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Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm system is a simple yet powerful
concept, which uses transistor as a switch. By using this system manual works are
100%removed. It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes below the
visible region of our eyes. This is done by a sensor called Light Dependant Resistor
(LDR) which senses the light actually like our eyes. It automatically switches OFF
lights whenever the sunlight comes, visible to our eyes and activates the morning
alarm.
By using this system energy consumption is also reduced because nowadays the
manually operated street lights are not switched off even the sunlight comes and also
switched on earlier before sunset. In this project, no need of manual operation like ON
time and OFF time setting. LDR and transistor are the main components of the
project. The resistance of light dependant resistor (LDR) varies according to the light
falling on it. This LDR is connected as biasing resistor of the transistor. According to
the light falls on the LDR, the transistor is operated in saturation and cut off region.
CHAP TER 1
INTRODUCTION
Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm System is a simple yet powerful
concept, which uses transistor as a switch. By using this system manual works are
100%removed. It automatically switches ON lights when the goes below the visible
region of our eyes. This is done by a sensor called Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)
which senses the light actually like our eyes. it automatically switches OFF lights
whenever the sunlight comes, visible to our eyes and activates the morning alarm
By using this system energy consumption is also reduced because nowadays the
manually operated street lights are not switched off even the sunlight comes and also
switched on earlier before sunset. In this project, no need of manual operation like ON
time and OFF time setting. LDR and transistor are the main components of the
project. The resistance of light dependant resistor (LDR) varies according to the light
falling on it. This LDR is connected as biasing resistor of the transistor. According to
the light falls on the LDR, the transistor is operated in saturation and cut off region.
This transistor switches the relay to switch on / off the light. This project uses
regulated 12V, 750mA power supply. 7812 three terminal voltage regulator is used
for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac output
of secondary of230/18V step down transformer.
This chapter includes the general introduction and the organization of the
project. The general introduction includes how this project is useful today and
organization of the project includes how the project is organized in chapters.
CHAP TER 2
DESCRIP TION OF COMPONENTS
2.1 GENERAL THEORY
This chapter discuss about the primary components that are required to make this
project and their description in detail with necessary figures and images.
Components Needed for Making this Hidden floor s witch
Resistors
capacitor
Transistor
Loud speaker
Diode
Um66IC
Transformer
IC 7806
LDR
LED
Toggle switch
IC: IC 555
9v Battery
V=IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel/chrome).
Fig. 2.1Resistor
A resistor is a component which opposes the flow of current through it. They
are Passive Devices, that is they contain no source of power or amplification but
only attenuate or reduce the voltage signal passing through them. When used in DC
circuits the voltage drop produced is measured across their terminals as the circuit
current flows through them while in AC circuits the voltage and current are both inphase producing 0o phase shift. Generally resistance is measured in ohms.
Basically, resistors are classified depending upon their function.
Fixed Resistors.
Variable Resistors.
Fixed Resistors
Resistors whose values are fixed are called as fixed resistors. These fixed
resistors are further classified as,
Carbon Composition Resistors.
Carbon Film Resistors.
Metal Oxide Film Resistors.
Wire Wound Resistors.
The values of fixed resistors can be calculated by making use of the following:
2nd
3rd band
4th band
Temp.
band
band
(multiplier)
(tolerance)
Coefficient
Black
100
Brown
101
1% (F)
100 ppm
Red
102
2% (G)
50 ppm
Orange
103
15 ppm
Yellow
104
25 ppm
Green
105
0.5% (D)
Blue
106
0.25% (C)
Violet
107
0.1% (B)
Gray
108
0.05% (A)
White
109
Colour
Gold
101
5% (J)
Silver
102
10% (K)
None
20% (M)
In this project, the resistors are used in the order of Kilo Ohms (K) like 1K,
10K, and 1M Ohm resistors.
Variable Resistors
Sometimes it is necessary to have a resistor in a circuit whose value can be
changed after the circuit has been built. This might be to allow the circuit to be fine
tuned by the manufacturer, or adjusted by the user e.g. to change the volume on a
radio. The type of resistor required in this situation is called a variable resistor.
Variable resistors are often called Potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are
specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical
size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm.
2.2.2 Capacitors
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component
consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a
potential difference (voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present
in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large
areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an
equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit
resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The capacitors function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The
capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking
direct current (DC). This symbol F is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit
diagram. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but
separated by an insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric
charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows.
The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has fully charged.
2.3 Transistor
A Transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair
of the transistors terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the
controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The
transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices. A transistor
can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an
amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit
as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by
other circuit elements. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred
watts are common and relatively inexpensive.
