FACTORS INFLUENCING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN

PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN URBAN SLUMS IN KENYA: THE CASE

OF KANGEMI SLUM, NAIROBI

BY

EZAN MWILUKI EFEZA

A RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD
OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN PROJECT
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

2011

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this research proposal is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it
contains no materials previously published or written by another person, nor material which to a
substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at the University
of Nairobi or any other educational institution.

I also declare that the intellectual content of this research proposal is the product of my own work,
except to the extent that assistance from others in conceptions or in style, presentation and
linguistic expression as acknowledged.

Signature:

_______________________

Name:

Efeza Ezan Mwiluki

Registration Number:

L50/76294/2009

Date:

__________________________

The research Proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as the university
supervisor
Signature:

________________________

Date:

Dr. Harriet Kidombo,

Senior Lecturer,
School of Continuing and Distance Education

ii

________________________

DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to all children in urban slums in Kenya, those learning and living
in hardship and whose families struggle day and night to ensure they have access to sufficient basic
needs including education. It is through hardwork, determination and Gods grace that these
vulnerable children endeavour to achieve their best in education despite challenges posed by the
learning environment.

It is my dream and the dream shared by many other people that one day all children, regardless of
their backgrounds, will have full access to free, quality and relevant education in Kenya. All the
barriers to their development shall be broken to achieve their full potential and contribute to social,
economic and political development of Kenya.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to acknowledge various people who have contributed to this research project either directly
or indirectly. First and foremost, I thank my supervisor, Dr. Harriet Kidombo for her professional
guidance in this research project. She has been committed and always found time to offer wise
counsel on the direction and shape of this project despite her busy schedule. Her advice enabled me
to widen my understanding and appreciate the importance of research in identifying and addressing
issues affecting the society.

Secondly, I wish to thank all my lecturers in the postgraduate studies for imparting me with
knowledge and skills in project management. Their guidance in course work has enabled me to gain
a clearer understanding of various concepts and principles of project planning and management
from both theoretical and practical perspectives. I also wish to thank my colleagues in project
management class, especially Mr. Christopher Wesonga, who offered their assistance in shaping the
topic of this research as well as editing of my work.
Furthermore, I wish to salute all the respondents who have accepted to participate in this research
project. They include the head teachers, teachers and members of school management committees
and parents teachers associations drawn from the schools to be involved in the study. I believe their
contribution will be invaluable especially in providing relevant data useful for the study. Also to be
recognized are the pupils for whose purpose this research project has been developed, the local
administration and the local people who will in one way or the other facilitate the process of
carrying out this research.

Last but not least, I acknowledge my research assistants with whom I will work hand in hand in
data collection and data entry.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................ix
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS....................................................................................x
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1
1.1

Background to the Study.....................................................................................................1

1.2

Statement of the Problem....................................................................................................3

1.3

Purpose of the Study...........................................................................................................4

1.4

Objectives of the Study.......................................................................................................4

1.5

Research Questions.............................................................................................................5

1.6

Hypotheses..........................................................................................................................5

1.7

Significance of the Study....................................................................................................6

1.8

Delimitation of the Study....................................................................................................6

1.9

Limitations of the Study......................................................................................................6

1.10

Assumptions of the Study...................................................................................................7

1.11

Definitions of Significant Terms.........................................................................................7

1.12

Summary.............................................................................................................................9

CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................10
LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................10
2.1

Introduction.......................................................................................................................10

2.2

Education Provision in Urban Slums................................................................................10

2.3

Academic Performance and Examination System............................................................13

2.4

School Enrolment..............................................................................................................15

2.5

School Physical Infrastructure..........................................................................................17

2.6

Teacher Motivation...........................................................................................................18

2.7

Instructional Resources.....................................................................................................21

2.8

School Management..........................................................................................................22

2.9

Theoretical Framework.....................................................................................................24

2.10

Conceptual Framework.....................................................................................................28

2.11

Summary...........................................................................................................................31

CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................32
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................32
3.1

Introduction.......................................................................................................................32

3.2

Research Design................................................................................................................32

3.3

Target Population..............................................................................................................33

3.4

Sampling procedure..........................................................................................................34

3.5

Methods of Data Collection..............................................................................................36

3.6

Validity and Reliability of the study.................................................................................38

3.7

Operational Definition of Variables..................................................................................39

3.8

Methods of Data Analysis.................................................................................................47

3.9

Summary...........................................................................................................................48

REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................49
APPENDICES............................................................................................................................54
Appendix I: Letter of transmittal of data collection instruments.........................................54
Appendix III: Questionnaire for Class Teachers, Class Four................................................64
Appendix IV: Questionnaire for Class Teacher, Class 8.........................................................71
Appendix V: Questionnaire for Subject Teachers (Class Four and Class Eight).................78
Appendix VI: In-depth interview guide or the head teacher.................................................84
Appendix VII: Focus Group Discussion Guide for School Management Committees......85
Appendix VIII: Observation Guide.........................................................................................86
vi

Appendix IX: Document Analysis Guide.................................................................................88

Appendix X: Timeframe...........................................................................................................89
Appendix XI: Budget.................................................................................................................90

vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Page

Figure 2.1: Sources of Self Efficacy ..................................................................................................25

Figure 2.2: Components of Self Efficacy...........................................................................................26
Figure 2.3: Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................30

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 3.1: Sampling of schools..........................................................................................................36
Table 3.2: Sampling of respondents..................................................................................................36
Table 3.3: Summary of Operational Definition of Variables.............................................................44

ix

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CBO

Community Based Organization

FGD

Focus Group Discussion

GOK

Government of Kenya

KCPE

Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

MOE

Ministry of Education

MoEST

Ministry of Education Science and Technology

NGO

Non-governmental organization

PTA

Parents Teachers Association

SMC

School Management Committee

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF

United Nations Children Education Fund

ABSTRACT

There is limited attention to the performance of private and public primary schools in urban slums
in Kenya by stakeholders in the education sector despite the vulnerability of the children in urban
slums. Furthermore, Kenya has few empirical studies that have directly examined the relationship
between school and learning requirements and learner achievement.

Hence, there is no clear

understanding of the factors influencing the academic performance of schools in urban slums.

The proposed study therefore intends to investigate factors which influence academic performance
in non-formal, private, community and public schools in urban slums in Kenya. The target
population for the study is schools and stakeholders in Kangemi, one of the over 200 slums in
Nairobi. The study will be conducted against the backdrop of perceived emerging national trend
where private schools are said to perform better than public schools in national examinations. The
study has also been necessitated by campaigns by development organizations on access to quality
and relevant education for children in urban slum areas in Kenya.

The study will use cross-sectional survey research design applying the mixed method of
quantitative and qualitative approaches. A sample of 114 respondents will be selected for the study.
Stratified and simple random probability sampling procedures will be used as well as purposive
non-probability sampling procedure.

