Mws Slide

1
Introduction
what is a control system?

what are the basic components of a control system?
some examples of control system applications
open-loop and closed-loop systems
effects of feedback
1 Introduction
Control systems and models

A control system is a [combination or set or group] of [components or
elements or devices] [connected or acting] together under a set of
[regulations or rules] to perform a [certain objective or useful task].
Fig. 1-1: Basic components of a
control system.
System model
inputs
system
boundary
outputs
{law rule}
environment
inputs
system
outputs
= components
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Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Chulalongkorn Univ., based on B. C. Kuo & F. Golnaraghi, Automatic Control Systems, 7th ed.
1 Introduction
A Control System
contains a component called controller whose role is to control the
system output so that an objective is achieved.
Example:
A simple control system

r
controlling
component
controller
controlled
component
plant
A control system
This type of control systems is called open-loop.
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1 Introduction
An Example: Open-Loop Temperature Control

Consider as an example
r
controlling u
component
air-conditioner
controlled
component
a.c. room
A room with air-conditioning system
where r
u
y
fan speed control (LO, MED, HI)

amount of cool air
room temperature
Open-loop controller neglects information about room-size, number

of persons in room, inside- and outside-temp., time of day, etc.
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1 Introduction
Closed-Loop Temperature Control

Consider the closed-loop conguration
d
r
comparing
component
thermostat
u
a.c.
room
where d represents the information being neglected. The controller

(block a.c.) called closed-loop controller can be designed to make y
less insensitive to d.
Benets
more comfortable
save energy, etc.
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1 Introduction
Feedback Control
Also known as Automatic Control

Can reduce the effect of disturbance d on y because
d affects y in the feedforward manner,
and y is fed back to the feedforward path for making decision.
In this way, the closed-loop control makes the cause-and-effect
relationship a complete loop.
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1 Introduction
Control system example: Sun-tracking solar collectors
Fig. 1-5:
Solar collector eld.
the collector dish must track

the sun accurately
a predetermined desired rate
is modied or trim by actual
position errors determined by
the sun sensor
the controller constantly
calculates the suns rate for
azimuth and elevation
Fig. 1-7: Important components of

the sun-tracking control systems.
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1 Introduction
Open-loop and closed-loop control systems

Open-loop
or nonfeedback control
good for plant without disturbances

good for plant with accurate model
require less equipment (e.g. sensor, comparing device)
no stability problem
Closed-loop or feedback control
reduce the effect of unknown disturbances
tolerate model inaccuracy
require more equipment
need good design to avoid instability
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1 Introduction
Effect of feedback
complete the cause-and-effect relationships
increase the gain of a system in one frequency range but decrease it
in another
can improve stability or be harmful to stability
can increase or decrease the sensitivity of a system
can reduce the effect of noise
can affect bandwidth, impedance, transient response, steady-state
response, and frequency response
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Mathematical Foundation
Laplace transform
inverse Laplace transform by partial-fraction expansion
application of Laplace transform to the solution of linear ODE
impulse response and transfer functions of linear systems
M ATLAB tools and case studies
2 Mathematical Foundation
Laplace transform

Denition Given a real function f (t) satisfying 0 |f (t)et| dt < for
some nite, real , the Laplace transform of f (t) is dened as

F (s) = L[f (t)] =
f (t)est dt
0
The complex variable s = + j is called the Laplace operator.

Example Let f (t) be a unit-step function us(t)

dened as
1, t 0
f (t) = us(t) =
0, t < 0
u(t)
1
The Laplace transform of f (t) is obtained as

1
1
1
=
us(t)est dt = est
=0
F (s) = L[f (t)] =
s
s
s
0
t=0
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Impulse function
An impulse (or Dirac delta) function is dened as the limit of a
rectangular pulse function:

(t) =
(t)
1
,
0t<
0, t < 0, t
(t) = lim (t)

0
One of its most important properties is known as sifting property:

(t a)f (t) dt = f (a)
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Table of Laplace transform

f (t)
F (s) = L{f (t)}
(t)
1
1
s
1
s2
n!
1
t
tn
eat
sin bt
cos bt
sn+1
1
sa
b
s2 + b 2
s
2
s + b2
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Important theorems of Laplace transform

Linearity
L[f1(t) + f2(t)] = F1(s) + F2(s)
Differentiation
L[f (t)] = sF (s) f (0)
L[f (t)] = s L[f (t)] f (0)
= s2F (s) sf (0) f (0)
Integration
t

F (s)
1
f ( ) d = L[f (t)] =
L
s
s
0
t 1

F (s)
L
f (2) d2 d1 = 2
s
0 0
Shift in time
L[f (t T )us(t T )] = eT sF (s)
Initial value theorem

lim f (t) = lim sF (s)
t0
if the limit exists.
Final value theorem

lim f (t) = lim sF (s)
t
s0
if sF (s) is analytic in Re s 0.
Complex shifting
L[etf (t)] = F (s )
Real convolution
F1(s)F2(s) = L[f1(t) f2(t)]
t

=L
f1( )f2(t ) d
0
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0+ and 0
If we dene
F+(s) = L+[f (t)] =
0+
f (t)e
st

dt and F(s) = L[f (t)] =
f (t)est dt
we must replace 0 in the theorems by 0+ or 0 accordingly, e.g.,

t

F+(s)

, f (0+) = lim sF+(s)
f ( ) d =
L+[f (t)] = sF+(s) f (0+), L+
s
s
0+
Both work ne. For example,
du(t)
= (t)
dt
and the differentiation formula,
u(t)
Then 0+ or 0?
consider
L+[u(t)] = s L+[u(t)] u(0+)

1
= s 1 = L+[(t)] = 0
s
1
u(0) = 0
0
u(0+) = 1
1
L[u(t)] = s L[u(t)] u(0)

1
= s 0 = L[(t)] = 1
s
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Inverse Laplace transform

The inverse Laplace transform of F (s) can be found from
c+j
1
1
f (t) = L [F (s)] =
F (s)est ds
2j cj
where c is a real constant chosen so that F (s) is analytic in region
Re s c.
The method of partial-fraction expansion can also be used to nd
L1[] of rational functions.
Rational function
If an
= 0 we call the function
P (s) = ansn + an1sn1 + + a1s + a0

a polynomial of degree n with a1, a2, . . . , an as its coefcients.
Rational functions are fractions of polynomials (c.f. rational numbers
are fractions of integers).
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Partial-fraction expansion: Real roots

If is a real root of P (s) with multiplicity m, i.e., P (s) = (s )mR(s),
then we write
Q(s)
A1
A2
Am
=
+
+
+
+ {terms of R(s)}
P (s) s (s )2
(s )m
Multiplying both sides by (s )m
Q(s)
= Am + + A2(s )m2 + A1(s )m1 + {terms of R(s)}(s )m
R(s)
Q(s) Q(s)
=
, we can nd Ak from
Letting (s) = (s )m
P (s) R(s)
1
(mk)(), k = 1, 2, . . . , m
Ak =
(m k)!
and its corresponding L1[] term is

k1
A
k
t t
L1
=
e
(s )k
(k 1)!
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Partial-fraction expansion: Complex conjugate roots

If + j is a complex root (multiplicity m) of P (s) with , i.e.
P (s) = (s j)mR(s), then we write
Q(s)
A1 + jB1
Am + jBm
Am jBm
A1 jB1
=
+ +
+ +
+
m
P (s)
s j
(s j)
s +j
(s +j)m
+ {terms of R(s)}
Letting (s) = (s j)m
Ak + jBk =
Q(s)
, we have
P (s)
1
(mk)( + j),
(m k)!
k = 1, 2, . . . , m
and its L1[] (with its conjugate pair) is

L
Ak + jBk
Ak jBk
+
(s j)k (s + j)k
tk1
(Ak + jBk )ejt + (Ak jBk )ejt
(k 1)!
tk1
= et
(2Ak cos t 2Bk sin t)
(k 1)!
= et
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Partial-fraction expansion: Examples

Example 1
1
7
6
5s + 3
=
+
+
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3) s + 1 s + 2 s + 3
Example 2
1
1
2
2
2
=
+
s(s + 1)3(s + 2) s s + 2 s + 1 (s + 1)3
Example 3
1
j/2
2(s + 1)
j/2
=
+
+
s2(s2 + 2s + 2) s2 s + 1 + j s + 1 j

j/2
j/2
n
n2
=
Example 4 G(s) = 2
2 s + + j
s + 2ns + n2
s + j
1

where = n and = n 1 2 or

n
ent sin nt 1 2
g(t) = L1[G(s)] =
1 2
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Application of Laplace transform to solution of linear ODE

Solve y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 5us(t) where y(0) = 1, y (0) = 2.
Example
Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the ODE to get

s2Y (s) sy(0) y (0) + 3sY (s) 3y(0) + 2Y (s) =
5
s
Substituting initial conditions and solving for Y (s), we get

Y (s) =
s2 s + 5
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
which can be expanded by partial-fraction expansions to give

5/2
5
3/2
+
s
s+1 s+2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get the complete solution
Y (s) =
y(t) =
3
5
5et + e2t,
2
2
t0
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Impulse response
Consider a linear time-invariant with input u(t) and output y(t). The
system can be characterized by its impulse response g(t) which is dened
as the output when the input is a unit-impulse function (t).
(t)
1

(t) =
u(t)
system
y(t)
1
,
0t<
0, t < 0, t
(t)
system
g(t)
(t) = lim (t)

0
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Transfer function
The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is dened as the
Laplace transform of the impulse response, with all the initial conditions
set to zero.
G(s) = L[g(t)]
Let n and m be the order of the denominator and the numerator
polynomials of G(s), respectively. The transfer function G(s) is said to be
[strictly] proper when [n > m] n m. If n < m, we call it improper.
We can show that the transfer function is also the ratio between the
Laplace transform of the output and the Laplace transform of the input
G(s) =
Y (s)
U (s)
by the use of convolution, linearity, and time-invariance properties.
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Approximation of input signal

We can depict the approximation of input signal by
a weighted sum of sequence of pulse functions (t n)
as follows:
u(t) = lim
u(n)2
u(n)(tn)
n=0
u(n) (tn)
u(t)
1
...
0
...
1n
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Interpretation of convolution
Dene g(t) to be the systems response to (t).
input
(t)
(tn)
u(n)(tn)
output
g(t)
by denition
g(tn)
time invariance
u(n)g(tn)
scaling

u(n)(tn)
u(n)g(tn)
superposition
n=0

n=0
d

u( )(t ) d
u( )g(t ) d
n
0
0
By sifting property of the impulse function

LHS =
u( )(t ) d = u(t)
0
and g(t) on the RHS is the response to (t) or impulse response.