In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a
changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A transistor may
be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no
current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. A simple
transistor is shown in figure 2.7.
(a)
(b)
Fig 2.8: BJT symbols (a) PNP transistor (b) NPN transistor
2.3.1 BC 548
BC548 is general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor. BC stands
for base to collector. There are many other devices based on the BC54x family, such
as the surface- mount versions of the BC547, BC548 and BC549.
electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.
Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of
the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of
integrated circuits.
A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of
individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a
substrate or circuit board. A monolithic integrated circuit is made of devices
manufactured by diffusion of trace elements into a single piece of semiconductor
substrate a chip.
Name
Purpose
GND
TRIG
OUT
CTRL
THR
DIS
V+, Vcc
When > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the output low (0V). It monitors the
charging of the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits. It has a high input
impedance> 10M providing the trigger input is > 1/3 Vs, otherwise the trigger input
will override the threshold input and hold the output high (+Vs).
RESET INPUT
When less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the output low (0V),
overriding other inputs. When not required it should be connected to +Vs. It has input
impedance of about 10 .
CONTROL INPUT
This can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to be
2
/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the control input is connected to 0V
and radio-controlled vehicle controllers. They are also used as backup power to keep
the time in certain electronic clocks. This format is commonly available in primary
carbon-zinc and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in
rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium, nickel- metal hydride and lithium- ion. Mercury
oxide batteries in this form have not been manufactured in many years due to their
mercury content. When < 1 /3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high (+Vs). Most
nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5V LR61 cells enclosed
in a wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be
used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbonzinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a moisture-resistant
wrapper to prevent drying.
As of 2007, 9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales
in the US. In Switzerland as of 2008, 9-volt batteries totaled 2% of primary battery
sales and 2% of secondary battery sales. Other 9- volt batteries of different sizes exist,
such as the British Ever Ready PP series and certain lantern batteries.
Primary
(disposable)
IEC
name
ANSI/NEDA
Typical
Nominal voltage
name
Capacity(mAh)
Alkaline
6LR61
1604A
565
Zinc
carbon
6F22
1604D
400
1604LC
1200
Lithium
9.6
NiCd
6KR61
11604
120
7.2
NiMH
6HR61
7.2H5
175-300
7.2
Rechargeable
Lithiumion
polymer
520
8.4 (some)
some
8.4
7.3
9.6
CHAPTER 3
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A regulated power supply is very much essential for several electronic devices
due to the semiconductor material employed in them have a fixed rate of current as
well as voltage. The device may get damaged if there is any deviation from the fixed
rate. The AC power supply gets converted into constant DC by this circuit. By the
help of a voltage regulator DC unregulated output will be fixed to a constant voltage.
The circuit is made up of linear voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors and
resistors with bridge rectifier made up from diodes. From giving an unchanging
voltage supply to building confident that output reaches uninterrupted to the
appliance, the diodes along with capacitors handle elevated efficient signal conveyed.
Pin
2 (Ground):
Ground
pin
establishes the
ground
for
the
regulator.
Pin 3 (Output Pin): The Output pin is the regulated 5 volts DC.
3.3 ADVANTAGES:
78xx series ICs do not require additional component to provide a constant,
regulated source of power, and are really easy to use.
78xx series ICs have built- in protection against a circuit drawing too much
power.
They have protection against overheating and short-circuits.
In some cases, the current- limiting features of the 78xx devices can
provide protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts
of the circuit.
The best part is they dont really cost much..!! They are quiet inexpensive.
3.4 DISADVANTAGES:
The input voltage must be always slightly greater than 5 volts
They are linear regulators input current required is always the same as the
output current
These types of voltage regulator dissipates a lot of heat therefore a heat
sink is suggested in case you are working with higher voltage like 20 volts
or so but even with 12 volts of input they generate decent amount of heat.
3.5 LOUDSPEAKER
A loudspeaker (or loud-s peaker or speaker) is an electro acoustic transducer a
device which converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The first
crude loudspeakers were invented during the development of telephone systems in the
late 1800s, but electronic amplification by vacuum tube beginning around 1912 made
loudspeakers truly
practical.
used
in
radios,
phonographs, public address systems and theatre sound systems for talking motion
pictures.