The study will use self administered questionnaires,

interviews, document analysis, focus group discussions and observation checklists to collect data.
Quantitative and qualitative methods will be used to analyze data with both inferential and
descriptive analysis being employed. The findings of the study will be presented in accordance with
the variables and themes of the study.

xi

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background to the Study

Education is recognized by various treaties and declarations as a basic human right at the
international level. These include the Universal Declaration of human rights the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of
the Child (ACRWC). It is on basis of these international treaties that states, including Kenya, are
committed to provision of education to citizens. The declaration of the Millennium Development
Goals is the latest international commitment in which achieving Universal Primary Education
(MDG 2) is one of the key commitments.

In Kenya, education is recognized as a right and measures have been put in place to realize it as
stipulated in legislation and policy documents. These documents include the Constitution of Kenya
2010, the Children Act 2001, Education Act, Sessional Papers and the Free Primary Policy. In
order to achieve the countrys Vision 2030 of globally competitive quality education, training and
research for sustainable development, the Government of Kenya proposed to put in place
structures that are aimed to improve the education system by making adequate investment.

Education equips citizens with knowledge and skills that enables them to make informed choices
about their lives and those facing the Kenyan society. Sessional paper No. 1 of 2005 recognizes
education as the basic tool for human resources development, improving the quality of life and
cultivating nationalistic values.

Access to quality and relevant education for children is a major concern in Kenya and as a result,
there have been interventions aimed at improving the education standards. Performance of private

and public schools in national examinations is always a subject of national debate each year
especially after the release of Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination
results. However, the performance of schools providing education to vulnerable groups in the
urban slum areas is usually not given much attention. There is an overwhelming number of over
200,000 children in slum areas in Nairobi enrolled in either non-formal, private and community
schools whose performance is also critical in determining the overall standards of education in
Kenya. According to Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2010), the population of Nairobi City is
estimated to be 3.2 million people. On the other hand, the records from the Ministry of Education
show that Nairobi City has 194 public primary schools. According to Amnesty International
(2009) this is a very limited number of schools meant to cater for the bulging city population. This
has led to emergence of non-formal and private primary schools in slum areas. According to the
estimates by Nairobi City Council Department of Education (2010) there are 476 non-formal and
community schools in addition to 184 private which give a combined number of 660 schools in
Nairobi. Public schools are 23% of the total number of schools that pupils in search of basic
education in the city can access. Lack of adequate public schools and the ever increasing demand
for education has led to expansion of non-formal, private and community schools which
complement education service delivery. However, the government has not, at present, established
the exact number of non-formal, private and community schools in Nairobi.

The trend in performance of schools and students in the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
and school based examination in non formal, private, community and public primary schools in
slums has only been speculated without any proper analytical and empirical research being
conducted.

Despite the perceived poor state of the schools in slum areas of Nairobi, they are making a
considerable contribution in ensuring universal education in Kenya as one of the Millennium
Development Goals is achieved by 2015. The study on the factors influencing academic

performance of primary schools in slum areas is therefore of great importance to ensure

appropriate policy interventions.
1.2

Statement of the Problem

Despite education being recognized as a basic human right, there is limited attention to the
performance in primary schools in urban slums which caters for one of the categories of the most
vulnerable children in the Kenya. Hence, there is no clear understanding of the factors influencing
the academic performance of schools in urban slums. Children in slum areas face numerous
challenges in accessing quality and relevant education yet national debates on performance of
students in national examinations is usually concentrated on other education service providers
other than those based in the slum areas.

Schools in slum areas are characterized by lack of adequate teaching and learning materials, poor
school buildings, small and overcrowded classrooms with poor ventilation and lighting,
inadequate sanitation facilities, inadequate or lack of trained teachers and quality assurance and
limited capacity of school management.

Kenya has few empirical studies that have directly examined the relationship between school and
learning requirements and learner achievement. However, according to Earthman & Lemasters
(1996) empirical findings from the developed countries show that schools capital investment has
a strong positive impact on pupil behavior and motivation with new facilities, for instance,
exciting the interest of pupils.

Other studies conducted internationally and locally by researchers such as Cameron (2010),
Brockerhoff and Brennan (1999), Magadi, Zulu and Brockerhoof (2003), Mugisha, Arinaitwa and
Hagembe (2003), Buckland (2000), Waweru and Macharia (1982), Ngware et al (2008), Kathuri

and Juma (2007), Onsomu et al (2004), and Muola, (2010) have contributed to knowledge on
access to quality education. However, the studies do not specifically address factors influencing
academic performance specifically in non-formal, community, private and public primary schools
in Kangemi slum. For example, school enrolment, class size, motivation of teachers, the state of
school physical infrastructure, instructional resources, school management system and parents
participation and academic performance in Kangemi slums have not been studied.

This necessitates a study of these factors in order to establish their influence on academic
performance in primary schools in urban slums, the case of Kangemi slums.

1.3

Purpose of the Study

The study intends to bring out a clearer understanding of the nature, scope and extent to which
various factors influence academic performance in primary schools in urban slums in Kenya. The
study will be conducted in Kangemi Slums in Nairobi and will identify the interrelationships and
gaps in interventions in providing education for pupils attending primary schools in urban slums.

1.4

Objectives of the Study

This study will be guided by the following five objectives:

1. To establish the extent to which school enrolment influences academic performance in
primary schools in urban slums
2. To assess the influence of school physical infrastructure on academic performance in
primary schools in urban slums
3. To examine the influence of instructional resources on academic performance in primary
schools in urban slums
4. To assess the influence of teacher motivation on academic performance in primary schools
in urban slums

5. To determine the influence of school management on academic performance in primary

schools in urban slums

1.5 Research Questions

The study is guided by the following five research questions:
1. To what extent does school enrolment influence academic performance in primary schools
in urban slums?
2. What is the influence of school physical infrastructure on academic performance in
primary schools in urban slums?
3. What is the influence of instructional resources on academic performance in primary
schools in urban slums?
4. What is the influence of teacher motivation on academic performance in primary schools
in urban slums?
5. What is the influence of school management on academic performance in primary schools
in urban slums?

1.6

Hypotheses

In this study, the following three hypotheses will be tested.

1. (a) Null hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between school enrolment and
academic performance in primary schools in urban slums
(b) Alternate hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between school enrolment and
academic performance in primary schools in urban slums
2. (a) Null hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between the school physical
infrastructure and academic performance of primary schools in urban slums
(b) Alternate hypothesis: There is significant relationship between school physical
infrastructure and academic performance of primary schools in urban slums
5

3. (a) Null hypothesis: There is no significance difference in academic performance in

private primary schools and the academic performance in public primary schools in urban
slums
(b) Alternate hypothesis: There is significance difference in the academic performance in
private primary schools and the academic performance in public primary schools in urban
slums

1.7

Significance of the Study

The results of the study will contribute to knowledge and used for reference by scholars and
stakeholders interested in the situation of education standards in urban slums in Kenya. The
information that will be generated from the study will also help in the future implementation of
education policies aimed at providing quality education especially in slum and other marginalized
areas. The findings and recommendation of the study will therefore be useful to the Ministry of
Education as well as other stakeholders running campaigns on education in urban slums in Kenya.