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>> [r,p]=residue([5 3],conv([1 1],conv([1 2],[1 3])))
r = -6.0000
7.0000 -1.0000
p = -3.0000 -2.0000 -1.0000

>> [r,p]=residue([2],conv([1 2],[1 3 3 1 0]))
r =
1.0000 -2.0000 -0.0000 -2.0000
p = -2.0000 -1.0000 -1.0000 -1.0000
1.0000
0
>> syms s
>> G=2/s/(s+1)^3/(s+2)
G =
2/(s*(s + 1)^3*(s + 2))
>> ilaplace(G)
ans =
1/exp(2*t) - 2/exp(t) - t^2/exp(t) + 1
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Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs
block diagrams
block diagrams of control systems
block diagrams of multivariable systems
signal-ow graphs (SFGs)
basic properties of SFG
SFG algebra
gain formula for SFG
3 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs
Block diagrams
is a simple pictorial representation of a system
basic language of control engineers
describes composition and interconnection of a system
describes the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system
Fig. 3-1: (a) Block

diagram of a dc-motor
control system.
(b) Block diagram with
transfer functions and
amplier characteristics.
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Block diagrams of control systems

Y (s) = G(s)U (s)
Basic block-diagram elements are

blocks represent system components, and
lines with arrow represent signals and show
how signals ow from one block to another.
U (s)
Y (s)
G(s)
Some special blocks are used

to represent sensing devices
that perform simple
mathematical operations such
as addition and subtraction.
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Drawing a block diagram

Consider a voltage divider as shown in the circuit below.
R1
+
Vi
Vo = R2I
+
Vo
R2
I=
Vi
Vi V o
R1
Vo
R2
+
1
R1
Vo
Combining both equations, we have

Vi
1
R1
R2
Vo
or
Vo
R2
=
V i R1 + R2
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Basic block diagram of a feedback control system

r(t), R(s) = reference input (command)
y(t), Y (s) = output (controlled variable)
b(t), B(s) = feedback signal
u(t), U (s) = actuating signal
= error signal e(t), E(s), if H(s) = 1
H(s) = feedback transfer function
From the gure above, we can write

Y (s) = G(s)U (s),
B(s) = H(s)Y (s),
and
U (s) = R(s) B(s)
Solving these for Y (s) in terms of R(s), we have

Y (s)
G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
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Block diagrams of multivariable systems
Y(s) = M(s)R(s)
M(s) = [I + G(s)H(s)]1G(s)
= G(s)[I + H(s)G(s)]1
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Block diagram algebra: Combining two blocks

original diagram
u
G1
G2
G1
equivalent diagram
G1
G1 G 2
G2
u
G2 G1
G1
1 G 1 G2
G2
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Block diagram algebra: Moving one block

u1
u1
u2
u1
G
y
u1
u
u
u2
1
G
u
y
u2
u
u
u2
1
G
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Block diagram reduction

Example
below
Consider a multi-loop feedback control system as shown

H2
R
G1
G2
+ +
G4
G3
H1
H3
Answer:
Y
G 4 G3 G2 G1
=
R 1 G4 G 3 H 1 + G 3 G 2 H2 + G 4 G 3 G 2 G 1 H 3
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Reduction difculty?
Wrong way:
move the summing point behind the branching point

G4
R
G1
G2
+
+
+
+
G3
Right way:
G4
G1
R
G1
+
+
G2
G3
Answer:
Y
= G2 G 1 + G 4 G 1 + G 2 G 3
R
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Signal-ow graphs (SFGs)

may be regarded as a simplied version of a block diagram
developed by S. J. Mason in 1950s
can be used to determine relationship between two signals in
complex systems
a small circle called node depicts a signal (line in block diagram)
and a line called branch whose arrow and number show direction
and gain (multiplier) for signal traveling from one node to another
U (s)
U (s)
Y (s)
G(s)
Y (s)
G(s)
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Signal-ow graph: Examples

Example 1 The voltage divider can be viewed as a unity negative
feedback whose SFG graph is shown below.
I
Vi
1
R1
Vo
R2
Example 2
H2
R
G1
G2
G3
G4
H1
H3
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Denition of SFG terms

An input node (source) is a node that has only outgoing branches.
An output node (sink) is a node that has only incoming branches.
A path is any collection of a continuous succession of branches
traversed in the same direction.
A forward path is a path that starts at an input node and ends at an
output node, and along which no node is traversed more than once.
A loop is a path that originates and terminates on the same node and
along which no node is traversed more than once.
A path gain or a loop gain is the product of the branch gains
encountered in traversing that path or loop.
Two parts of an SFG are nontouching if they do not share a common
node.
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Gain formula for SFG

The gain between the input node yin and output node yout is
yout
1
M=
=
M k k
yin
k=1
where

= 1 (all individual loops)

+ (gain products of all combinations of two nontouching loops)

(gain products of all combinations of three nontouching loops)

+ (. . . four nontouching loops) (. . . ve nontouching loops) +
N = total number of forward paths between yin and yout
Mk = the gain products of the kth forward path
k = the for that part of the SFG that is nontouching with the kth forward path
The is also known as the determinant of SFG.
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Gain formula: An example

e
r
f
b
has 7 loops and 4 paths:

Loop: L1 = l, L2 = bh, L3 = dg, L4 = abck, L5 = eck, L6 = abf gk, L7 = ef gk
Path: P1 = abcd, P2 = abf, P3 = ecd, P4 = ef
Nontouching loops: L1L3, L2L3, L1L5, L1L7
= 1 l bh dg abck eck abf gk ef gk + ldg + bhdg
+ leck + lef gk
y
1
= (abcd + abf + ecd(1 l) + ef (1 l))
r
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Gain formula: Another example
Y (s)
G1 G2 G3 + G 1 G4
=
,
R(s) 1 + G1G2H1 + G2G3H2 + G1G2G3 + G4H2 + G1G4
Y (s)
=?
E(s)
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M ATLAB tools and case studies (1)

Transfer functions can be easily handled using Control System Toolbox.
>> s=tf(s);
>> G1=1/(s+1);
>> G2=tf(1,[1 2])
Transfer function:
1
----s + 2
>> G1*G2
Transfer function:
1
------------s^2 + 3 s + 2
>> G3=feedback(G1,G2)
Transfer function:
s + 2
------------s^2 + 3 s + 3
>> G4=G1/(1+G2*G1)
Transfer function:
s^2 + 3 s + 2
--------------------s^3 + 4 s^2 + 6 s + 3
The command tf is used to specify the model in transfer function form.

Then normally arithmetics +, -, *, and / can be used with transfer
functions.
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Commands series, parallel, feedback can be used to make more
complicated models.
>> zpk(G4)
Zero/pole/gain:
(s+2) (s+1)
--------------------(s+1) (s^2 + 3s + 3)
>> minreal(G4)
Transfer function:
s + 2
------------s^2 + 3 s + 3
The command zpk is used to specify the model in zero-pole-gain form
while the command minreal can be used to simplify model by pole-zero
cancellation.
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More complicated connection can be done using commands append and
connect.
>> G5=append(G1,G2);
>> connect(G5,[1 -2;2 1],1,1)
Transfer function:
s + 2
------------s^2 + 3 s + 3
The append(G1,G2) command creates the structure y(1) = G1 u(1) and
y(2) = G2 u(2) while the connect command has the syntax
sys = connect(blksys,Q,input,output)
The index-based interconnection matrix Q=[1 -2;2 1] feeds -y(2) into
u(1) and y(1) into u(2) and input=1 and output=2 indicate that r drives
u(1) and y is y(1).
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Multivariable systems can also be handled.
>> G=[1/(s+1),-1/s;2,1/(s+2)]; H=[1 0; 0 1];
>> feedback(G,H)
Transfer function from input 1 to output...
3 s^2 + 9 s + 4
#1: ---------------------s^3 + 7 s^2 + 12 s + 4
2 s^3 + 6 s^2 + 4 s
#2: ---------------------s^3 + 7 s^2 + 12 s + 4
Transfer function from input 2 to output...
-s^2 - 3 s - 2
#1: ---------------------s^3 + 7 s^2 + 12 s + 4
3 s^2 + 8 s + 4
#2: ---------------------s^3 + 7 s^2 + 12 s + 4
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Modeling of Physical Systems
modeling of electrical networks

modeling of mechanical systems elements
translational motion & rotational motion
friction, backlash and dead zone (nonlinear characteristics)
equations of mechanical systems
sensors and encoders in control systems
DC motors in control systems
linearization of nonlinear systems
systems with transportation lags (time delays)
4 Modeling of Physical Systems
Introduction
two most common models: transfer function and state-variable

transfer functions are valid only for linear time-invariant systems
state equations can be applied to linear as well as nonlinear systems
analysis and design for nonlinear systems are usually quite complex
linear models are only approximations
must determine how to accurately describe a system mathematically
and how to make proper assumptions so that the system may be
realistically characterized by a linear mathematical model
the objective of this chapter is to demonstrate mathematical
modeling of control systems and components
the coverage here is by no means exhaustive
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Ideal v.s. real

Example 1
A resistor
ideal: Ohms law V = IR

real: over voltage and current, parasitic capacitance and inductance
Example 2
free length
A mechanical spring
F
ideal:
F = kx
massless
frictionless
real:
solid
height
slope = k
What is real is that everything is subject to certain conditions.

To describe it, we need some assumptions.
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Modeling of electrical systems elements

component
C
capacitor
voltage-current

1 t
e(t) =
i( ) d
C 0
current-voltage
i(t) = C
resistor
L
inductor
e(t) = Ri(t)
d
e(t) = L i(t)
dt
Capacitor current-charge: i(t) =
Inductor voltage-ux: e(t) =
i(t) =
1
i(t) =
L
d
e(t)
dt
1
e(t)
R
t
0
e( ) d
d
q(t)
dt
d
(t)
dt
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Modeling of electrical networks

Use Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws: loop and node methods.
Using i1(t), i2(t), and ec(t)
as states, we can write
di1
L1
= R1i1 ec + e
dt
di2
= R2i2 + ec
L2
dt
dec
C
= i1 i2
dt
= L1L2Cs3 + (R1L2 + R2L1)Cs2 + (L1 + L2 + R1R2C)s + R1R2
I1(s) L2Cs2 + R2Cs + 1
=
,
E(s)
I2(s)
1
= ,
E(s)
Ec(s) L2s + R2
=
E(s)
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Operational ampliers
Operational ampliers or OpAmps are active components which can be
used in realization of wider class of transfer functions.
C
+
EI (s)
R1
R3
R2
+
EO (s)
EO (s) R3R1
=
(RCs + 1)
EI (s)
R2 R
Note that this transfer function is improper.
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Modeling of mechanical systems elements: Translational

component
force-displacement
spring
b
damper
m
mass
f (t) = kx(t)
d
f (t) = b x(t)
dt
f (t) = m
d2
x(t)
dt2
force-velocity
t
f (t) = k v( ) d
0
f (t) = bv(t)
d
f (t) = m v(t)
dt
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2005
Modeling of mechanical systems elements: Rotational

component
torque-angular
displacement
spring
T (t) = K(t)
torqueangular velocity
t
T (t) = K ( ) d
0
T (t) = B
damper
J
inertia
d
(t)
dt
d2
T (t) = J 2 (t)
dt
T (t) = B(t)
T (t) = J
d
(t)
dt
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2005
Modeling of friction
Viscous friction is a linear relationship between force and velocity.
Static friction tends to prevent motion from the beginning. Once the
motion begins, static friction vanishes and other frictions take over.
Coulomb friction is a retarding force having a constant amplitude with
respect to the direction of velocity.
dx(t)
f (t) = B
dt
f (t) = (Fs)|x=0
dx(t)
f (t) = Fc
dt

dx(t)

dt
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10
Conversion between translational and rotational motions

The mechanisms of belt-and-pulley and rack-and-pinion can be used to
change between translational and rotational motions. Let W = M g.
Belt and pulley If r is the
radius of the pulley. Then the
equivalent inertia that the motor
sees is
Jeq = M r2
Rack and pinion If L is the
screw lead, i.e., the linear
distance that M travels per
revolution of the screw.
2 Then
L
Jeq = M
2
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2005
11
Gear trains
If Ti, i, and Ni (i = 1, 2) are torque applied,
angular displacement, and teeth number of
the gear i, then we have
r1 N1
=
, 1r1 = 2r2, T11 = T22
r 2 N2
by considering the teeth ratio, distance along
surface, and work done, respectively.
In practice, considering inertia loads and
frictions at both sides, the equivalent
torque seeing from gear 1 is given as
d 2 1
d1
1
2
N1
T = J1e 2 + B1e
+ Fc1
+ Fc1
dt
dt
|1| N2 |2|

2

2
N1
1
where J1e = J1 + N2 J2, B1e = B1 + N
N2 B 2 .
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2005
Backlash, dead zone, and saturation
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2005
12
13
Equations of mechanical systems: Translational

bx
kx
k
friction
b
mass
m
Applying Newtons law of motion

to the free-body diagram, we have
x(t)
force
f (t)
x(t)
d2
d
f (t) = m 2 x(t) + b x(t) + kx(t)
dt
dt
f (t)
Assuming zero initial conditions

(ms2 + bs + k)X(s) = F (s)
X(s)
1
=
F (s) ms2 + bs + k
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14
What about the gravity?