The most widely- used type of speaker today is the dynamic speaker, invented in 1925
by Edward W. Kellogg and Chester W. Rice. The dynamic speaker operates on the
same basic principle as a dynamic microphone, but in reverse, to produce sound from
an electrical signal. When an alternating current electrical audio signal input is
applied through the voice coil, a coil of wire suspended in a circular gap between the
poles of a permanent magnet, the coil is forced to move rapidly back and forth due to
Faraday's law of induction, which causes a diaphragm (usually conically shaped be
used to convert an electrical signal into sound.
Speakers are typically housed in an enclosure which is often a rectangular or square
box made of wood or sometimes plastic. Where high fidelity reproduction of sound is
required, multiple loudspeakers may be mounted in the same enclosure, each
reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. In this case the individual speakers
are referred to as "drivers" and the entire unit is called a loudspeaker. Miniature
loudspeakers are found in devices such as radio and TV receivers, and many forms of
music players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in
theatres and concerts, and in public address systems.
. . . (1)
. . . (2)
Combining ratio of (1) & (2)
Turns ratio
Where
. . . (3)
By law of Conservation of Energy, apparent, real and reactive power are each
conserved in the input and output
. . . (4)
Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote yields the ideal transformer identity
. (5)
By Ohm's Law and ideal transformer identity
. . . (6)
Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)
. (7)
It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to analyze the
transformer as an ideal transformer model as represented in the two images. An ideal
transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled;
that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic
core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding
inductances and zero net magneto motive force.
magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary
and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and
load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in
the indicated directions.
According to Faraday's law of induction, since the same magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is
induced in each winding, according to eq. (1) in the secondary winding case,
according to eq. (2) in the primary winding case. The primary EMF is sometimes
termed counter EMF. This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that
induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly
proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq. (3). According to the law
of Conservation of Energy, any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's
secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real and reactive power
consistent with eq. (4).
Fig 3.4 Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 marking on LV side
terminal
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation
for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio
both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio. By Ohm's
Law and the ideal transformer identity: The secondary circuit load impedance can be
expressed as eq. (6). The apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is
derived in eq. (7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit
load impedance.
3.7 POLARITY:
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or
terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positivelyincreasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's dot end induces
positive polarity voltage at the secondary winding's dot end.
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real
transformers. Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consist of
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer
core, and Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to
the square of the transformer's applied voltage. Whereas windings in the ideal model
have no resistances and infinite inductances, the windings in a real transformer have
finite non-zero resistances and inductances associated with Joule losses due to
resistance in the primary and secondary windings Leakage flux that escapes from the
core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive
impedance.
power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage
not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.
Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air
gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer
design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used
to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapour
lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically shortcircuited such as electric arc welders. Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer
from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC
component flowing in the windings.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are
operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated
winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were
hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to
their respective volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA
unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current).
However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are
significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers
tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units' values being, to
illustrate, respectively, Z 5.75%, X/R 3.75 and Z 5%, X/R 4.75.
DEFINITION OF TRANSFORMER
Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical
energy from one circuit to another without any direct electrical connection and with
the help of mutual induction between two windings. It transforms power from one
circuit
to
another
without
changing
its
frequency
but
may
be
in
principle
It depends
selected. There is an inbuilt oscillator circuit that serves as a time base for beat and
tone generator. It has a 62 notes ROM to play music. A set of 4 bits controls the scale
code while 2 bits control the rhythm code. When power is turned on, the melody
generator is reset and melody begins from the first note. The speaker can be driven by
an external NPN transistor connected to the output of UM66. Many versions of
UM66T are available which generate tone of different songs. For example, UM66T01
generates tone for songs Jingle bells, Santa Claus is coming to town and We wish
you a merry X mas.
3.9.2 IC7806:
7806 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of
fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have
fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC
maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed
output voltage it is designed to provide. 7806 provide +6V regulated power supply
Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending
upon the respective voltage levels.
intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as
indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were
soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and were
commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and
task lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller
size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as
diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, and advertising, lighting, traffic,
and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are still
relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management than
compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. LEDs have allowed new
text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are
also useful in advanced communications technology.
SWITCHES
The
most
familiar
form
of
switch
is
manually
operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which
are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states:
either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between
them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non conducting.
The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can
be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (pushfor "on" or push- for "off") type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a
system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit,
such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the
motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full
open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece.
Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow,
current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically
control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to
TOGGLE SWITCH
In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal,
called contacts, connected to an external circuit, that touch to complete (make) the
circuit, and separate to open (break) the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its
resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would
prevent the switch from working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis
of electrical conductivity ,hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), mechanical strength,
low cost and low toxicity.