1.8

Delimitation of the Study

The study involves teachers, school management and members of school management committees
of non-formal, private, community and public primary schools in Kangemi slums in Nairobi. The
study focuses on the factors influencing academic performance in urban slums in Kangemi slums
in Nairobi. School enrolment, school physical infrastructure, instructional resources, teacher
motivation, school management and academic performance of primary school will be studied.

1.9

Limitations of the Study

The study is likely to be affected by financial constraints as the researcher is self sponsored.
However, to overcome this limitation, volunteers will be engaged in collection of data. While

insecurity in the slums may also be a problem as some of the schools are located in places which
are unreachable, this limitation will be addressed by making adequate arrangements for security
escort for the research team provided by the local administration. The team will also establish
rapport with the local residents. The time for carrying out the study is limited as the researcher is
involved in other professional and personal commitments. To overcome this, the researcher will
maximize on any available time for the research project and will also engage research assistants in
collection of data.
1.10

Assumptions of the Study

The assumptions of the study are that the target respondents will be cooperative enough and that
they will provide accurate and reliable data. The sample is also expected to be representative of the
entire population.

1.11

Definitions of Significant Terms

Academic performance: The scores of a school or pupils in school based examinations such as
end of term and mock examinations and the national examinations, the
Kenya Certificate of Primary Education Examination. It involves the school
mean grade and the number of pupils.

Community schools: Community schools are schools established, financed and administered by
the communities. The schools may have outside sponsors such as churches
and other NGOs, which participate in the financing and, at times, in the
management of the schools.
Formal schools:

These are institutions operating according to a formal timetable, following a

standard syllabus, for children who attend during school hours.

Government/public schools:These are primary schools funded and owned by the government,
state or local government body. The government is responsible for payment
of teachers salaries and provides subsidies in terms of textbooks and other

teaching materials. They also receive support in terms of supervision,

curriculum development, and pedagogical development. In some schools
the non-teaching staff salaries are met by local authorities (city or county
councils).
Instructional resources:

These are materials used for teaching. The include textbooks,

teachers guides, chalks, duster and black boards. They are necessary in
facilitating the learning process.
Non-formal schools: These are primary schools which apart from offering the formal education
system they also offer diverse education services outside the formal
education system to different categories of the population including youth
and adults. They therefore offer education either through the formal
curriculum or through the non-formal education provision and/or delivery
of productive skills and literacy, to out-of-school children and youth who
for various reasons, have no access to the formal education system.
Private schools:

Primary schools owned by individuals, private entrepreneurs, companies,

churches, trusts and other recognized bodies. The proprietors finance and
manage the schools mainly through school fees and contributions from the
sponsors.

School enrolment:

School enrolment is the total number of pupils admitted in the school from
class one to class eight. It is also the number of pupils admitted in each of
the classes.

School management:The decision making process and structure for proper functioning of the
school as an institution. It concerns the individuals involved who are mainly
members of the committee and the school headteacher or person designated
to act in that capacity.
School physical infrastructure:

Facilities available for use by pupils and teachers for

learning process to take place effectively in a school environment. It

includes the classrooms, toilets, fence, desks and chairs.
Teacher motivation: The drive by teachers to provide their services by ensuring the learning
process takes place effective and there is transfer if skills to the pupils. Motivation

involves the teachers commitment to teach and the factors that make them have
that commitment, intrinsic and extrinsic.
Urban Slums:Inhabited areas in towns and cities which have limited or lack access proper and
adequate basic services such as water, sanitation, security, permanent and adequate
structures and sufficient living space as defined by the UN Habitat. The areas have
relatively poor infrastructure, poor roads and buildings.
1.12

Summary

The chapter has provided background information on the study on factors influencing academic
performance in primary schools in urban slums. The statement of the problem of the study is lack
of a clear understanding of the factors influencing academic performance in urban slum areas. The
chapter has also provided the purpose and significance of the study. Objectives and research
questions that will guide the study and the hypothesis have been formulated. The scope and
limitations as well as definition of significant terms have been provided.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents an analysis of existing literature on the topic of study. It includes the
findings of related studies undertaken by other researchers. The literature review is organized
based on themes and variables under study: education provision in urban slums and the education
system in Kenya, examination system, school enrolment, school physical infrastructure, teachers
motivation, instructional resources and school management. The chapter further provides a
theoretical and a conceptual framework.

2.2

Education Provision in Urban Slums

According to the UN Habitat (2005) 970 million people lived in slums and in Africa more than
70% of urban population live in slums. It is projected that if urban poverty rises at the same pace
nearly 2 billion people inn the world would be in slums by 2030. In Kenya, slums are found in
major towns with Nairobi having the highest number of slums. Most of Kenyas urban areas are
rapidly urbanizing. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2010) the population of
Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya is estimated at 3,138,369; with at least 60% of the population
living in over 200 slums. UN Habitat (2001) projected slum growth at the rate of 5% and it is
projected that by 2020, there will be more than 5 million people residing in urban slums in Kenya.
Slums, also referred to as informal settlements, are characterized by deprivation of social
amenities and economic infrastructure. The housing conditions are of low quality, unplanned and
congested. Most of the people living in these informal settlements are unemployed, do manual
work or low paying work and are classified as the low income (poor) group.

According to the Society for International Development (2004), human poverty appears to deepen
owing to high population growth and rising disparity between the rich and poor in Kenya despite

10

the moderate economic growth that has been recorded in the past few years. The over 200 slums in
Nairobi are faced with socio-economic challenges with a high number of new urban inhabitants
ending up in the slums. Slums are faced with poor planning and are characterized by high
incidence of poverty and poor access to essential services. Consequently, children in slums exhibit
poorer health, nutrition, and lower education outcomes compared to children from non-slum and
even rural areas. The socio-economic status of slum dwellers therefore influences their
performance in other sectors especially education where school enrolment, retention and transition
is affected.

The situation of education in slums in Kenya is similar to that of other slums around the world
such as India and Bangladesh. According to Cameron (2010) there were areas in Bangladesh
which lack access to any government school and which are too poor for even the lowest cost
private education service provider. It is noted that a large proportion of children are excluded from
education, meaning that they attend school infrequently, repeat years of schooling and have poor
achievement. Cameron (2010) further noted that upon completion of primary education, very few
children from the slums make the transition to secondary schooling.

