 (see Table 3.5). The general principle in mix
design is the finer the grading of the fine aggregate. The larger its structure
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
62
area per unit weight, the lower will be the proportion expressed as a
percentage of the total aggregate required to produce a concrete.
For a given slump and w/c ratio, the proportion of fine aggregate can be
determined from Figure 3.22 in which the grading zones are those of Table
3.7.
Table 3.7: Grading limits for DOE mix design procedure
Percentage by weight passing standard sieves
Standard Sieve sizes
No. 25 (600 m)
Grading
Zone 1
100
90 100
60 95
30 70
15 34
Grading
Zone 2
100
90 100
75 100
55 90
35 59
Grading
Zone 3
100
90 100
85 100
75 100
60 79
Grading
Zone 4
100
95 100
95 100
90 100
80 100
No. 52 (300 m)
5 20
8 30
12 40
15 50
0 10
0 10
0 10
0 15
10 mm
5 mm
No. 7 (2.36 mm)
No. 14 (1.18 mm)
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
63
Ease of mixing
Ease of placing
Ease of compaction
Ease of finishing
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Generally, mixes of the stiffest consistency that can still be placed adequately
should be used (ACI, 2000). Typically slump is specified, but Table 3.6
shows general slump ranges for specific applications. Slump specifications
are different for fixed form paving and slip form paving. Table 3.7 shows
typical and extreme state DOT slump ranges.
Table 3.6: Slump ranges for specific applications (after ACI, 2000)
Slump
Type of Construction
(mm)
(inches)
25 - 75
1-3
25 - 75
1-3
25 - 100
1-4
Building columns
25 - 100
1-4
25 - 75
1-3
Mass concrete
25 - 50
1-2
Fixed Form
Slip Form
(mm)
(inches)
(mm)
(inches)
25 - 75
1-3
0 - 75
0-3
as low as 25
as high as
175
as low as 1
as high as 7
as low as 0
as high as
125
as low as 0
as high as 5
2)
Maximum Aggregate Size
Maximum aggregate size will affect such PCC parameters as amount of
cement paste, workability and strength. In general, ACI recommends that
maximum aggregate size be limited to 1/3 of the slab depth and 3/4 of the
minimum clear space between reinforcing bars. Aggregate larger than these
dimensions may be difficult to consolidate and compact resulting in a
honeycombed structure or large air pockets. Pavement PCC maximum
aggregate sizes are on the order of 25 mm (1 inch) to 37.5 mm (1.5 inches).
3)
Mixing Water and Air Content Estimation
Slump is dependent upon nominal maximum aggregate size, particle shape,
aggregate gradation, PCC temperature, the amount of entrained air and
Prepared by: Mohammad Soffi Md. Noh, January 2010
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
66
Table 3.8: Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different Slumps and Maximum Aggregate Sizes
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size
9.5 mm
(0.375 in.)
12.5 mm
(0.5 in.)
19 mm
(0.75 in.)
25 mm
(1 in.)
37.5 mm
(1.5 in.)
50 mm
(2 in.)
75 mm
(3 in.)
100 mm
(4 in.)
25 50 (1 - 2)
207 (350)
199 (335)
190 (315)
179 (300)
166 (275)
154 (260)
130 (220)
113 (190)
75 100 (3 - 4)
228 (385)
216 (365)
205 (340)
193 (325)
181 (300)
169 (285)
145 (245)
124 (210)
150 175 (6 - 7)
243 (410)
228 (385)
216 (360)
202 (340)
190 (315)
178 (300)
160 (270)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0.3
0.2
25 50 (1 - 2)
181 (305)
175 (295)
168 (280)
160 (270)
148 (250)
142 (240)
122 (205)
107 (180)
75 100 (3 - 4)
202 (340)
193 (325)
184 (305)
175 (295)
165 (275)
157 (265)
133 (225)
119 (200)
150 175 (6 - 7)
216 (365)
205 (345)
197 (325)
184 (310)
174 (290)
166 (280)
154 (260)
Slump
Non-Air-Entrained PCC
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Moderate Exposure
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
Severe Exposure
7.5
7.0
6.0
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Air-Entrained
41.4 (6000)
0.41
34.5 (5000)
0.48
0.40
27.6 (4000)
0.57
0.48
20.7 (3000)
0.68
0.59
13.8 (2000)
0.82
0.74
2.60
2.80
3.00
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.59
0.57
0.55
0.53
19 mm (0.75 inches)
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
25 mm (1 inches)
0.71
0.69
0.67
0.65
0.75
0.73
0.71
0.69
50 mm (2 inches)
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
68
Notes:
1. These values can be increased by up to about 10 percent for
pavement applications.
2. Coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry-rodded weights
obtained in accordance with ASTM C 29.