When f (t) = 0 the spring stretches by the
weight of the mass (mg) alone to the length
k
mg
x0 =
k
b
x0
Let y(t) be the displacement measured from
m
y(t)
x(t)
the free length of the spring, and
x(t) be the displacement measured from
f (t)
x0 = mg/k
Now we have y(t) = x0 + x(t). With reference from the free length
f (t) + mg = m
d
d2
y(t) + ky(t)
y(t)
+
b
dt2
dt
However, from y(t) = x0 + x(t)

y(t)
= x(t)
and y(t) = x(t)
d
d2
f (t) = m 2 x(t) + b x(t) + kx(t)
dt
dt
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2005
15
Equations of mechanical systems: Rotational

J
K
T (t)
(t)
From Newtons law of motion,

d
d2
T (t) = J 2 (t) + B (t) + K(t)
dt
dt
Assuming zero initial conditions,
T (s) = (Js2 + Bs + K)(s)
(s)
1
=
T (s)
Js2 + Bs + K
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16
Sensors and encoders in control systems (1)

Potentiometer mechanical displacement electrical voltage
e(t) = Ksc(t) or e(t) = Ks[1(t) 2(t)]

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2005
17
Sensors and encoders in control systems (2)

Tachometer mechanical velocity electrical voltage
et(t) = Kt
Incremental encoder
d(t)
= Kt(t)
dt
Et(s)
= Kts
(s)
mechanical movement electrical pulse
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2005
DC motors in control systems
The dc motor is a torque transducer

converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
The relationship among the developed
torque Tm, the ux , and the armature
current ia is
Tm = Kmia
where Km is a proportional constant.
When motor rotates, the voltage across
its terminals called back emf eb is
developed
eb = Kmm
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2005
18
19
Mathematical modeling of PM DC motors (1)

Consider a dc motor system with the following variables and
parameters:
=
Jm =
Bm =
m(t) =
m(t) =
magnetic ux in the air gap

rotor inertia
viscous-friction coefcient
rotor displacement
rotor angular velocity
Ra
La
Ki
Kb
ia(t)
eb(t)
TL(t)
Tm(t)
ea(t)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
armature resistance
armature inductance
torque constant
back-emf constant
armature current
back emf
load torque
motor torque
applied voltage
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20
Mathematical modeling of PM DC motors (2)

ea(t) eb(t) = La
dia(t)
+ Raia(t)
dt
Tm(t) = Kiia(t)
Tm(t) TL(t) = Jm
[ := Kmia(t)],
d2m(t)
dm(t)
+
B
m
dt2
dt
eb(t) = Kb
dm(t)
= Kbm(t)
dt

m(s)
Ki
=
Ea(s) TL=0 LaJms3 + (RaJm + BmLa)s2 + (KbKi + RaBm)s
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21
Linearization of nonlinear systems

Consider a nonlinear system
x1(t)
r1(t)
f1(, )
x (t)
r (t)
f (, )
x(t)
= f (x(t), r(t)) where x(t) = 2. , r(t) = 2. , f (, ) = 2 .
.
.
.
xn(t)
rp(t)
fn(, )
The linearization of the system about an operating condition (x0, r0),
e.g., f (x0, r0) = 0, is given by
x
(t) = A
x(t) + B
r(t)
x
(t) = x(t) x0,
r(t) = r(t) r0
where
and

fi
A = [aij ] where aij =
xj x0,r0
and

fi
B = [bij ] where bij =
rj x0,r0
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22
Magnetic-ball-suspension system: Nonlinear model

Consider a magnetic-ball-suspension system
e(t) = input voltage

i(t) = winding current
y(t) = ball position
L = winding inductance
R = winding resistance
M = mass of ball
d2y(t)
i2(t)
,
=
M
g
dt2
y(t)
e(t) = Ri(t) + L
di(t)
dt
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2005
23
Magnetic-ball-suspension system: Linearization

Dene the state variables as
x1(t) = y(t) y0,
x2(t) = y(t),
x3(t) = i(t) i0
around the nominal position y0 = constant, we have i0 = M gx01 and

the linearized model is
0
1
0
x (t)
g x1(t)
g 0 2
d 1
x2(t) +
x2(t) = y0
0 e(t)
M
y
0
1
dt
i(t)
i(t)
R
0 0
L
L
and
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24
Systems with transportation lags (time delays)

There are many ways to approximate time delays using Maclaurin series
1
eTds = 1 Tds + Td2s2
2
or
eTds =
1
1 + Tds + Td2s2/2
A better approximation is to use the Pade approximation

eTds =
1 Tds/2
1 + Tds/2
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2005
Poles and Zeros of Transfer Functions
poles and zeros

residue and system response
rst- and second-order systems
pole-zero cancellation
5 Poles and Zeros of Transfer Functions
Linear time-invariant systems

Consider a linear constant coefcient ODE
y (n)(t) + 1y (n1)(t) + 2y (n2)(t) + + n1y (t) + ny(t) = f (t)
whose solution can be found substituting y(t) = emt.
If the coefcients i are not constant, but depend on time as i(t), we
have a linear time-varying system.
If the coefcients i depend on y as i(y, y , ..., y (n1)), we have a
nonlinear time-invariant system.
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2005
Time-domain response
The time-domain response is given by

ck emk t + Yp(t) = c1em1t + c2em2t + + cnemnt + Yp(t)
y(t) =
k=1
where m1, m2, . . . , mn are (real or complex) roots of the characteristics (or
auxiliary) equation
mn + 1mn1 + 2mn2 + + n1m + n = 0
and Yp(t) is the particular solution depending on f (t).
If the initial conditions y(0), y (0), . . . , y (n1)(0) are given, we can
determine c1, c2, . . . , cn.
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Poles and zeros

In more general cases, the forcing function f (t) is related to the input
u(t) by
f (t) = 1u(n1)(t) + 2u(n2)(t) + + n1u(t) + nu(t)
or
y (n) + 1y (n1) + + n1y + ny = 1u(n1) + + n1u + nu
and the transfer function is given by
G(s) =
n(s)
1sn1 + 2sn2 + + n1s + n
=:
n
n1
n2
s + 1 s
+ 2 s
+ + n1s + n
d(s)
We call the roots of n(s) = 0 zeros and d(s) = 0 poles of G(s).

26.25(s + 4)
s(s + 3.5)(s + 5)(s + 6)
has a zero at 4 and four poles at 0, 3.5, 5, and 6.
Example
G(s) =
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2005
Residues and system response

The system response can be found from G(s) by taking the inverse
Laplace transform. To do that, we need to nd the partial fraction

Ai

Bk
Bk
G(s) =
+
+
s + pi
s + k + jk s + k jk
In complex analysis, Ai and Bk are known as the residue of G(s) at
s = pi and at s = k jk , respectively.
In this case, the system response is given by

pi t
+
ek t [2Re(Bk ) cos k t + 2Im(Bk ) sin k t]
g(t) =
Aie
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First- and second-order systems

Hence, many system responses can be considered as summation of the
rst-order system
A
G1(s) =
s+p
and the second-order system
K 2
G2(s) = 2
s + 2s + 2
We will consider the behavior of their system responses in more detail.
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Pole-zero cancellation
Consider, for example, two transfer functions with their partial fractions
C1(s) =
1
3.5
3.5
1
26.25(s + 4)
=
+
s(s + 3.5)(s + 5)(s + 6) s s + 5 s + 6 s + 3.5
and
C2(s) =
26.25(s + 4)
0.87
5.3
4.4
0.033
=
+
+
s(s + 4.01)(s + 5)(s + 6)
s
s + 5 s + 6 s + 4.01
We can see that the residue of the pole at 4.01, which is closer to the
zero at 4, is smaller. Hence we can approximate C2(s) by neglecting the
response corresponding to the pole at 4.01 with the second-order
C2(s)
5.3
4.4
0.87
+
s
s+5 s+6
or c2(t) 0.87 5.3e5t + 4.4e6t.

However, the unstable pole cannot be cancelled by the unstable zero.
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2005

Use commands residue, roots, pole, and zero.
>> [r,p,k]=residue(26.25*[1 4],poly([0,-4.01,-5,-6]))
r =
p =
4.3970
-5.3030
0.0332
0.8728
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
k =
-6.0000
-5.0000
-4.0100
0
[]
p=[1 7 9 23 10]
roots(p)
s=tf(s); G=(s^2-2*s+2)/(s^4+7*s^3+19*s^2+23*s+10)
pole(G)
zero(G)
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2005
Stability of Linear Control Systems
bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability

relationship between charactersitic equation roots and stability
zero-input and asymptotic stability
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
Rouths tabulation
special cases when Rouths tabulation terminates prematurely
6 Stability of Linear Control Systems
Introduction
absolute stability v.s. relative stability
Absolute stability refers to the condition whether the system is
stable or unstable; it is a yes or no answer.
Once the system is found to be stable, to determine how stable it
is, we need a measure of relative stability.
zero-state v.s. zero-input responses
total response = zero-state response + zero-input response
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Bounded-input bounded-output stability

u(t)
U (s)
y(t)
g(t)
G(s)
Y (s)
Denition With zero initial conditions, the

system is said to be (BIBO) stable if its output
y(t) is bounded to any bounded input u(t).
From the convolution integral relating u(t), y(t), and g(t)

y(t) =
u(t )g( ) d
0
we have

|y(t)| =

u(t )g( ) d
|u(t )| |g( )| d
Suppose the input is bounded, i.e., |u(t)| M for some positive M , then
the output is bounded if

|g(t)| dt Q <
0
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Relationship between charactersitic eqn. roots & stability

The transfer function G(s), by the Laplace transform denition, is

g(t)est dt
G(s) = L[g(t)] =
0
For any s = s0 = 0 + j0, we have

s t
s
t
g(t)e 0 dt
|g(t)| e 0 dt =
|G(s0)| =
0

|g(t)| e0t dt
since |es0t| = |e0t|. If there is a pole s0 = 0 + j0 of G(s) with 0 0,

using the fact that |e0t| 1 for all t 0,

t
|g(t)| e 0 dt
|g(t)| dt
= |G(s0)|
0
which violates the BIBO stability requirement. The system is unstable.