Despite efforts by the government and development partners to ensure the realization of Universal
Primary Education, particularly among underserved populations, there are challenges to the
provision of quality education in urban slums. According to Ngware et al (2008) quality of
education comprises three interrelated aspects which include quality of human and material
resources available for teaching (inputs), quality of teaching practice (process) and the quality of
results (outputs and outcomes). These components of quality education are rarely addressed
holistically in the urban slums settings.

Ngware et al (2008) observed that 74% of families living in the relatively low-income formal
settlements have their children enrolled in public primary schools compared to 52% of families
11

living in the informal settlements. Within the informal settlements, better-off families are more
likely to have their children in public schools than the most poor. Among the poorest slum
families, only 54% have their children in public schools, whereas 61% of the richest slum
families have their children in public schools. Children living in these settlements therefore have
very limited access to public primary education since the schools are few. Thus poorer families are
enrolling their children in fee-charging non-formal private and community schools compared to
relatively richer families.

It is further established by Ngware et al (2008) and UNICEF (2006) that non-formal, private and
community schools are supported by communities, religious groups and other organizations which
charge minimal fees and use the national curriculum taught in public schools, but they lack basic
learning requirements which include qualified teachers, equipment and facilities. According to
UNICEF (2006), the Ministry of Education rarely inspects the standards and teaching quality of
these categories of schools.

According to Kathuri and Juma (2007) the issue of quality education in Kenya was put to test with
the introduction of Free Primary Education in 2003. Free Primary Education resulted in a dramatic
increase in primary school participation. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
there was an increase in national school enrolment from 5.9 million in 2002 to 8.6 million in 2008.
There was high demand for enrolment in primary schools especially in public schools supported
by the government. This in turn created a gap as government schools could not accommodate all
the children; hence more private and non formal schools sprang up to fill this gap. This was much
evident in the slum areas as there are fewer public schools serving the urban slum areas.

According to the Ministry of Education, there are over 19, 273 public primary Schools in Kenya
and over 6, 503 private schools including non-formal schools in Kenya. Nairobi has a total of 194
primary schools, with just a few located in the urban slums. Nationally, there are more than 1,000

12

non-formal schools in major urban slums providing primary education for an estimated 300,000
children. According to the Nairobi City Council Department of Education (2010) Nairobi has 476
non-formal and community schools in slums areas. Despite providing 60% of services in the
slums, only 20% of non-formal schools are formally registered, the remaining 80% operate outside
the regulatory framework and cannot guarantee quality free primary education.
Kathuri and Juma (2007) observed that private schools (including non formal schools) serving low
income families are perceived as peripheral by policy makers, educationists and researchers.
Hence, information on their number, location and management is not readily available.

Establishing the nature and number of schools in slum areas is a challenge as the Ministry of
Education has not conducted a comprehensive mapping of schools in these areas.

2.3 Academic Performance and Examination System

Kenya has a 3 tier system of education known as the 8-4-4 which was started in 1985. It consists
of primary, secondary and university education. Primary education comprises a total of 8 years,
after which pupils sit for Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination
administered by the Kenya National Examining Council (KNEC). Transition to the next level of
education, secondary school, is determined by the performance of pupils and the availability of
chances in various government and private secondary schools.

Primary education in Kenya is the first phase of formal education system starts at an average age
is 6 years and runs for 8 years. Primary education is intended to promote growth, impart literacy
and numeracy skills. Hence it lays a firm foundation for further formal education and training and
life-long learning.

13

According to Kellaghan and Greaney (1992) there was reliance on national examinations in
African education as a means of ensuring the coverage of a common curriculum and raising the
national academic standards.

The three main functions of examinations include selection,

certification and accountability. In Kenya a single examination, the Kenya Certificate of Primary
Education examination, is used for purposes of selection and certification of the level of attained.
It is on this basis that pupils progress to secondary school depending on their performance in
KCPE examination.

Kellaghan and Greaney (1992) further noted that there are instances where the performance and
pass rates of students and the schools need to be interpreted with caution as some students who
perform below the cut-off points may be left out in the next level of education despite the fact the
performance of students is usually determined by a number of other factors. Hence, quota systems
are sometimes used to attain national objectives such as equality of male and female pass rates.
Urban slums which are mainly inhabited by vulnerable population are however not considered in
the quota system of selection and certification of students.

Kellaghan and Greaney (1992) further observed that practical subjects and school based
assessments tend to receive little emphasis unless they are incorporated into national
examinations. In Kenya, selection and certification of students based on the Kenya Certificate of
Primary Education examination which comes after eight years of schooling has been criticized by
various stakeholders.

Although KCPE is an important examination, it is argued that other factors such as students
overall performance across primary school, and their performance relative to that of students in
other institutions should be considered in certification and selection process.

14

Performance at primary school leaving examinations is content rather than skills based and failure
rates are high in many countries. Only those students who are in good schools or can afford to pay
extra tutoring pass well and continue to secondary school. The situation greatly affects students in
non formal schools as poor quality of primary schools in urban slums also tends to lead to low
transition.

Eshiwani (1983) identified various factors that affect achievement at primary school. These factors
include large class size, poor school facilities, lack of proper preparation or homework, lack of
sound and efficient leadership in the school administration, inadequate amount of time allocated to
teaching and learning, and teacher characteristics. Mbiriru (1983) looked specifically into the
performance in mathematics in secondary schools and established that the major problems that
face performance are the change in mathematics curriculum, shortage of trained mathematics
teachers, poor foundation in mathematics at primary level, irregular in-service training, and pupils'
belief that mathematics is difficult. Among the interventions suggested by the study to improve
performance includes providing frequent in-service teachers, sufficient materials and guidelines,
teacher involvement in curriculum development, better terms of employment, exposure to testing
procedures, and better communication were suggested by the study.
2.4

School Enrolment

According to Arnold (2000) large school environment result in less communication, interaction,
and coordination throughout the school. In small schools however, the education and school
curriculum is more limited and directed to average pupil rather than the full range of students with
varied learning needs. Ngware, et al (2008) noted that the ideal primary school size in Nairobi
should be between 720 and 1,080.

With regard to class size and pupil teacher ratio, Benbow et al (2007) observed that an ideal pupilteacher ratio should be 40:1. This is in concurrence with the recommended pupil-teacher ratio of

15

40 for public primary schools in Kenya by the Teachers Service Commission (2005). Ngware et al
(2008), in a study for the African Population and Health Research Centre, the mean pupil-teacher
ratio range from 22 in schools owned by private individuals to 47 in government schools in slum
and non-slum formal settlement areas in Nairobi.

According to Onsomu et al (2004) students in community schools in slum areas are generally from
low-income families in the poor areas of the city. Enrolment is notably high in most community
schools implying their significant contribution towards enhancing education access in the
marginalized areas. Donors, communities and other sponsors engage actively in food provision in
terms of lunches, and since the catchments of these schools is the slum areas with very poor
households, food provision attracts more children to school.