7)
Fine Aggregate Content
At this point, all other constituent volumes have been specified (water,
portland cement, air and coarse aggregate). Thus, the fine aggregate
volume is just the remaining volume:
8)
Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture
Unlike HMA, PCC batching does not require dried aggregate. Therefore,
aggregate moisture content must be accounted for. Aggregate moisture
affects the following parameters:
1. Aggregate weights. Aggregate volumes are calculated based on oven
dry unit weights, but aggregate is typically batched based on actual
weight. Therefore, any moisture in the aggregate will increase its
weight and stockpiled aggregates almost always contain some
moisture. Without correcting for this, the batched aggregate volumes
will be incorrect.
2. Amount of mixing water. If the batched aggregate is anything but
saturated surface dry it will absorb water (if oven dry or air dry) or give
up water (if wet) to the cement paste. This causes a net change in the
amount of water available in the mix and must be compensated for by
adjusting the amount of mixing water added.
3.8
Types Of Concrete
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
69
reinforcement resisting the tension and shear. It is the most versatile building
material available and is extensively used in the construction industry ranging
from small structural elements such as beams and columns to massive
structures like dams and bridges.
Chapter 3: Concrete
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
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Chapter 3: Concrete
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The pull out resistance of fibers depends upon the bond between the fibers
and matrix, the number of fibers crossing the crack, and the aspect ratio.
The advantages of fiber reinforced concrete are: Strength of concrete increase
Fibers help to reduce cracking and permit the use of thin concrete
section.
Ductility, impact resistance, tensile and bending strength are
improved.
The disadvantages of fiber reinforced concrete are: Fibers reduce the workability of a mix and may cause the entrainment
of air.
Steel fibers tend to intermesh and form ball during mixing of concrete.
Fiber reinforced concrete is useful hydraulic structures, airfield pavements,
highway, bridge decks, and heavy duty floors.
3.8.5 Lightweight Concrete
Conventional cement concrete is a heavy building material. For structures
such as multistorey buildings it is desirable to reduce the dead loads. Light
weight concrete is most suitable for such construction works. It is best
produced by entraining air in the cement concrete and can be obtained by
anyone of the following methods:
1) By making concrete with cement and coarse aggregate only.
Sometimes such a concrete is referred to as no-fines concrete.
Suitable aggregates are - natural aggregate, blast furnance slag,
clinker, foamed slag, etc. Since fine aggregates are not used, voids
will be created and the concrete produced will be light weight.
2) By replacing coarse aggregate by porous or cellular aggregate. The
concrete produced is known as cellular concrete which is further
classified in the following:
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The applications of light weight concrete are: Low density cellular concrete is used for precast floor and roofing
units.
Load bearing walls using cellular concrete blocks.
As insulation cladding to exterior walls of structures.
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Air entrainers
Water reducers
Retarders
Hydration controller admixtures
Accelerators
Supplementary cementitious admixtures
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) identifies four major reasons for
using admixtures:
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lower water contents. Water reducers are produced with different levels of
effectiveness: conventional, mid-range, and high-range. The high-range
water reducer is typically called superplasticizer.
Water reducing admixtures can be used indirectly to gain strength. Since the
water-reducing admixture increases workability, we can take advantage of
this phenomenon to decrease the mixing water, which in turn reduces the
water-cementitious materials ratio and increases strength.
Superplasticizers, or high-range water reducers, can either greatly increase
the flow of the fresh concrete or reduce the amount of water required for a
given consistency. For example, adding a superplasticizer to a concrete with
a 75-mm (3 in.) slump can increase the slump to 230 mm (9 in.), or the
original slump can be maintained by reducing the water content 12% to 30%.
Reducing the amount of mixing water reduces the water-cementitious
materials ratio, which in turn, increases the strength of hardened concrete. In
fact, the use of superplasticizers has resulted in a major breakthrough in the
concrete industry. Now, high-strength concrete in the order of 70-80 MPa
compressive strength or more can be produced when superplasticizers are
used. Superplasticizers can be used in the following cases:
When superplasticizers are used, the fresh concrete stays workable for a
short time, 30 min to 60 min, and is followed by rapid loss in workability.
Superplasticizers are usually added at the plant to ensure consistency of the
concrete. In critical situations, they can be added at the jobsite, but the concrete should be thoroughly mixed following the addition of the admixture. The
setting time varies with the type of agents, the amount used, and the interactions with other admixtures used in the concrete.
3.9.3 Retarders
Some construction conditions require that the time between mixing and
placing or finishing the concrete be increased. In such cases, retarders can
be used to delay the initial set of concrete. Retarders are used for several
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Retarders can reduce the strength of concrete at early ages (e.g., one to
three days). In addition, some retarders entrain air and improve workability.
Other retarders increase the time required for the initial set but reduce the
time between the initial and final set. The properties of retarders vary with the
materials used in the mix and with job conditions. Thus, the use and effect of
retarders must be evaluated experimentally during the mix design process.
3.9.4 Hydration-Control Admixture
These admixtures have the ability to stop and reactivate the hydration
process of concrete. They consist of two parts: a stabilizer and an activator.
Adding the stabilizer completely stops the hydration of the cementing materials for up to 72 hours, while adding the activator to the stabilized concrete
reestablishes normal hydration and setting. These admixtures are very useful
in extending the use of ready-mixed concrete when the work at the jobsite is
stopped for various reasons. They are also useful when concrete is being
hauled for a long time.