CHAPTER 4
CIRCIUT DIAGRAM
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND OPERATION:
illuminated. LDR1detects darkness, while LDR2 detects light in the morning. The
circuit is designed around the popular timer IC NE555 (IC2), which is configured as a
monostable. IC2 is activated by a low pulse applied to its trigger pin 2. Once
triggered, output pin 3 of IC2 goes high and remains in that position until IC2 is
triggered again at its pin 2. When LDR1 illuminated with ambient light in the room,
its resistance remains low, this keeps trigger pin 2 of IC2 at a positive potential.
As a result, output pin 3 of IC2 goes low and the white LED remains off. As
the illumination of LDR1s sensitive window reduces, the resistance of the device
increases. In total darkness, the specified LDR has a resistance in excess of 280 kilo
ohms. When the resistance of LDR1 increases, a short pulse is applied to trigger pin 2
of IC2 via resistor R2 (150 kilo ohms).
This activates the monostable and its output goes high, causing the white LED to
glow. Low- value capacitor C2 maintains the monostable for continuous operation,
eliminating the timer effect. By increasing the value of C2, the on time of the white
LED can be adjusted to a predetermined time. LDR2 and associated components
generate the morning alarm at dawn.
LDR2 detects the ambient light in the room at sunrise and its resistance
gradually falls and transistor T1 starts conducting. When T1 conducts, melodygenerator IC UM66 (IC3) gets supply voltage from the emitter of T1 and it starts
producing the melody. The musical tone generated by IC3 is amplified by singletransistor amplifier T2. Resistor R7 limits the current to IC3 and zener diode ZD
limits the voltage to a safer level of 3.3 volts.
The circuit can be easily assembled on a general-purpose PCB. Enclose it in a
good-quality plastic case with provisions for LDR and LED. Use a reflective holder
for white LED to get a spotlight effect for reading. Place LDRs away from the white
LED, preferably on the backside of the case, to avoid unnecessary illumination. The
speaker should be small so as to make the gadget compact.
This circuit automatically turns on a night lamp when bedroom light is
switched off. The lamp remains on until the light sensor senses daylight in the
morning. A super- bright white LED is used as the night lamp. It gives bright and cool
light in the room. When the sensor detects the daylight in the morning, a melodious
morning alarm sounds. The circuit is powered from a standard 0-9V transformer.
Enclose it in a good-quality plastic case with provisions for LDR and LED. Use a
reflective holder for white LED to get a spotlight effect for reading. Place LDRs away
from the white LED, preferably on the backside of the case, to avoid unnecessary
illumination. The speaker should be small so as to make the gadget compact.
4.2 ADVANTAGES:
Highly sensitive
Works according to the light intensity
Fit and Forget system Low cost and reliable.
Complete elimination of man power.
Can handle heavy loads up to 7A
System can be switched into manual mode whenever required.
4.3APPLICATIONS:
Bed Rooms
Hostels and Hotels
Balcony / stair case / parking Lightings
Street lights Garden Light
CHAPTER-4
OUTPUT OF THE CIRCUIT
CHAP TER -5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURESCOPE
The project AUTOMATIC LED NIGHT LAMP makes use of a super bright
LED as the night lamp. It is powered by a 0 -9v transformer. In case of power failure,
battery backup is also provided which keeps the circuit in active mode. Light
dependent resisters or LDRS are used for sensing the darkness in the room.
Once the bed room light is switched off the LDR resistance becomes
minimum and LED glows. The LED provides a bright at cool night. In the morning,
the sensor detects the sunlight and switches off along with an alarm that goes ON. The
circuit in the project can be easily assembly on a PCB. Also the speaker should be a
small one to make the circuit compact.
The project described hear has got high sensitivity and depend on light intensity
for its working. It other advantages are its low cost and reliability no manual
operation is required and loads up to 7A can be handled. However its also has
manual mode of operation too. This project can be applied a variety of places like
bedrooms hostels, hotels. Also to save electricity it can be applied to street lamps and
gardens. Thus the working of the automatic night lamp with morning alarm was
explained in detail. In this project, no need of manual operation like ON time and
OFF time setting so we reduce manual works by 100%. By using this system energy
consumption is also reduced
REFERENCES
1) http://ece-eee.mini-projects.in
2) http://seminarprojects.com
3) http://www.allprojectreports.com
4) S. Reegan & Elan Johnson Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm, Dept.
of E.C.E., S.V.P.C.E.T., Puttur, published in http://www.scribd.com
5) http://www.eeweb.com
6) http://www.princeton.edu
7) D. Mohan Kumar Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm published in
Circuit Ideas, Electronics for you, December 2003