Normally, both teachers and the public believe that a low pupil-teacher ratio and teachers high
qualifications result in better performance in school. However, studies from other regions have
indicated that no optimum class size can be scientifically established as a function of educational
benefits. According to Haddad (1978), how a teacher organizes and motivates the class is more
important than class size and that savings made from increased class size might be invested in
teacher-training or educational materials, which have been shown to have stronger effects on
learners achievement.

Advocates of smaller class-sizes argue that they provide better instruction, more individual
attention to students, and accommodate the growing diversity in schooling. However Duflo et al
(2008) in a study in Kenya established that at the sample mean, in lower grades, reducing class
size from 80 to 40 students without any other change does not lead to a significant increase in test
scores. A similar finding was reported by Banerjee et al (2007) in India where no impact of the
reduction in class size was achieved through the hiring of a remedial education teacher for
students who remained with a regular teacher. Therefore, it would be of importance to determine

16

the relevance of this argument in the urban slums school setup in Kenya to establish whether there
is any significant relationship between class size and the performance in primary schools in the
slums.

2.5

School Physical Infrastructure

Infrastructure development in primary education should contribute to enhanced school attendance,

motivation and improve academic performance of students. It is assumed that favorable attitude
towards school infrastructure quality facilitates the attendance motivation and improve academic
performance of students. Kenya has no empirical studies that have directly examined the
relationship between school and learning requirements and learner achievement.

However,

according to Earthman & Lemasters (1996) empirical findings from the developed countries show
that schools capital investment has a strong positive impact on pupil behavior and motivation with
new facilities, for instance exciting the interest of pupils. In particular, there exists close
correlation between the school environment and a sense that education is important, hence
increasing pupils interest in schooling. Buildings have very marked effect on pupils morale.
Building conditions have also been related to test scores. According to Fisher (2000) there are
improvements in test scores of up to 14% when building conditions are improved.

Ngware et al (2008) observed that facilities are critical in safe school environment as they
influence childrens health and wellbeing. According to the Ministry of Education the minimum
number of toilets in a school is 4 for the first 30 pupils, thereafter a ratio of 25:1 and 30:1 applies
for girls and boys, respectively. Ngware et al (2008) noted that the average pupil-toilet ratios in
government schools, 47 for girls and 56 for boys, were far above the benchmark in slum and nonslum areas. For non-government entities the toilets were below 30 and within the recommended
ratios.

17

According to Dibal et al (1982) lack of library facilities was the most serious problem that impacts
on the performance of students. Onsomu et al (2004) noted that the general condition of buildings
in community schools in Kenya was very poor compared to government schools. Most community
schools are housed in temporary structures in the slum areas of Nairobi. According to the Ministry
of Education standards on school buildings, however, the minimum roofing material should be
iron sheets gauge 26; 9-inch stones or concrete blocks for walls and a concrete slab for the floor
and foundation.

According to UNESCO, the minimum student classroom space should be 1.5 square meters per
pupil with one-seater desk, which would translate to 67.5 square meters for a room expected to
hold 45 students. The Ministry of Education (2000) recommended a 7.5m x 6.0m classroom. This
translates to 45 square meters or about 1 square meter per child in a room with 45 children.
Concerns of the classroom physical space includes safety and accessibility to learning;
arrangement of furniture; and the teachers use of physical resources. Adequate space allows the
teacher and student, for example, to plan a display of work, move furniture to facilitate a group
project, or to shift supplies to improve traffic flow. In a typical Kenyan classroom, desks are lined
up in the traditional neat rows, facing the teachers desk.

The current study therefore will examine the current status of school infrastructure its relation with
school effectiveness in terms of academic achievement.

2.6

Teacher Motivation

A highly motivated employee puts in the maximum effort in his or her job. Young (1988)
examined the motivation and job satisfaction of Californian public school teachers in the USA and
found that one of the overall job predictors was the salary one earned from it. Studies by Lockheed
et al. (1991) indicated that lack of motivation and professional commitment produced poor

18

attendance and unprofessional attitudes towards students which in turn affect the performance of
students academically.

Buckland (2000) established that employing low-cost teachers who are unqualified or underqualified may turn out to be a false economy as this option comes itself with considerable hidden
costs. Fyfe (2007) also observed that the perceived teacher-cost problem is a feature of education
in the Africa and has been tackled in a slightly different fashion through community schools and
non-formal education (NFE) that have an equal resonance regarding the status through
employment of contract teachers. It is however noted that for contract teachers to be effective they
must be given ongoing support in the form of curriculum materials, in-service training and
guidance. Employment on contract impacts on the motivation of teachers. In Kenya only in
government-owned schools teacher qualification standards are met.

Fyfe (2007) further noted that most teachers in community schools are not trained and are
temporarily employed by school committees with no formal contracts and with monthly salaries of
less than a half of government primary teachers. However, contract teachers have played a critical
role in expanding access to the hard-to-reach populations in rural and remote areas where regular
teachers are usually least attracted to or where there are not enough pupils to open a regular
school. These hard-to-reach populations are often ethnic minority groups or other marginal
communities. UNESCO (2004) in its report asserted that teachers are the key factor in improving
the quality of education. Dilution of the quality of the teaching profession ought to result in
diminished educational outcomes such as attainment. However, studies conducted in West Africa,
could not distinguish any difference between the achievement of pupils taught by contract teachers
and regular teachers.

According to Onsomu et al (2004) the characteristics of teachers in community schools can be

summarized as low or no professional qualification and development with less than 20 percent of

19

teachers qualified as compared to 100 per cent in Government schools; low motivation due to
very poor working conditions; meager salary which is not regular, the average salaries are less
than a half of that paid to teachers in government schools; and no supervision since supervisors
from the Ministry of Education rarely visit such schools for quality assurance. Onsomu (2004)
noted that while 71% of the government-owned schools were visited by an education quality
assurance and standards officer for at least 3 times in the 12 months only 8% of the private
religious and 33% of community-owned schools had been visited, there was no such number of
visits in private individual and private NGO-owned schools.

A high rate of teacher absenteeism is a serious obstacle to the delivery of education in many
developing countries. Glewwe and Kremer (2005) identified various reasons for teachers
absenteeism and notes that teacher incentives are weak in many developing countries. Salary
levels are often so low that this forces teachers to take a second or third job to survive.
Furthermore, salaries are often not paid on time requiring teachers to take time out to secure
payment, there are poor working and living conditions and lack of professional support often lead
to poor motivation among teachers. Many teachers, especially in small single-teacher schools are
required to undertake non-teaching duties that take them out of school. Absence rates in nonformal schools, which are staffed by community teachers, are higher than in regular government
schools. Thus absenteeism rates among contract teachers are much higher than for teachers with
permanent status.

According to Vegas and De Laat (2002) the increased turnover of qualified contract teachers was
most likely to lead to a decline in the quality with consequent negative effects on pupil
performance in the long run. It is also observed by the authors that regular teachers outperformed
contract teachers. Onsomu (2004) noted that some teachers in school in slum areas had no formal
contract to govern their employment.