Thus for a stable systems, the roots of the characteristic equation, or
the poles of G(s) cannot be located in the closed right half s-plane.
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Zero-input and asymptotic stability

Let the input of an nth-order system be zero, the output due to the initial
condition can be expressed as
y(t) =
n1
y (k)(t0)gk (t) = y(t0)g0(t) + y (t0)g1(t) + . . . + y (n1)(t0)gn1(t)
k=0
If the zero-input response y(t), subject to the nite initial conditions

y (k)(t0) reaches zero as t approaches innity, the system is said to be
zero-input stable or asymptotic stable.
Let the n characteristic equation roots be expressed as si = i + ji,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
m
nm1

si t
y(t) =
Kie +
L i t i e si t
i=1
i=0
For y(t) to approach 0 as t , the real parts of si must be negative.
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Stability for linear time-invariant systems
Hence, for linear time-invariant

systems, BIBO stability, zero-input
stability, and asymptotic stability all
have the same requirement that the
roots of the characteristic equation
must all be located in the left-half
s-plane.
If the characteristic equation has
simple roots on the j-axis and none
in the right-half plane, we say that the
system is marginally stable.
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Routh-Hurwitz criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a method of determining the location of
zeros of a polynomial whether they are in the left- or right-half planes.
Consider that the characteristic equation of a linear time-invariant SISO
system is of the form
F (s) = ansn + an1sn1 + + a1s + a0 = 0
In order that F (s) does not have roots with non-negative real parts, it is
necessary (but not sufcient) that
1. All the coefcients a0, a1, . . . , an1, an have the same sign.
2. None of the coefcients vanishes.

an(s z1)(s z2) (s zn) = ansn an (
zi) sn1 + + an(1)n
zi
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Rouths tabulation or Rouths array (1)

sn
p11 = an p12 = an2 p13 = an4 p14 = an6
n1
s
p21 = an1 p22 = an3 p23 = an5 p24 = an7
n2
s
p31
p32
p33
p34
n3
s
p41
p42
p43
p44
..
..
..
s0
pn+1,1

where
1 p11 p12
1 p11 p13
1 p11 p14
p31 =
, p32 =
, p33 =
,
p21 p21 p22
p21 p21 p23
p21 p21 p24
1 p p
1 p p
1 p p
p41 = 21 22 , p42 = 21 23 , p43 = 21 24 ,
p31 p31 p32
p31 p31 p33
p31 p31 p34
..
The roots are all in the LHP if p11, p21, p31, . . . , pn+1,1 have the same sign.
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Rouths tabulation or Rouths array (2)

The number of changes of signs in the elements of the rst columns
equals the number of roots with positive real parts or in the RHP.
Example 1
P (s) = s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0

s4
s3
s2
s1
s0
1
2
3
4
2314
= 1 2510
2
2
1425
=
6
0
1
=5
5
0
There are two sign changes: 1 6 and 6 5. Hence P (s) has two
RHP roots.
Example 2 2s4 + s3 + 3s2 + 5s + 10 = 0
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10
Proof of Rouths criterion (1)

Suppose n is even. The polynomial
P (s) = ansn + an1sn1 + + a1s + a0 can be divided into real and
imaginary parts as P (s) = P1(s) + P2(s) where
Even part: P1(s) = ansn + an2sn2 + + a2s2 + a0
Odd part: P2(s) = an1sn1 + an3sn3 + + a3s3 + a1s
Denition If two polynomials have the same numbers of roots in LHP,
RHP, and on j-axis, we say that they are equivalent.
Fact 1 If j0 is a root of P (s), then it is also a root of P1(s) and P2(s).
Fact 2 For real constant near zero, P (s) is equivalent to (as long as it
has n degree) Q(s, ) := P (s) sP2(s) = (an an1)sn + an1sn1 + .
Proof: Note that Q(s, 0) = P (s). Now from Fact 1, P (s) and
Q(s, ) = P1(s) + P2(s) sP2(s) = [P1(s) sP2(s)] + P2(s)
have the same number of j-axis roots for small .
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11
Proof of Rouths criterion (2)

Fact 3
If
an
, Q(s, ) drops degree as one of its roots approaches
an1
1

an1
an
=

an an1
an1
Now we can prove the Rouths criterion by noting that

sum of the rst and second rows of Rouths array is P (s),
sum of the second and third rows is Q(s, an/an1).
When an1 = 0, the construction of Rouths array fails. To work around
this problem, we use the following result.
Fact 4 If (s) is a polynomial such that (j) > 0 for all , and
deg P2 < deg P1, then P1(s) + P2(s) is equivalent to P1(s) + (s)P2(s).
Proof: Let Q(s, ) = P1 + [(1 ) + ]P2 where 0 1. We can see
that Q(s, 0) = P1 + P2, Q(s, 1) = P1 + P2, and (1 ) + > 0 for all .
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12
Rouths array: Special case 1

Case 1 Some p,1 = 0 but there is a nonzero member p,k in the row.
Let (s) = 1 + (s2)k1 and use Fact 4.
Example 1 p(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 5s + 3
s5 1
s4 2
s33 0
s 1
s2 8
s1 11
8
s0 3
3
6
7
1
3
Example 2
5
3
P2(s) = 7s P2(s) = s
Let (s) = 1 s2.
(s)P2(s) = s3 + s
There are two sign changes in

the rst column so p(s) has
two RHP roots.
s4 + s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 3 = 0
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13
Rouths array: Special case 2 (1)

Case 2 The entire row is zero.
Then P (s) is even or odd and is also a factor of the original polynomial.
Fact 5 Even or odd polynomials have as many roots in LHP as roots in
RHP.
Proof: If s is a root, then s is also a root.
To remedy the situation, consider P(s) = P (s + ) for some small > 0.
2
2

P(s) = (P + P + ) + (P + P + )
2!

3!

even
odd
is equivalent to
2
2
P + ) + (P + P + ) P (s) + P (s) as 0
2!
3!
In this case, substitute P (s) with P (s) + P (s) and count only RHP roots.
(P +
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14
Rouths array: Special case 2 (2)

Example
s5
s4
s33
s
s2
s11
s
s0
1
1
0
1
3
1
3
1
8
P (s) = s5 + s4 + 6s3 + 6s2 + 8s + 8

6
6
0
3
8
8
8
P (s) = P1(s) = s4 + 6s2 + 8

P (s) = 4s3 + 12s
Use 14 (4s3 + 12s) = s3 + 3s.
Hence, P (s) has one (1)

LHP root and four (4)
j-axis roots.
Remark For design purposes, we can use the all-zero-row condition to

solve for the parameter that causes the systems marginal stability.
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15
A design example and relative stability

Consider a negative feedback system shown in the block diagram below.
Given
s2 2s + 2
G(s) = 4
s + 7s3 + 19s2 + 23s + 10
Find ranges of K such that
1. the closed-loop system is stable, and
G(s)
2. all the closed-loop system poles have real part less than 1.
Solution
The characteristic equation is 1 + KG(s) = 0 or

s4 + 7s3 + 19s2 + 23s + 10 + K(s2 2s + 2) = 0
s4 + 7s3 + (19 + K)s2 + (23 2K)s + 10 + 2K = 0
The region Re s < 1 is equivalent to Re (s + 1) < 0. So let s = s + 1 or

s = s 1 and nd K such that 1 + KG(s) = 1 + KG(
s 1) = 0 is stable in
the sense that Re s < 0.
Ans: 1. 5 < K < 8, 2. 0 < K < 0.2559.
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7 Time-Domain Analysis of Control Systems
time response and test signals for continuous-data control systems

the unit-step response and time-domain specication
steady-state error: unity feedback v.s. nonunity feedback
time response of a rst-order system
transient response of a prototype second-order system
damping ratio and damping factor, natural undamped frequency
maximum overshoot, delay time, rise time, and settling time
time-domain analysis of a position-control system
dominant poles of transfer functions
Time response and typical test signals

Time response of a control system can be divided into two parts:
transient response: yt(t)
goes to zero as t , i.e., lim yt(t) = 0
steady-state response: yss(t)
is what remains after yt(t) has died out
Typical test signals

step-function input:
r(t) = Rus(t)
ramp-function input:
r(t) = Rtus(t)
parabolic-function input:
r(t) = 21 Rt2us(t)
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Unit-step response and time-domain specication
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Time-domain specication: Denition

1. Maximum overshoot = ymax yss is used to measure relative stability.
percent maximum overshoot =
maximum overshoot
100%
yss
2. Delay time, td, is dened as the time required for the step response to
reach 50% of its nal value.
3. Rise time, tr , is dened as the time required for the step response to
rise from 10% to 90% of its nal value.
4. Settling time, ts, is dened as the time required for the step response
to decrease and stay within a specied percentage of its nal value.
5. Steady-state error, ess, is dened as the difference between the
output and the reference input when the steady state (t ) is
reached.
Here we assume that the system has unity d.c. gain, i.e., Gc(0) = 1.
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Steady state error: Unity feedback

Consider a feedback system with
closed-loop transfer function
M (s) =
R(s) +
U (s)
Y (s)
G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
H(s)
If H(s) = 1, we have a unity feedback system and dene the error of the
system as e(t) = r(t) y(t). Hence the steady-state error is given by
sR(s)
s0 1 + G(s)
ess = lim e(t) = lim sE(s) = lim

t
s0
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System types and error constants

An open-loop transfer function
G(s) =
K(Tas + 1)(Tbs + 1)
sn(T1s + 1)(T2s + 1)
is called of type n which is the order of the pole of G(s) at s = 0.

The steady-state error due to various kinds of inputs is shown below:
Step (position) error constant:
Kp = lim G(s)
s0
type
0
Ramp (velocity) error constant:

Kv = lim sG(s)
Parabolic (acceleration) error constant:

Ka = lim s2G(s)
s0
s0
step ramp parabolic

R
1 + Kp
R
0
Kv
R
0
0
Ka
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Steady state error: Unity feedback examples

Given H(s) = 1, determine system type of G(s) and nd ess for three basic
types of inputs.
G(s) =
K(s + 3.15)
s(s + 1.5)(s + 0.5)
G(s) =
K
s2(s + 12)
G(s) =
s2(s
5(s + 1)
+ 12)(s + 5)
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Steady state error: Nonunity feedback

If H(s) is nonunity, the output Y (s) and the reference signal R(s) have
different units. So we cannot dene the error by r(t) y(t). Different
denitions of error are needed.
Case H(0) = 0 The d.c. gain of sensor H(s) is given by KH = H(0).
E(s) =
Case H(0) = 0
E(s) =
Examples
H(s) =
1
R(s) Y (s)
KH
or H(s) has zero(s) at the origin, i.e., H(s) = sN H1(s).

1
R(s) Y (s)
KH sN
G(s) =
5(s + 1)
s+5
where
H(s)
= H1(0)
s0 sN
KH = lim
1
and
s2(s + 12)
H(s) =
10s
s+5
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Time response of a rst-order system

Consider a rst-order system (T > 0)
G(s) =
1.0
K
Y (s)
=
R(s) T s + 1
0.8
Impulse response r(t) = (t) R = 1
y(t)/K
0.4
0.2
K t/T
e
T
yss(t) = 0
y(t) = L1[G(s)] =
when t 0
63.2%
0.6
0.0
t/T
Step response r(t) = u(t) R(s) = 1/s

G(s)
K
K
KT
= L1
= L1
= K(1 et/T )
y(t) = L1
s
s(T s + 1)
s
Ts + 1
when t 0
yss(t) = K
step response =
Notice that

impulse response
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10
A prototype second-order system

Consider the closed-loop system shown in
the block diagram. We have
Y (s)
K
= 2
R(s) s + ps + K
+ e
K
s(s + p)
which is a second-order transfer function.

