Epistemological

and Theoretical
Paradigms

Epistemological Orientation

Scientific or Positivism
What is reality?

Society is an orderly system

Reality is out there OBJECTIVE
REALITY

How do we conduct Principles:

research?
Empiricism
Objectivity
Validity
Reliability

Quantitative Research
Objective Observer

Epistemological Orientation

Interpretive or Hermeneutic
What is reality?

Society is an on-going interaction

Reality is socially constructedSUBJECTIVE REALITY

How do we
conduct research?

Develop qualitative account of the

subjective sense people make of
their world
Qualitative Research

Epistemological Orientation

Critical or Liberative
What is reality?

Society is a pattern of
inequality
Reality is that some
dominate others.

How do we
Research is a strategy to
conduct research?
bring about desired
change.

Qualitative and

quantitative research
Activist researcher

Epistemological Orientation

Postmodern
What is reality?

Challenges the belief in reason and rationality, the

How do we
conduct
research?

corner-stone of science or positivism.

There is nothing outside the TEXT.
Reality is produced by language.
Different languages or discourses create
relations of power between and among
groups/individuals.
Traditional science thus privileges one group over
the other (Michel Foucault).
Language is unstable and ambiguous. One truth is
a repression of other truths (Jacques Derrida).

Introspective, anti-objectivist interpretation, which

rejects observation from the outside in favor of

vision, in which the observer and the observed,
the self and other, are not clearly distinguished.
Observer can never be neutral (Michel Foucault).

Theoretical Paradigm

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL
Image of Society

A system of interrelated

parts that is relatively stable

because of widespread
agreement on what is
morally desirable.
Each part has a particular
function in society as a
whole.

Core Questions

What are the major parts of the

society?
How are these parts
interrelated?
What are the consequences of
each part for the overall
operation of society?
How is society integrated?

SOCIAL CONFLICT
Image of Society

A system based on

social inequality; each

part of society benefits
some categories of
people more than others.
Social inequality leads to
conflict, which, in turn,
leads to social change.

Core Questions

How is society divided?

What are the major

patterns of social
inequality? How do some
of people try to protect
their privileges?
How do other categories
of people challenge the
status quo?

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Image of Society

An on going process of

social interaction in specific

settings based on symbolic
communication.
Individual perceptions of
reality are variable and
changing.

Core Questions

How is society experienced?

How do human beings interact

to create, maintain, and change

social patterns?
How do individuals try to shape
the reality that others perceive?
How does individual behavior
change from one situation to
another?

POSTMODERNISM
Image of Society

Fleeting
Anti-foundational, anti

metanarrative and
metahistory
Polycentric and
heterogenous
Multiplicity and polysemy
Individual emancipation

Core Questions

What are the sensibilities in

talking about the society?

How do you talk about the
society?