20

Kathuri and Juma noted that in the private schools in Kenya, teacher turnover was associated
with a variety of factors, chief among them being, employment in government schools,
undertaking non-teaching jobs, lack of contract renewal, employment in other private schools,
poor remuneration, unsatisfactory teacher performance

According to the staffing norm report by Teachers Service Commission (2005) teachers in Kenya
teach an average of 15 hours in a week compared to 23 in most other developing countries.
Teachers in government schools, however, not only taught large class sizes, but also taught for
many more hours than their peers in non-government schools.

2.7

Instructional Resources

According to Ngware et al (2008) textbooks were an important resource in teaching and learning.
According to Onsomu (2004) schools in slum areas in Nairobi are faced with lack of basic
teaching and learning resources. Teachers in schools in the slums have to borrow books and
teaching guides from their colleagues in public schools and copy them.

According to Kenya Government policy on pupil-textbook ratio lower primary, grades 1-4, should
have a ratio of at most 3:1 while upper primary should have a ratio of at most 2:1 in all main
subjects. Community non-formal and private schools in slum areas follow the same national
formal curriculum as the public schools. Community schools buy syllabus, teaching guides and
other pedagogical materials approved by the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). However,
according to Onsomu et al (2004), given the limited resources in the schools, the teaching
materials are not usually sufficient for the subjects. Therefore, some teachers have to borrow
teaching guides from colleagues in the neighbouring public schools in order to make copies.
According to Ngware et al (2008) while most government, private religious and private NGO
owned schools in slum and non-slum areas in Nairobi were found to have almost attained the
required minimum standards pupil-textbook ratio both in lower and upper primary, other schools

21

had relatively higher pupil-textbook ratios. For example, in three subjects, the private individualowned schools had a mean ratio of 2:5 and 7:6 in lower and upper primary, respectively, while the
community owned schools had mean ratios of 5:4 and 2:3 at the same levels.

According to Ngware et al (2008) there was clear evidence that government-owned schools are
well endowed with textbooks in key subjects.

2.8

School Management

Management problems in the education sector are occasioned by centralized bureaucratic

structures, many of which duplicate roles. This is despite the existence of policy framework and
legislation in Kenya including the Education Act Cap. 211, the Education Standards Regulations Legal Notice 106/1968 and Teacher Service Commission Act 1967 Cap. 210. This problem is
manifested in administrative rigidity, sluggishness and lack of responsiveness that results in delays
in decision-making and distribution of resources; absence of sound management, follow-ups,
monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. The management of education affairs right from the
national to district levels has been seriously hampered by inefficiency and lack of resources.

While the Ministry of Education is mandated to register and monitor schools, other government
agencies such as the Ministry of Culture the NGO Bureau are found to register learning
institutions. It is also believed that there are unregistered schools in slum areas.

According to Kathuri and Juma (2007), in Nairobi, the oldest two private schools were established
in 1978 and 1979. Approximately 8% and 30% of the private schools in Nairobi were established
in the 1980s and 1990s respectively. Most (58.6%) of the private schools mapped in Nairobi slums
were established between 2000 and 2004. Whereas there was a proliferation of private
unrecognized schools in the 1990s and 2000s, establishment of public schools on the other hand
was almost static, with only one having been built in 1998. The oldest public school in the slums
22

of Nairobi was started in 1940. About 36% of the public schools in Nairobi were established
between 1950 and 1960, 32% between 1970 and 1980 and 28% in the 1990s.

In Kenya, community schools are recognized as non-formal institutions, with their number
mushrooming in informal settlements including slum areas in urban centres they represent more
than 18 per cent of primary-school enrolments in Nairobi. Community schools have a long history
in Kenya. They developed quickly from the late 1980s with the rapid growth of city and suburban
populations, which outpaced public provision. The gap was filled by community leaders, parents
and in some cases non-governmental organizations (NGOs) who developed non-formal
community schools. However, the management of these schools has been a challenge.

According to Aga Khan Foundation (2007), community schools are ones that are created and
managed by communities, often in response to a lack of other service provision. In these schools,
communities may have various responsibilities with respect to construction, financing and
management.

According to Muola, (2010) pupils' motivation to do well in academic work is to some extent
dependent on the nature of their home environment. It is therefore recommended that parents need
to be aware of the importance of their role in their children's academic achievement motivation so
that they can provide the necessary facilities at home. Waweru and Macharia (1982) agree with
this observation as they note that children's educational performance is affected either positively or
negatively by home living conditions, teachers, and school administration, as well as by parental
and student attitudes toward learning.

There is usually a common belief that most parents belonging to the low-income level are
disinterested in their childs education. This belief is prevalent even with policy-makers and
experts on education. According to Husain (2005) this belief is manifested in statements like

23

illiterate and semiliterate parents see no reason to send their children to school, or the vast
majority of adult illiterates belonging to the poor economic stratum are not convinced of it (that
literacy is a basic right of every individual). Waweru and Macharia (1982) concluded that the
socioeconomic background of an area and pupil affect the performance of the child in the
classroom and in national examinations.

2.9

Theoretical Framework

The study which seeks to establish the factors influencing the academic performance in non
formal, private, community and public primary schools in urban slums is informed by social
learning theory, self-efficacy theory, and social cognitive theory and motivation theories.

According to Bandura (1977), "learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention

hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to
do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling, from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions
this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning theory explains human
behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental influences. Therefore, in this context, the school learning environment which
include school physical facilities and teachers motivation is expected to have an influence on the
learning process and ultimately on the achievement of the learners.

Furthermore, performance and behavior are influenced by self efficacy judgments which may
include peoples beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects, also referred to as perceived
self efficacy, teachers beliefs in their own abilities as a teacher to handle the classroom and
influence their students performance referred to as instructional efficacy and thinking processes
involved in the acquisition, organization, and use of information known as cognitive processes.

24

According to Bandura (1997) these judgments are informed by past experience, vicarious
experience (modeling by others), social persuasions (coaching and evaluative feedback) and
physiological and emotional states. The sources of self efficacy are provided in the figure below.

Performance
accomplishments experience)
Vicarious experiences
(modeling by others)
Self
efficac
y
Judgme
nts

Social persuasion (coaching

and evaluation feedback)

Behaviour/
Performanc
e

Physiological and
emotional states

Source: Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy

Figure 2.1: Sources of Efficacy
According to Bandura (1997) the social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and
maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies.
Social environment such as family members, friends and colleagues and physical environment
such the size of a room, the ambient temperature or the availability of certain requirements have

25

an influence on the behaviour of a person including performance. The interaction of the

components as depicted below.