We write this as a canonical or prototype second-order transfer function
G(s) =
n2
s2 + 2ns + n2
where > 0 and n > 0 whose poles are

s2 + 2ns + n2 = s2 + 2ns + 2n2 + (1 2)n2
= (s + n)2 + 2n2
where 2 = 1 2.
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Transient response of a second-order system (1)

When r(t) = 1 R(s) = 1/s, we have

2
1
B
n
y(t) = L1
= L1
+ 2 Re L1
2
2
s(s + 2ns + n)
s
s + ( + j)n
where

n2
j

B=
=
s(s + ( j)n) s=(+j)n 2( + j)
Hence
1
y(t) = 1 ent sin(nt + )
where = ( + j) = cos1 and t 0.

damping ratio
natural (undamped) frequency n
damping factor := n
conditional (damped) frequency := n
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Transient response of a second-order system (2)
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12
13
Pole location and response
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14
Maximum overshoot
peak time tmax or tp
tmax =
=
n 1 2
maximum overshoot
Mp := y(tmax) y()
/ 1 2
Mp = e
percent (maximum) overshoot
%Mp or P.O.
P.O. =
y(tmax) y()
100%
y()
P.O. = 100e/
1 2
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Delay time and rise time

Delay time 0 < < 1.0
1.1 + 0.125 + 0.469 2
n
1 + 0.7
td
Rise time 0 < < 1.0

1 0.4167 + 2.917 2
ts
n
0.8 + 2.5
n
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16
Settling time
We can use the upper-lower

bounds and approximate ts by

1
2
nts ln cts 1
where cts is the percentage set for

the settling time.
Better approximation:
3.2
, 0 < < 0.69

n
ts
4.5
,
> 0.69
n
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17
Effects of adding a pole to transfer function (1)
Add a pole at s = 1/Tp to a

forward-path transfer function of a
unity-feedback system as
G(s) =
n2
s(s + 2n)(1 + Tps)
The closed-loop transfer function

M = G/(1 + G) becomes
n2
Tps3 + (1 + 2nTp)s2 + 2ns + n2
= 1, n = 1
= 0.25, n = 1
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Effects of adding a pole to transfer function (2)

Add a pole at s = 1/Tp to the closed-loop transfer function as
M (s) =
G(s)
n2
Y (s)
=
= 2
R(s) 1 + G(s) (s + 2ns + n2 )(1 + Tps)
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19
Effects of adding a zero to transfer function (1)

Add a zero at s = 1/Tp to the closed-loop transfer function as
n2 (1 + Tps)
G(s)
=
M (s) =
1 + G(s) (s2 + 2ns + n2 )
or
y(t) = y1(t) + Tz
dy1(t)
dt
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20
Effects of adding a zero to transfer function (2)

Consider, for example, adding a zero at s = 1/Tz to a forward-path of a
third-order system as
G(s) =
6(1 + Tz s)
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
so that
Y (s)
6(1 + Tz s)
= 3
R(s) s + 3s2 + (2 + 6Tz )s + 6
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21
Non-mininum phase (NMP) zeros and undershoot

If G(s) has unity d.c. gain and a real NMP zero at s = z0, then we have

1
1
e(t)ez0t dt
e(t) = 1 y(t) E(s) = (1 G(s)) E(z0) = =
s
z0
0
Assuming its step response y(t) has a -settling time ts and splitting
integral into two parts [0, ts] (ts, ), we have
ts

1
z0 t
e(t)e
dt +
|e(t)|ez0t dt
z0
ts
0
If Mu is the minimum undershoot, we have
max e(t) = Emax = 1 + Mu > 0
t0
and from the denition of -settling time |e(t)| , t ts, we have

1 ez0ts
ez0ts
1
1
Emax
+
or Mu z t
z0
z0
z0
e 0s1
If 1 and z0ts 1, this means Mu > z01ts .
fast settling time large undershoot
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Dominant poles
For analysis and design, it is

important to sort out poles
that have a dominant transient
effect, called dominant poles.
Dominant poles control
dynamic performance,
whereas insignicant poles
ensure realizable controller.
It is widely accepted that if the magnitude of the real part of a pole is
at least 510 times that of a dominant pole or a pair of complex
dominant poles, then the pole may be regarded as insignicant.
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23
Relative damping ratio

When the dynamic of a system of higher-order can be accurately
represented by a pair of complex-conjugate dominant poles, then we
can still use and n to indicate the transient dynamics.
The damping ratio in this case is referred to as the relative damping
ratio.
Example
M (s) =
20
2
(s + 10)(s2 + 2s + 2) s2 + 2s + 2
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2005

Use commands step, ltiview and sisotool.
S IMULINK is also useful.
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24
Basic Control Actions
introduction
design specications
controller congurations
PID controller
proportional action
integral action
derivative action
tuning of PID controller
closed-loop method
open-loop method
8 Basic Control Actions
Introduction
Design specications
relative stability, steady-state accuracy (error), transient response:
maximum overshoot, rise time, settling time
frequency-response characteristics: gain margin, phase margin, Mr
Controller congurations
series (cascade), feedback, and feedforward compensations
one degree-of-freedom, two degrees-of-freedom
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PID control
PID controllers
a.k.a. three-term or three-mode control
one of the oldest controller types and the most widely used in
industries
pulp & paper 86%
steel 93%
oil reneries 93%
only textbook version is introduced
differs a lot from the industrial version
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Text-book PID controllers

PID controller:
Proportional
Integral
Plant
Derivative
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PID controllers
PID controller

u(t) = KP e(t) + KI

P

U (s) = KP E(s) +
t
0
e( ) d + KD
d
e(t)
dt

D

I

KI
E(s)
+ KD sE(s)
s
or
KI
+ KD s
Gc(s) = Kp +
s

1
+ TD s
= Kc 1 +
TI s
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P action
Let KI = 0 and KD = 0, i.e.
Gc(s) = KP
umax
u = KP e + u 0
umin
U (s) = KP E(s)
e > e0
e0 < e < e0
e < e0
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P control
set point, measured variable
1.5
KP = 5
1.0
KP = 2
0.5
KP = 1
0
0
10
15
20
6 control variable
KP = 5
4
2
KP = 2
KP = 1
0
2
0
10
stationary error (offset)
15
20
large KP fast response,

small offset,
worse stability
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I action
e
u = KP e(t) + u0

1 t
= KP e(t) +
e( ) d
TI 0
PI control

offset exists e d increases
u0 increases y increases reduce offset
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PI control
1.5
TI = 2
1.0
TI = 1
TI = 5
0.5
TI =
0
0
10
15
20
15
20
control variable
2
TI = 1
TI = 2
0
0
TI = 5
TI =
5
10
removes stationary error

large KI fast offset removal,
worse stability
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D action
A PI-controller contains no prediction
The same control signal is obtained for both these cases:
I
P
t time
t time
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11
D actionPrediction
error
e(t) + TD
e(t)
de(t)
dt
e(t + TD )
time
P control:
u(t) = KP e(t)
PD control:
de(t)
u(t) = KP e(t) + TD
dt
KP e(t + TD )
TD = prediction horizon (time)

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PD control
TD = 0.1
1.0
TD = 0.5
0.5
TD = 2
0
0
5
6 control variable
10
15
20
10
15
20
TD = 0.1
TD = 0.5
TD = 2
4
2
0
2
0
TD is used to reduce oscillation

TD too small, no inuence
TD too large, decrease performance
In industrial practice, especially in noisy environment, D-control is
often turned off.
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13
PID control
In brief, we use
P control to adjust overall dynamic (increase P to get faster response)
I control to adjust steady-state part (remove offset)
D control to adjust transient part (reduce oscillation)
PID tuning How to tune? Ziegler & Nichols (1942) suggested two
methods:
open-loop method (or step response method)
closed-loop method (or ultimate cycle method)
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PID tuning: Open-loop method

or step response method or reaction curve method: Draw a straight line
tangent to the step response at the point of inection. Suppose that line
cross 0%-output and 100%-output at A and B respectively. Let L be the
time measured from step input to the point A and T be the time
measured from A to B.
P: KP =
T
L
T
PI: KP = 0.9 ,
L
T
PID: KP = 1.2 ,
L
TI =
L
0.3
TI = 2L,
TD = 0.5L
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PID tuning: Closed-loop method

or ultimate cycle method: Apply P-control and gradually increase gain K
until the system oscillate at marginal stability. Call that K the ultimate
gain Ku and the period of oscillation the ultimate period Pu.
P: KP = 0.5Ku
PI: KP = 0.45Ku,
PID: KP = 0.6Ku,
TI =
TI =
Pu
1.2
Pu
,
2
TD =
Pu
8
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Root-Locus Technique
basic properties of the root loci

properties of the root loci
K = 0 and K = points, number of branches, symmetry
root loci on the real axis
angles and intersect of asymptotes: behavior at |s|
angles of departure and angles of arrival
intersection with imaginary axis
breakaway points (saddle points)
root contours: multiple-parameter variation
design gain from root locus
shaping the root locus
lead and lag compensators
9 Root-Locus Technique
Introduction
location of closed-loop poles (roots of characteristic equation) relates
closely to stability and time-domain characteristics
root locus: a systemetic contruction of the trajectories of the roots
of the characteristic equation
proposed by Walter R. Evans (1920-99) in 1948
use poles and zeros of open-loop (or equivalents) to determine the
trajectories of closed-loop poles when one parameter is changing
when more than one parameter varies, we called them root contours
give rough and quick graphical feeling of how to compensate for
simple SISO system
for root contours and more accurate root loci, computer tool
(M ATLAB) can be used
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Basic properties of the root loci: Changing parameter

Suppose the closed-loop transfer function of a control system is
Y (s)
G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
Then the roots of characteristic equation must satisfy 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0.
Suppose that G(s)H(s) contains a real variable parameter in the form
G(s)H(s) =
Example
KB(s)
A(s)
1+
KB(s) A(s) + KB(s)

=
=0
A(s)
A(s)
Consider the characteristic equation

s(s + 1)(s + 2) + s2 + (3 + 2K)s + 5 = 0
which can be written as

2s
1+K 3
s + 4s2 + 5s + 5
B(s)
2s
= 3
A(s) s + 4s2 + 5s + 5
or
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Basic properties of RL: Magnitude & angle conditions

For simplicity, let us express the characteristic equation as
1 + KG(s) = 0
where
G(s) =
1
K
m
(s zi) sm + bm1sm1 + + b1s + b0
B(s)
= ni=1
= n
G(s) =
A(s)
s + an1sn1 + + a1s + a0
j=1 (s pj )
To satisfy 1 + KG(s) = 0, the following conditions must be satised

simultaneously:
1
, < K <
Magnitude condition |G(s)| =
|K|

(2i + 1) = odd multiples of , K 0
Angle condition G(s) =
2i
= even multiples of , K 0
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Graphical interpretation of magnitude & angle conditions

j-axis
s0
Example
G(s) =
s0 p1
s z1
(s p1)(s p2)
The gure shows the

situation when s0 is on the
root loci.
s0 z1
3
2
1
s0 p2
Re-axis
Only the angle condition is used to construct the root loci.