3.9.5 Accelerators
Accelerators are used to develop early strength of concrete at a faster rate
than that developed in normal concrete. The ultimate strength, however, of
high early strength concrete is about the same as that of normal concrete.
Accelerators are used to
The first three reasons are particularly applicable to concrete work placed
during cold temperatures. The increased strength gained helps to protect the
concrete from freezing and the rapid rate of hydration generates heat that
can reduce the risk of freezing.
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, is the most widely used accelerator (ASTM D98).
Both initial and final set times are reduced with calcium chloride. The initial
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set time of 3 hours for a typical concrete can be reduced to 1.5 hours by
adding an amount of calcium chloride equal to 1% of the cement weight; 2%
reduces the initial set time to 1 hour. Typical final set times are 6 hours, 3
hours, and 2 hours for 0%, 1%, and 2% calcium chloride. Concrete with
CaCI2, develops higher early strength compared with plain concrete cured at
the same temperature.
The PCA recommends against using calcium chloride under the following
conditions:
concrete is prestressed
concrete contains embedded aluminum such as conduits, especially if
the aluminum is in contact with steel
concrete is subjected to alkali-aggregate reaction
concrete is in contact with water or soils containing sulfates
concrete is placed during hot weather
mass applications of concrete
Fly Ash
Fly ash is the most commonly used pozzolan in civil engineering
structures. Fly ash is a by-product of the coal industry. Combusting
pulverized coal in an electric power plant burns off the carbon and
most volatile materials. However, depending on the source and type of
coal, a significant amount of impurities passes through the combustion
chamber.
The carbon contents of common coals ranges from 70 to 100 percent.
The noncarbon percentages are impurities (e.g., clay, feldspar, quartz,
and shale), which fuse as they pass through the combustion chamber.
Exhaust gas carries the fused material, fly ash, out of the combustion
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chamber. The fly ash cools into spheres, which may be solid, hollow
(cenospheres), or hollow and filled with other spheres (plerospheres).
Particle diameters range from 1 m to more than 0.1 mm, with an
average of 0.015 mm to 0.020 mm, and are 70% to 90% smaller than
0.045 mm. Fly ash is primarily a silica glass composed of silica (SiO2),
alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe203), and lime (Ca0).
The spherical shape of fly ash increases the workability of the fresh
concrete. In addition, fly ash extends the hydration process, allowing a
greater strength development and reduced porosity. Studies have
shown that concrete containing more than 20% fly ash by weight of
cement has a much smaller pore size distribution than portland
cement concrete without fly ash. The lower heat of hydration reduces
the early strength of the concrete. The extended reaction permits a
continuous gaining of strength beyond what can be accomplished with
plain portland cement.
b.
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Silica Fume
Silica fume is a byproduct of the production of silicon metal or
ferrosilicon alloys. One of the most beneficial uses for silica fume is as
a mineral admixture in concrete. Because of its chemical and physical
properties, it is a very reactive pozzolan. Concrete containing silica
fume can have very high strength and can be very durable. Silica fume
is available from suppliers of concrete admixtures and, when
specified, is simply added during concrete production either in wet or
dry forms. Placing, finishing, and curing silica fume concrete require
special attention on the part of the concrete contractor.
Silicon metal and alloys are produced in electric furnaces. The raw
materials are quartz, coal, and woodchips. The smoke that results
from furnace operation is collected and sold as silica fume.
Silica fume consists primarily of amorphous (noncrystalline) silicon
dioxide (SiO2). The individual particles are extremely small,
approximately 1/100th the size of an average cement particle.
Because of its fine particles, large surface area, and the high SiO2,
content, silica fume is a very reactive pozzolan when used in concrete.
The quality of silica fume is specified by ASTM C 1240 and AASHTO
M 307.
In addition to producing high-strength concrete, silica fame can reduce
concrete corrosion induced by deicing or marine salts. Silica fume
concrete with low water content is highly resistant to penetration by
chloride ions.
d.
Natural Pozzolans
A pozzolan is a siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself,
possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form
and in the presence of moisture, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties (ASTM C595). Naturally occurring pozzolans,
such as fine volcanic ash, combined with burned lime, were used
about 2000 years ago for building construction and pozzolan
continues to be used today. Calcium hydroxide is one of the products
generated by the hydration of C3S and C2S. In fact, up to 15% of the
weight of Portland cement is hydrated lime. Adding a pozzolan to
portland cement generates an opportunity to convert this free lime to a
cementitious material.
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Tutorial 3
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
Q4.
Q5.
Summary of Chapter 3
From this chapter, we can conclude that, concrete is conglomerate, stone like
material composed essentially of three materials which are cement,
aggregate and water. Sometimes a fourth material namely an admixture is
added for variety of specific purposes, such as acceleration or retardation of
setting or hardening. The strength and quality of concrete depend not only on
the quality and quantity of the materials, but on the procedures used in
combining these materials and the skill involved in the placing and curing of
concrete.