Behaviour/performance

Personal Factors (cognitive, affective, and

biological events)

Environmental Factors

Source: Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy

Figure 2.2: Components of Self Efficacy

The study is also informed by Herzbergs theory of motivators and hygiene factors, and Maslow's
hierarchy of needs. These theories have been adopted by the study in relation to the motivation of
teachers and its influence in academic performance of students and schools in urban slums.
Herzberg (1959) postulated that such factors as company policy, supervision, interpersonal
relations, working conditions, and salary are hygiene factors rather than motivators. According to
the theory, the absence of hygiene factors can create job dissatisfaction, but their presence does not
motivate or create satisfaction.

Maslow (1954) based on his observations as a humanistic psychologist, postulated, that there is a
general pattern of needs recognition and satisfaction that people follow in generally the same
sequence. He also theorized that a person could not recognize or pursue the next higher need in the
hierarchy until her or his currently recognized need was substantially or completely satisfied. The

26

study is also based on transformational and transactional leadership theories by Burns (1978) and
Bass (1981) respectively. The study applies these theories to the management and administration
of schools in urban slums. According to Burns, transformational leadership is a process in which
"leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation". It
redesigns perceptions and values, changes, expectations and aspirations of employees. Unlike in
the transactional style, it is not based on a "give and take" relationship, but on the leader's
personality, traits and ability to make a change through vision and goals. On the other hand the
transactional leadership style first described by Max Weber (1947) and by Bernard (1981) is based
on the hypothesis that followers are motivated through a system of rewards and punishment. The
view is that if the follower does something good, they will be rewarded and if the follower does
something wrong, they will be punished

Various models of leadership and management as further described by Bush (2003) include
formal, collegial, subjective ambiguity and political models.

Formal model assumes that

organizations are hierarchical systems in which managers use rational means to pursue agreed
goals. Heads possess authority legitimized by their formal positions within the organization and
are accountable to sponsoring bodies for the activities of their institutions. In the Collegial model,
the goals of an organization are determined at institutional level through agreement, decisions are
based on agreed goals and are collegial and objective reality, the structure is lateral, accountability
is blurred by shared decision making as head seeks to promote consensus, the leadership is
transformational, participative and interpersonal.

In the political model, the goals are submissive and set through conflict, decisions are based on
decisions of dominant coalitions and are political, setting for subunit, unstable external bodies
portrayed as interest groups, the head is both participant and mediator. The subjective model
assume that organizations are the creation of people within them, participants are thought to
27

interpret situations in different ways and these individual perceptions are derived from their
background and values. Organizations therefore have different meanings for each of their
members and exist only in the experience of those members. Finally, in the Ambiguity model the
goals are unclear and unpredictable, decisions unrelated to goals, problematic and source of
uncertainty may be tactical or unobtrusive and contingent. These models would apply to the
leadership and management styles of education institutions, in this case primary schools in urban
slums. In line with these theories, the study, therefore, investigates factors influencing the
academic performance of non-formal, private, community and public primary schools in urban
slums, the case of Kangemi slum.

2.10

Conceptual Framework

The main focus of this study is on investigating factors influencing academic performance in
primary schools in urban slums, the case of Kangemi slum. The independent, moderating and
dependent variables will be measured.

The dependent variable in the study is the academic performance in the primary schools in urban
slums. On the other hand, the independent variables in the study include school enrolment, school
physical infrastructure, instructional resources and teacher motivation. The moderating variable
that will be studied is the school management. The intervening variable which is considered to
have an effect on the other variables is the education curriculum. However this study wills not
measure the intervening variable as it is believed that the schools under the study utilize the same
educational curriculum. The extraneous variable in this study is the economic status of families of
the pupils. This extraneous variable, though it has an effect on the other variables especially the
dependent variable, it will not be investigated as it is beyond the scope of this study.

In academic performance as an independent variable, the factors considered for study include the
number of candidates for KCPE examinations ; school mean grade in KCPE examinations; the
28

number of pupils scoring above the average mark of 250 out of 500 possible marks in KCPE
examinations ; the number of pupils joining secondary schools ; the number of pupils in a class;
class mean grade in end of term examinations and the number of pupils with scores above the
average mark of 250 out of 500 possible marks in end of term examinations. The measurement of
academic performance will be based on the KCPE national examinations and the school based end
of term examinations.

The factors considered in school enrolment include the total number of pupils enrolled in every
school, the number of pupils enrolled in class four and class eight. The average ages of the pupils
in the schools and the sampled classes will also be considered.
The factors considered in school physical infrastructure include condition and size of classrooms,
availability and utilization of library facilities, availability and adequacy of sanitation facilities,
especially toilets and water, availability and adequacy of pupils desks and finally the availability
of recreational facilities, especially the playground and sports materials and their utilization. With
regard to the instructional materials, the factors to be considered in this study include the
availability and adequacy of textbooks, teacher guides, blackboards, chalks and dusters for use in
teaching and learning process.
The factors considered in motivation of teachers as a variable include job satisfaction,
remuneration, punctuality and commitment, opportunities for their in-service training and
development, the rate of teacher turnover, teaching hours and the working environment with
respect to the physical conditions, terms of employment and cooperation among the teachers as
well as with the school management and pupils.
The factors considered in school management include the training and qualification of the head
teacher, the management structure and qualification of the members and officials of the school
management committees and parents teachers association. Also considered in this study is the
29

involvement of parents in management of schools, material and moral support of the pupils in their
education. The efficiency of school administration, number and nature of discipline cases and
conflict resolution mechanisms has also been considered in this study.
Figure 2.3 on the next page is the conceptual framework of the study, which shows the relationship
between the variables.

30

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

School enrolment
- Number of pupils in school
- Number of pupils in class

- Age of pupils
School Physical infrastructure
- Classrooms

MODERATING
VARIABLE

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

School management
- Qualifications of
head teacher
Efficiency of school
administration

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Parents involvement

School mean grade in school-based

Discipline cases

and national examinations

- Library Facilities

Scores by pupils in examinations

- Sanitation Facilities

The number of pupils joining

- Pupils desks
Instructional
resources

secondary schools

- Recreational facilities
- Textbooks
- Pupil textbook ratio
- Teachers guides

Motivation of teachers
- Blackboard, chalk, blackboard dusters
recreation

- Job satisfaction
- Remuneration
- Punctuality

INTERVENING
VARIABLE

Education Curriculum
- Content of the syllabus
- Relevance of
curriculum

- In-service training s and development

Figure- 2.3:
Conceptual
Teacher
turnover Framework
- Teaching hours
- Working environment

Figure 2.3: Conceptual Framework

31

2.11

Summary

This chapter has provided an in-depth literature review. Related studies in Kenya and others
countries have been analyzed and reveal that there exists a knowledge gap in understanding
factors influencing academic performance in primary schools in urban slums . The study is
informed by social learning theory, self-efficacy theory, social cognitive theory and motivation

theories. According to the conceptual framework, the study will investigate academic performance as
a dependant variable, school enrolment, school physical infrastructure, instructional resources and
motivation of teachers as independent variables. School management will be studied as a moderating
variable. Education curriculum and economic status of pupils families have been considered as
intervening and extraneous variables respectively.