Only magnitude condition has K involved. So, to nd K for a specic
location on a root locus we must use magnitude condition.
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Properties of the root loci

the number of root loci equals the order of characteristic equation
root loci begin (K = 0) from open-loop poles pj and end (K = ) at
open-loop zeros (zi)
the poles and zeros include those at innity, if any
they are symmetrical with respect to Re-axis and with respect to the
axes of symmetry of the pole-zero conguration.
the entire real axis is occupied by the root loci for all values of K
for K 0, the root loci are found on a given section on Re-axis, if the
total number of (real) poles and zeros to the right of the section is odd
Example
G(s) =
s+1
s+1
=
s2 + s 2 (s 1)(s + 2)
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Multiple roots
For K 0, root loci for
1
G(s) = 2
s
can be found from
and for
G(s) =
from
(s )3 + K = 0
s2 + K = 0
j-axis
j-axis
1
(s )3
Re-axis
0 Re-axis
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Asymptotic properties
When the magnitude of s is large (|s| ), 1 + KG(s) = 1 + K
B(s)
can
A(s)
be approximated using long division

A(s)
= snm + (an1 bm1)snm1 +
B(s)
as
K
B(s)
1+
1 + KG(s) = 1 + K
A(s)
(s )nm
where an1 bm1 = (n m) or
n
m
m
n

1
pj
zi where bm1 =
zi, an1 =
pj
=
nm j=1
i=1
i=1
j=1
In summary, the large-scale behavior of root locus is asymptotic to the

lines (aka asymptotes) with center (centroid) at and angles i given by
(2i + 1) 180
for K 0
i =
nm
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Examples
Example 1
G(s) =
s+1
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
Example 2
G(s) =
1
s(s + 3)2
Example 3
G(s) =
1
s(s + 1)(s + 3)(s + 4)
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Angles of departure and angles of arrival

Angle of the tangent of root locus at a point s0 can be found using the
angle condition as
m

(s0 zi)
i=1
n

(s0 pj ) = 180
j=1
with the desired angle replaced by D for the angle of departure and by
A for the angle of arrival.
Example 4
G(s) =
s+2
s2 + 2s + 2
In case of multiple roots, use 2, 3, . . . for sum of angles of multiple

roots.
Example 5
G(s) =
s+2
(s2 + 2s + 2)2
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Breakaway points (saddle points)

At the point where more than one roots meet, a break-away occurs. We
can nd that point from the necessary condition for multiple roots that
d
(1 + KG(s)) = 0
ds
or
d
G(s) = 0
ds
or
A(s)
or
or
d 1
=0
ds G(s)
d
d
B(s) = B(s) A(s)
ds
ds
n

j=1
1
1
=
s pj
s zi
i=1
m
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Intersection with imaginary axis

of root loci should be found using Routh-Hurwitz test because of the
stability of the closed-loop system.
The values of
K that causes the j-axis crossing and
the crossing location
should also be determined.
Example 2 [continued] The root loci cross j-axis at K = 54 and the
auxiliary equation is s2 + 9 = 0 or at = 3 rad/sec.
Example 3 [continued] The root loci cross j-axis at K = 26.25 and
the auxiliary equation is s2 + 1.5 = 0 or at = 1.225 rad/sec.
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More examples
Example 6
G(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)
s(s2 + 2s + 2)
G(s) =
1
s(s2 + 8s + 32)
Example 7
Example 8
G(s) =
1
s(s + 2)(s2 + 2s + 2)
Example 9
s2 + 4
G(s) =
s(s2 + 9)
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. . . and their root loci

j
j
1
4
2
4
j
3
2
4 3 2 1
2
3
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15
Multiple roots: An example

j
4
2
G(s) =
s+1
s2(s + 9)
2
2
4
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Root locus construction: Summary

1. mark poles () & zeros () on s-plane
2. n branches, symmetrical about Re-axis, start (K = 0) from and end
(K = ) at
3. draw loci for K 0 on Re-axis where the total count of real & to
the right is odd; the remaining parts of Re-axis are the loci for K 0
4. draw asymptotes (angles and centroid)
5. nd breakaway points and multiple roots (and gain)
6. nd j-axis crossing points (and gain) by Routh-Hurwitz criterion
7. compute angles of departure & arrival
8. complete the root locus
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How to solve f (s) = 0

bisection search: Find range [a, b] such that f (a)f (b) < 0, i.e., f (a)
and f (b) has different sign. With c = a+b
2

if f (a)f (c) < 0, then b c or use [a, c]
test f (c)
if f (b)f (c) < 0, then a c or use [c, b]
as next range. Repeat until |a b| < .
Newton-Raphson method: x x + h
h=
f (x)
1
f (x) f (x)
or
=
+
f (x)
h
f (x) 2f (x)
iteration: Substitute a good guess s in

n
m

1
1
=
s pj
s zi
j=1
i=1
leaving only two unknown s. Solve and repeat. Good for nding
breakaway points.
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Design aspect of the root loci
r +
where
G(s) =
1
s(s + 2)
G(s)
Find the range of K so that

the closed-loop is stable,
has overshoot less than 10%,
has settling time less than
1.5 s,
etc.
Effects of adding poles and zeros to G(s)

adding a pole to G(s) has the effect of pushing the root loci toward
the right-half s-plane
adding left-half plane zeros to G(s) generally has the effect of moving
and bending the root loci toward the left-half s-plane
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Root contours: Multiple-parameter variation

If there are two changing parameters as given by
A(s) + K1B1(s) + K2B2(s) = 0,
we rst set the value of one of the parameters, e.g. K2, to zero and draw
the root loci for the other
B1(s)
1 + K1
=0
A(s)
Next, for each xed K1, draw the root loci for K2 from
1 + K2
B2(s)
=0
A(s) + K1B1(s)
Note that the root loci for K2 start from the root loci of the rst step.
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Design gain from root locus (1)
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
G(s) =
1
s(s2 + 6s + 10)
Find C(s) = K such that = 0.7.

First, sketch the root locus:
centroid at 2 with s3 pattern
breakpoints at 2 36 with K = 2.9113, 5.0887
j-crossing at j 10 with K = 60
angle of departure at 3 + j is
180 90 (3 + j) = 71.57
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j
= 0.7
2
K=?
2
Roughly choose s0 = 0.9802 j as dominant poles. Find K from MC

K = |s0 + 3 j| |s0 + 3 + j| |s0| = 8.0394
In fact, this K gives dominant poles:
0.9980 j1.0059
= 0.7043
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Long division can be used to nd more accurate K.
1, 61.4,
1, 1.4, 1,
6,
10,
K
2
1, 1.4,
61.4,
10 2
61.4, 8.41.96 2, 6 2 1.4 3
=0
=0
2
Hence, if s2 + 1.4s + 2 divides s3 + 6s2 + 10s + K, we must have

10 2 = 8.4 1.96 2
and
K = 6 2 1.4 3
or = 1.4214 and K = 8.1015. The dominant poles for this K are

j 1 2 = 0.9950 j1.0151
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Shaping root locus (1)

Design a PD controller C(s) = KP (1 + TD s) so that = 0.7 and
n = 2.0 rad/s, i.e., root locus passes s0 = 1.4 j1.4283.
= 0.7
s0
p2
z
p1
p3
s0 p1 = s0 = 2.0 134.427
s0 p2 = s0 + 3 j = 1.6563 14.986
s0 p3 = s0 + 3 + j = 2.9080 56.619
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For s0 to be on the new root locus, it must satisfy the AC, i.e.,

(s0 pi) = 180 + (s0 z)
i=1,2,3
Hence, letting = (s0 z), we have

= 134.427 + 14.986 + 56.619 180 = 26.032
Then z can be computed from
z = 1.4 1.4283 cot = 4.3243
and gain K for K(s z) from
|s0 p1| |s0 p2| |s0 p3|
|s0 z|
2.0 1.6563 2.9080
= 2.96
=
|2.9243 + j|
K =
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2005
25

Long division can also be used in this case.
If C(s) = as + b, the characteristic eq. is s3 + 6s2 + (10 + a)s + b = 0,
1, 3.2
1, 2.8, 4 1, 6, 10 + a, b
1, 2.8,
4
3.2, 6 + a
3.2, 8.96, 12.8
=0 =0
Hence, if s2 + 2.8s + 4 is its factor, we have
6 + a = 8.96 a = 2.96
and
b = 12.8
The desired PD controller is 2.96s + 12.8 or

C(s) = 12.8(1 + 0.2313s) = 2.96(s + 4.3243)
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Design by lead-lag compensation

when specication are given in terms of
damping ratio , natural frequency n
% overshoot, rise time, and settling time
Determine rst whether only gain K can meet the specication.
If not, compensators such as PID controllers and
(phase-)lead compensators
(phase-)lag compensators
can be used to modify the root loci. Controllers may be cascaded.
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Lead and lag networks

C
R1
EI
R2
EI
R1
R2
EO
EO (s)
s + 1/T
=
EI (s) s + 1/T
R1
where =
< 1, T = R1C
R1 + R 2
EO (s) 1 s + 1/T
=
EI (s) s + 1/T
R1 + R2
where =
> 1, T = R2C
R2
z > p
EO
z < p
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28
Lead compensator design

1. from specication, determine the desired dominant closed-loop
poles
2. draw root locus and check if gain alone can do, if not nd angle
deciency
3. using , choose and T of
C(s) = Kc
s + 1/T
,
s + 1/T
0<<1
4. compute Kc using MC
5. check if all requirements are met, repeat if not (trial and error)
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Choosing pole and zero

There are many choices of pole and zero. In general, large gives large
Kv (velocity error constant) and better performance.
Dorf: placing zero directly under desired pole location P.
Ogata: draw horizontal line PA, bisect the angle between PA and PO with
PB, draw two lines PC, PD making angles /2 with PB
A
1
T
T1
O
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30
Example: Lead compensator (1)
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
Given
4
,
s(s + 2)
design C(s) such that = 0.5 and n = 4 rad/s.
desired closed-loop poles: 2 j2 3
let s0 = 2 + j2 3 G(s0) = 210

angle deciency = 30
G(s) =
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2005
31

choose zero at s = 2.9, pole at s = 5.4 or
C(s) = Kc
s + 2.9
s + 5.4
compute Kc from MC or
s(s + 2)(s + 5.4)
Kc =
4(s + 2.9)
s=2+j23
= 4.68
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Lag compensator design (1)

used to improve steady-state behavior without changing transient
behavior
increase open-loop gain without changing the root locus
C(s) = Kc
s + 1/T
,
s + 1/T
>1
place zero and pole very close to each other near the origin
|s0 + 1/T | |s0 + 1/T | C(s0) Kc
if Kc = 1, transient will not change
C(0) = Kc overall open-loop dc gain can be increased by
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Lag compensator design (2)

1. draw the uncompensated root locus
2. from the transient specication, locate the dominant closed-loop
poles
3. from the steady-state specication, design the amount of gain
increase
4. determine zero and pole of the lag compensator so that contributed
angle to the dominant poles < 5%
5. check root locus of the compensated system
6. adjust gain Kc using MC
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Example: Lag compensator (1)
R(s) +
C(s)
Given
G(s) =
G(s)
Y (s)
1.06
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
design C(s) such that Kv > 5 sec1

original CL poles: 0.3307 j0.5864
= 0.491 and n = 0.673 rad/sec
original Kv = sG(s) |s=0 = 0.53 sec1
choose = 10 and keep the same
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35

choose lag compensator as
C(s) = Kc
s + 0.05
s + 0.005
contributed angle 4
4
Imag Axis
4
4
0
Real Axis
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2005
36

design Kc so that is the same
choose new poles: s1,2 = 0.31 j0.55
from MC,
1.06K
(s
+
0.05)
c
=1
s(s + 0.005)(s + 1)(s + 2)
s=s1
we obtain Kc = 0.9656
20s + 1
s + 0.05
= 9.656
s + 0.005
200s + 1
1
new Kv = 5.12 sec
C(s) = 0.9656
New closed-loop poles are

0.31 j0.55, 2.2326, 0.0549
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Lead-lag compensator design

In general,
lead compensator speeds up response and increases stability
transient
lag compensator improves accuracy but reduces speed
steady-state
To improve both transient and steady-state, use
C(s) = Kc
s + 1/T1 s + 1/T2
s + 1/T1 s + 1/T2
where 0 < < 1 and > 1.
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Example: Lead-lag design (1)
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
Given
4
s(s + 0.5)
design C(s) such that = 0.5, n = 5 rad/s, and Kv > 80 sec1
G(s) =
original CL poles: 0.2500 j1.9843

= 0.125 and n = 2 rad/sec
original Kv = sG(s) |s=0 = 8 sec1
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2005
39

choose new poles: 2.50 j4.33
let s0 = 2.5 + j4.33 G(s0) = 235
angle deciency = 55
choose zero at s = 0.5, pole at s = 5.021 so the lead portion is
Clead(s) = Kc
s + 0.5
s + 5.021
compute Kc from MC or
s(s + 5.021)
= 6.263
Kc =
4
s=s0
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2005
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with Clead(s)
Kv = sClead(s)G(s)|s=0 = 4.9895
choose = 16.04 and T2 = 5 we have

s + 0.5 s + 0.2
C(s) = 6.263
s + 5.021 s + 0.01247
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
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Other topics
complementary root locus (K < 0)
G(s) = 0 360n
number of zeros > number of poles
root locus of time delay systems
e
sT
1 T2 s
1 + T2 s
root sensitivity
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2005
10
Frequency-Domain Analysis
sinusoidal response
Bode plot (logarithmic plot)
frequency-domain specications:
resonant peak and frequency
bandwidth
log-magnitude v.s. phase plot
Nyquist plot (polar plot)
Nyquist stability criterion
stability margins
10 Frequency-Domain Analysis
Frequency response (1)

Consider a system Y (s) = G(s)R(s) where
r(t) = sin t R(s) =
s2 + 2
Abusing the notation, we may write

r(t) = Im ejt R(s) = Im
and the output is
1
s j

G(s)
Im L
s j
G(j)
+ [other poles]
Im L1
s j
Im[G(j)ejt] + [other poles]
Im[|G(j)|ejt+j ] + [other poles]
|G(j)| sin(t + ) + [other poles]
y(t) =
=
=
=
=
where = G(j).
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2005
Frequency response (2)

If G(s) is stable, the steady-state output is
yss(t) = |G(j)| sin(t + )
Hence, a sinusoidal of the same frequency with different gain |G(j)|
and phase G(j).
The idea may be extended to the unstable plants and we dene
G(s)|s=j = G(j) = |G(j)|G(j)
= Re G(j) + j Im G(j)
as the frequency response of linear systems.
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2005
Graphical representations
For each frequency , there are two elements of either
magnitude |G(j)| and phase G(j)
real Re G(j) and imaginary Im G(j)
Hence, various graphical representations are possible:
logarithmic plot
polar plot
log-magnitude v.s. phase plot
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2005
Bode plot (1)

or Bode diagram is two graphs of
magnitude |G(j)| (in dB) v.s. , and
phase G(j) v.s.
In linear scale, the frequency response of
0
(deg)
10
2
1.8
1.6
20
1.4
30
1.2
1
G(s) =
s + 0.5
is
40
50
|G(j)|
0.8
60
0.6
70
0.4
G(j)
0.2
0
80
90
8 (rad/sec) 10
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2005
Bode plot (2)

use logarithm of for wider range
use logarithm of magnitude (dB)
simply add for systems in series
10
Gain dB
0
10
20
30 2
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Phase deg
30
60
90
2
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
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2005
Bode plot (3)

Basic factors:
gain: K
poles and zeros at origin: sn
1st-order factors: (1 + sT )n
n

s
s2
2nd-order factors: 1 + 2 n + 2
n
Gain: K
add
20 log K dB
Poles & zeros at origin: sn

20 log |(j)n| = n 20 log dB
(j)n = n 90
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2005
First-order factors
Consider G(s) = (1 + sT )n
G(j) = (1 + jT )n
When T 1 1 + jT 1
When T 1 1 + jT jT
We call = T1 the break frequency or the corner frequency.
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2005
First-order asymptotes
10
Gain (dB)
0
10
20
30
2
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Phase (deg)
30
60
90
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
The error at corner frequency is 3 dB and at 1 octave from corner

frequency is 1 dB, approximately.
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2005
10
Second-order factors (1)

Consider G(s) = 1 +
2 sn
s2
n2
1
or G(j) =

1+2
j
n
1

+

2.
j
n
Gain (dB)
20
0.1
0.7
20
40 1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
Phase (deg)
90
0.7
0.1
180
1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
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11
Second-order factors (2)

The maximum of |G(j)| occurs at

2
2
which is called the resonant frequency. The maximum value is
= r := n
1 2 2,
|G(jr )| = Mr :=
1
1 2
which is called the resonant peak.
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2005
12
Examples: Bode plot

Example 1
Gain dB
50
50
100 2
10
2000(s + 0.5)
G(s) =
s(s + 10)(s + 50)
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Phase deg
90
180
2
10
Example 2
G(s) =
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
20(s2 + s + 0.5)
s(s + 1)(s + 10)
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2005
13
Graphical interpretation
j
j0
G(j0) =
j0 z
(j0 p1)(j0 p2)
nonminimum-phase system
Gnmp(s) =
s1
,
s+2
Gmp(s) =
s+1
s+2
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2005
14
Frequency-domain specications
resonant frequency: r
resonant peak: Mr
Note: |G(jn)| = 1/2, 0 < < 1
bandwidth: B the frequency at which the response has declined 3 dB
from its low-frequency value
Dorf:
B = (1.85 1.196)n,
0.3 < < 0.8
. . . to be continued. . .
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2005
15
Example: Frequency specications

|G| (dB)
Mr
0
3
How to relate frequency-domain and time-domain specications?
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16
Closed-loop freq. response (1)

Consider the feedback system with
G(s) =
+
R(s)
1
s(s + 1)2
G(s)
Y (s)
The bode-plot of the plant G(s) is

Gain (dB)
50
50
Phase (deg)
100 1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
180
270
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
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2005
17

The frequency response of the closed-loop system
KG(s)
K
Gcl(s) =
=
1 + KG(s) s(s + 1)2 + K
with K = 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5 is
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2005
18

The closed-loop frequency response can be obtained from
Gcl(j) =
KG(j)
= M ()ej()
1 + KG(j)
at each frequency .
The closed-loop system will be marginal stable if there exists a
frequency such that
1 + KG(j) = 0
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More freq.-domain specications

phase margin
gain margin
phase crossover (frequency):
180
gain crossover (frequency): 1
0 dB
These can be measured from Bode plots very easily and can be also
computed for exact values from the transfer functions using Routh array.
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An example: Stability margins (1)

Find gain and phase margins of
G(s) =
16
(s + 1)(s + 2)3
Gain dB
50
100
Phase deg
180
360
101
100
101
Frequency (rad/sec)
102
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2005
21

We can calculate from
n = 1, 45/dec { 0.1
n = 4, 180/dec { 0.2
n = 3, 135/dec { 10
20
Hence is
G(j)
0
13.5
319.5
360
180 13.5
= 0.925 decade away from 0.2 or
180
= 100.925 0.2 = 1.6828 rad/sec
And the G.M. is computed from

|G(j )| =
16
= 0.4577
|1 + j | |2 + j |3
as G.M. = 1/|G(j )| = 2.1846 or 6.788 dB.

2
Exact value by Routh array is 108
49 = 2.2041 at =
20
7
or = 1.6903 rad/sec.
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22

Using the normal asymptote of Bode plot, we found that
0 dB = 2 rad/sec
which results in negative phase margin. More accurate Bode gain plot is
needed. Because = 1 rad/sec is
the break frequency of (s + 1)1, the asymptotes has 3 dB error, and
1 oct from break frequency of (s + 2)3, the asymptotes has 3 1 dB
error.
Hence, |G(j1)| = 6 3 3 1 = 0 dB and
1 = 0 dB = 1 rad/sec
is better approximate of gain crossover.
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23

Now P.M. can be computed from
G(j1) = (1 + j) 3(2 + j) = 124.7
or P.M. = 180 124.7 = 55.3.
The exact gain cross over can be found from |G(j1)| = 1 or
|1 + j1| |2 + j1|3 = 16
(1 + 12)(4 + 12)3 = 256
which has a solution 1 = 1.0108. Now
G(j1) = (1+j1.0108) 3(2+j1.0108)
= 125.74
and P.M. = 54.26.
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Error constants from Bode plot

We can write G(s) as

G(s) =
KB
sn
1+

(1 +
pi
2
+ s2
ni
mj
sTj )
2 sni
It is easily seen that

when n = 0, KB = Kp = G(0)
when n = 1, KB = Kv = sG(s)|s=0
when n = 2, KB = Ka = s2G(s)
s=0
If 1, we also have |G(j)| = KB / n, or
KB = n|G(j)|, 1
Now if we take the asymptote of Bode gain plot |G(j)| at low frequency
( 1) and draw until it reaches 1 such that |G(j1)| = 1 = 0 dB, we
have KB = 1n.
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25
Polar plots
or Nyquist plot is the graph between
|G(j)| and G(j) in polar form, or
Re G(j) and Im G(j) in cartesian coordinate
for each in < < . The polar plot of open-loop transfer
function is useful in determining the stability of the closed-loop system.
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26
An example: Polar plot

G(s) =
16
(s + 1)(s + 2)3
Imag Axis
2
1
Real Axis
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2005
27
Principle of the argument

Im s
Im G(s)
G()
C
0
Re G(s)
Re s
Given a function G(s) and a closed contour C such that G(s) is analytic
on C, is analytic within C except at a nite number of poles of G(s), and
does not vanish on C, then the number of positive encirclement of
origin N is given by
N = Z P = # of zeros # of poles
of G(s) within C.
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Proof of the argument principle

m
(s zi)
Let G(s) = K ni=1
, we have
(s
p
)
j
j=1
1
1
d
G(s)
=
ln G(s) =
G(s) ds
s zi j=1 s pj
i=1
m
From Cauchys Residue Theorem,

G(s)
ds = 2j(Z P )
C G(s)
where Z and P are the numbers of zeros and poles in a closed contour
C. But

d ln G(s) = [ln |G(s)| + jG(s)]C: s1s2
C
Because C is closed, |G(s1)| = |G(s2)| and the net change of G(s) must
be a multiple, say N , of 2. Hence we get

d ln G(s) = j(2N ) N = Z P
C
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29
Some simple examples

Example 1
G(s) = s2
C1 = {Rej : = 0 2}
C2 = {Rej : = 0 2}
[CCW]
[CW]
Example 2 C = {1 + Rej : = 0 2}
G1(s) =
Example 3
1
s1
G2(s) =
G(s) =
(s2
s
s1
s
+ 1)2
C = {j + Rej : = 0 2, R 0+}
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Nyquist stability criterion

B(s)
be the open-loop transfer function of a negative
A(s)
feedback system. The closed-loop stability is determined by
Let G(s) =
RHP zeros of 1 + G(s) =
A(s) + B(s)
A(s)
If C is a closed s-contour covering RHP,

Z =N +P
where Z = # of RHP zeros of 1 + G(s) and

N = 1 + G(s) encirclement of (0, 0)
N = G(s) encirclement of (1, 0)
or
P = # of RHP poles of 1 + G(s)
P = # of RHP poles of G(s)
Note: If s0 is a pole of G(s), then it is not a zero of 1 + G(s).
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More examples
Example 1
G(s) =
1
s+1
Example 2
G(s) =
1
(s + 1)(s + 2)
Example 3
G(s) =
16
(s + 1)(s + 2)3
Example 4
G(s) =
1
s(s + 1)
Example 5
G(s) =
1
s(s 1)
Example 6
G(s) =
1
s2(s2 + 1)
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32
. . . and their Nyquist plots

0.5
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.3
1
s+1
1
(s + 1)(s + 2)
1
s(s + 1)
1
s(s 1)
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2005
33
Nyquist plots of 2nd-order systems
1.4
=0
2
= 0.4
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2005
34
Time delay and its approximations

The transfer function of a time delay or a transport lag of T sec is
G(s) = esT
whose frequency response has magnitude |G(j)| = 1 for all and phase
with linear slope in linear scale.
A well-known low-frequency rational approximation of the time delay is
e
sT
1 s T2
1 + s T2
which is called Pade approximation (of rst-order).
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2005
35
Stability margins: A revisit
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
gain margin: C(s) = K

phase margin: C(s) = esT
plant uncertainty and robust stability
Ogata: minimum phase, stable open-loop systems should have
G.M. > 6 dB
30 < P.M. < 60
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36
Graphical plots: Time-delay system

e0.5s
G(s) =
s(s + 1)
1
20
0
0
0
20
40
90
270
450
101
2
100
101
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2005
37
Specication: A revisit
open-loop: G.M., P.M., , 1
closed-loop: B.W., Mr , r , cutoff rate
For second-order system, if = cos1

r = n 1 2 2 = n cos 2
1
1
=
Mr =
2 1 2 sin 2
2
P.M. = tan1
1 + 4 4 2 2
This can be approximated as
P.M. (in degree) = 100,
0 < < 0.6
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38
Graphical closed-loop response

Let G(j) = x + jy. The closed-loop frequency response at the same
frequency is given by
Gcl(j) =
G(j)
x + jy
=
1 + G(j) 1 + x + jy
1.0
1 + G(j)
G(j)
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39
M -circles
1 dB
.5 dB
.5 dB 1 dB
2 dB
2 dB
3 dB
3 dB
Im
6 dB
6 dB
0
1
|Gcl(j)| =
2
3
4
|x + jy|
|1 + x + jy|
Re
The constant-magnitude loci where |Gcl(j)| = M is given by x = 12

x2 +y 2
2
when M = 1 and (1+x)
2 +y 2 = M when M = 1 or

2
2

M
M2
2
+y =
x+ 2
M 1
M2 1
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40
N -circles
3
2
30
15
Im
60
15
Gcl(j) = (x + jy) (1 + x + jy)
60
30
2
3
4
Re
The constant-phase loci where tan Gcl(j) = N is given by

y
= N or
x2 + y 2 + x
2
2

1
1
1
1
x+
+ y
= +
2
2N
4 4N 2
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41
More on M - and N -circles

2
M -circles are centered at ( MM21 , 0) with radius MM

2 1 .
When M 1 small circle around origin
M = 1 line x = 12
M 1 small circle around (1, 0)

1 1
N -circles are centered at ( 2 , 2N ) with radius 14 + 4N1 2
and pass through origin and (1, 0).
When N = centered at ( 12 , 0)
N =0
real axis
Because tan = tan( + 180n), 30-circle is the same as 150-circle, etc.
Should start at zero frequency, and proceed to higher frequencies.
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2005
42
Nichols chart
is essentially the frequency response with M - and N -circles in the
log-magnitude v.s. phase plane. The Nichols chart for
G(s) =
2
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
0.5 db
is shown below.
20
1 db
15
10
OpenLoop Gain (db)
3 db
6 db
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
270
180
OpenLoop Phase (deg)
90
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2005
11 Design Using Frequency-Domain Methods
frequency-response of phase-lead controller

design with phase-lead controller
frequency-response of phase-lag controller
design with phase-lag controller
Summary: Frequency response specication

transient-response performance
phase margin P.M.,
gain margin G.M.,
resonant peak Mr
gain crossover frequency 0 dB,
resonant frequency r ,
bandwidth B.W.
steady-state performance
static error constant
steady-state accuracy
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2005

Frequency response of lead compensator

= m
m
0
=0
=
1
2 (1
+ )

C(s) =
s + 1/T
,
s + 1/T
m = 1/ T,
sin m =
1
,
1+
|C(jm)| =
c
2005
Design of lead compensators

Assume the compensator of the form
C(s) = Kc
s + 1/T
Ts + 1
= Kc
s + 1/T
T s + 1
1. determine K = Kc = C(0) to satisfy static error constant

2. draw Bode plot of KG(s)
3. determine necessary phase lead angle m (add additional 5 to 12)
4. calculate and 10 log

5. nd new gain crossover
m, T
c
2005
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
Given
4
,
s(s + 2)
design C(s) such that Kv = 20 sec1, P.M. > 50 and G.M. > 10 dB.
G(s) =
Find K = Kc such that

Kv = lim s
s0
4K
= 2K = 20
s(s + 2)
or K = 10. Next draw the Bode plot of

KG(s) =
40
.
s(s + 2)
c
2005
Gain (dB)
40
20
0
We found that P.M. = 17

and G.M. = . Need to add
50 17 = 33 choose
m = 33 + 5 = 38 from
sin m = 1
1+
20
40
Phase (deg)
90
120
150
180
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
1 sin m
= 0.24 10 log = 6.2 dB
1 + sin m
Read the new gain crossover m where |KG(jm)| = 6.2 dB

m = 9 rad/sec.
c
2005

1
T
Hence from m =
T1 = 4.41 and
s + 4.41
K s + 1/T
= 41.7
s + 1/T
s + 18.4
New: P.M. = 50 and G.M. = .
C(s) =
40
Gain dB
20
0
20
40
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Phase deg
90
120
150
180
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
c
2005
Frequency response of lag compensator
Gain (dB)
20
15
10
5
= 2, 5, 10
0
0
=0
Phase (deg)
= 2, 5, 10
20
40
60
102
101
100
101
Frequency (rad/sec)
C(s) =
s + 1/T
,
s + 1/T
>1
c
2005
Design of lag compensators

Assume the compensator of the form
C(s) = Kc
s + 1/T
Ts + 1
= Kc
s + 1/T
T s + 1
1. determine K = Kc = C(0) to satisfy static error constant

2. draw Bode plot of KG(s)
3. nd new 0 dB where KG(j0 dB) equals 180 plus the required P.M.
(add for additional phase lag 5 to 12)
4. choose zero of lag compensator within 1 decade below 0 dB
1/T
5. nd the necessary attenuation = |KG(j0 dB)|
c
2005
10
R(s) +
C(s)
G(s)
Y (s)
Given
2
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
1
design C(s) such that Kv = 5 sec , P.M. > 40 and G.M. > 10 dB.
G(s) =
Find K = Kc such that

Kv = lim s
s0
2K
=5
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
or K = 5. Next draw the Bode plot of

KG(s) =
10
.
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
c
2005
11

P.M. = 17, G.M. = 7 dB
unstable!
Gain dB
40
To get P.M. = 40,

we must have new
20
0
0 dB = 0.7 rad/sec
20
40
2
10
10
10
10
choose 1/T = 0.1.
Frequency (rad/sec)
Allow for additional

phase lag 40 + 12 = 52
corresponding to
Phase deg
90
180
0 dB = 0.5 rad/sec.
270
2
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
c
2005
12

From Bode plot, |KG(j0 dB)| 20 dB. Hence, to make 0.5 rad/sec new
gain crossover, we must attenuate by the factor 20 log = 20 = 10
s + 0.1
K s + 1/T
= 0.5
C(s) =
s + 1/T
s + 0.01
Gain (dB)
40
20
0
20
Phase (deg)
40
0
90
180
270 2
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
c
2005
Summary: Lead-lag compensation

Lead compensators
add phase angle near 0 dB
improve P.M. and transient
increase B.W. speed up dynamics
not applicable if phase decreases rapidly near 0 dB
Lag compensators
increase gain at low frequency
improve steady-state behavior
decrease B.W. suppress noise
not applicable if no low frequency range exists where the phase
equals the desired P.M.
c
2005
13

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1

what is a control system?

Control systems and models

A simple control system

This type of control systems is called open-loop.

An Example: Open-Loop Temperature Control

A room with air-conditioning system

fan speed control (LO, MED, HI)

Open-loop controller neglects information about room-size, number

Closed-Loop Temperature Control

where d represents the information being neglected. The controller

Also known as Automatic Control

Control system example: Sun-tracking solar collectors

Solar collector eld.

the collector dish must track

Fig. 1-7: Important components of

Open-loop and closed-loop control systems

 good for plant without disturbances

The complex variable s = + j is called the Laplace operator.

The Laplace transform of f (t) is obtained as

(t) = lim (t)

One of its most important properties is known as sifting property:

Table of Laplace transform

F (s) = L{f (t)}

Important theorems of Laplace transform

Initial value theorem

if the limit exists.

Final value theorem

we must replace 0 in the theorems by 0+ or 0 accordingly, e.g.,

L+[u(t)] = s L+[u(t)] u(0+)

L[u(t)] = s L[u(t)] u(0)

Inverse Laplace transform

P (s) = ansn + an1sn1 + + a1s + a0

Partial-fraction expansion: Real roots

Partial-fraction expansion: Complex conjugate roots

and its L1[] (with its conjugate pair) is

Partial-fraction expansion: Examples

s(s + 1)3(s + 2) s s + 2 s + 1 (s + 1)3

Application of Laplace transform to solution of linear ODE

Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the ODE to get

Substituting initial conditions and solving for Y (s), we get

which can be expanded by partial-fraction expansions to give

(t) = lim (t)

by the use of convolution, linearity, and time-invariance properties.

Approximation of input signal

and g(t) on the RHS is the response to (t) or impulse response.

M ATLAB tools and case studies

p = -3.0000 -2.0000 -1.0000

1.0000 -2.0000 -0.0000 -2.0000

p = -2.0000 -1.0000 -1.0000 -1.0000

Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

3 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

Fig. 3-1: (a) Block

3 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

Block diagrams of control systems

Basic block-diagram elements are

Some special blocks are used

3 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

Drawing a block diagram

Combining both equations, we have

3 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

Basic block diagram of a feedback control system

From the gure above, we can write

B(s) = H(s)Y (s),

good for plant without disturbances

L+[u(t)] = s L+[u(t)] u(0+)

L[u(t)] = s L[u(t)] u(0)