32

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter contains a discussion of various components of the research methodology as will
be applied in the study. These include research design, target population, sample procedures
and methods of data collection. The chapter further provides an operational definition of
variables of the study and the methods of data analysis. A summary of the contents of this
chapter is provided at the end of the chapter.

3.2 Research Design

The study will employ a Cross-Sectional Survey research design. According to Coggon et al
(1997) a cross-sectional design is used for research that collects data on relevant variables at

one point in time from a sample selected to represent a larger population from a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena. The data are collected all at the same time or within a short
time frame.

A cross-sectional design will be employed in this study as it will enable collection of data on
all the identified variables in the study, the data will be obtained from a large number of
subjects who are dispersed given the location and size of Kangemi slums. Furthermore, this
design will enable collection of data on attitudes.

By employing this research design, the study will identify the major factors that influence
academic performance of primary schools in urban slums and establish if there exists
difference in the performance of various categories of schools. This design will be used
because the target population consists of various categories of individuals who will be
instrumental in providing information. Furthermore, cross-sectional design will enable the
33

study to be undertaken at a relatively lower expense. The data for the study will be collected
from education service providers and stakeholders in the slum areas mainly associated with
the schools where the survey will be carried out. They include the School Management
Committees, Parents Teachers Association members, head teachers and teachers.

The study will be descriptive as regards information on academic performance in general and
explanatory in reference to information on factors influencing academic performance in nonformal, private and public schools in urban slums in Kenya.

Both quantitative and qualitative data will be collected, thus, the research will employ the
mixed mode. Quantitative data to be obtained by the study will be associated with the
performance of students in the national and school based exams as well as the measurements
of various components related to schools facilities and materials in terms of numbers and
sizes. Qualitative data on the other hand will be associated with the feelings and opinions of
stakeholders with regard to the performance of pupils and schools and the various issues
influencing their performance.

3.3 Target Population

According to Saravanel (1992), a population is an aggregate of all units possessing certain
specified characteristics on which the sample seeks to draw inferences. In other words it is the
totality or the universe of units from which samples of various sizes may be drawn. The target
population of this study, that is, the actual population to which the findings will be generalized
is private and public schools in urban slums in Nairobi. According to the Ministry of
Education, there are 194 public primary schools spread across eight (8) districts in Nairobi,
namely Westlands, Embakasi, Central, Langata, Dagoretti, Makadara, Pumwani and
Kasarani. The study targets schools in Kangemi slum is located in Westlands District. The
District has 37 public schools and unknown number of private and non-formal schools.
34

Nairobi City has an estimated 476 non-formal and community schools in addition to 184
private which give a combined number of 660 schools.

The study targets non-formal, community, private and public schools providing primary
education in Kangemi slum, Westlands District in Nairobi. Kangemi is one of the major slums
found in Nairobi. Other slums include Kibera, Korogocho, Huruma, Kawangware, Mukuru,
Mathare and Deep Sea. The study will focus on the wider Kangemi slum. Schools in slums
include two main categories, those supported by non-state actors and those supported by the
state or the government. These include non-formal schools, private schools and community
schools which usually provide alternative system for children to access primary education on
one hand and the public government sponsored schools which provide the formal education
system. However, both categories of non-state and state supported schools use the same 8-4-4
system of education, usually following the same syllabus certified by the Ministry of
Education.

3.4 Sampling procedure

Kothari (1990) defines sampling as the selection of part of an aggregate or totality on the basis
of which a judgment of inference about the aggregate or totality is made. It is the process of
drawing samples that would be a representative of the population of the study. Its objective is
to secure a sample which subject to limitations of size will produce the characteristics of the
population as closely as possible.
Stratified random sampling procedure will be used where important subgroups (strata)
identified as head teachers, subject teachers, class teachers and school management committee
(SMC) members and Parents Teachers Association (PTA) members. The schools from which
these subgroups will be drawn will be selected through simple random sampling for schools
categorized as those supported by non-state actors (non-formal, private and community
35

schools).

On the other hand, there are three state supported government/public schools

serving Kangemi slums, two schools in this catagory will be selected for the study.

Two classes will be selected per school for the study through purposeful sampling. This
include class four since it is the first level of upper primary school just after the lower level
and class eight being the final grade in primary school grade where the students are usually
prepared for their final examinations, both school based examinations and national
examination, the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education Examination. Class teachers and
subject teachers of class four and eight will be selected for the survey. The academic
performance of class four and class eight will be assessed.

Tables 3.1 and Table 3.2 below illustrate the sampling procedure which will be employed in
selection of the samples.
Table 3.1: Sampling of schools
Category of schools

Total schools Total

number
of Selected
in Nairobi
schools in Kangemi sample
Slums
Non-state
schools
(Non660
formal/private/Community)
15
10
State schools (Public government
194
3
2
schools)
Total
854
18
12
Table 3.2: Sampling of respondents
Sub-groups

Institutions

Head teachers
Class teachers
Subject Teachers
School
management
Committees
Total respondents

12
12 (two from each school)
12 schools (4 teachers from each school)
6 School committees representing the twelve sampled
schools (each committee to be represented by 5
members)

Number
respondents
12
24
48
30
114

36

of

3.5 Methods of Data Collection

A Combination of methods which include personal interviews, questionnaires, document
analysis, and focus group discussions and observation will be used to collect data. These
methods will be employed due to the nature of the targeted population, characteristics of each
of the samples and the required data.

Personal interviews will be used because of its advantages as advocated for by Fletcher (1988)
as they allow for a face-to-face contact with the respondents thus enabling provision of indepth data. The method will also allow the interviewer a chance to clearly explain to the
respondents the purpose of the study. The method is also appropriate since the respondents
who constitute head teachers will be relatively fewer, 12 in number. An interview schedule has
been developed for use during the personal interviews. The guide will be used to collect
qualitative data on motivation of teachers, physical infrastructure and school management is
details. This will an opportunity for the study to have more clarification of issues that may not
have been addressed adequately using the other methods.

Questionnaires will be used because of the following reasons as advocated for by Bailey
(1987): The respondents who are teachers from the various schools are diversified and
therefore conducting personal interviews for all of them would be difficult. Furthermore,
questionnaires will save much time of the researcher as well as that of the respondents and the
respondents will have an ample time to think and fill the questionnaires at their free time,
hence minimizing errors.

However, the researcher will make follow-ups to ensure the

questionnaires are returned. Questionnaires have been designed for head teachers of the
targeted schools, subject teachers and class teachers of class four and eight. Questionnaires
will collect specific information from the specific category of respondents. They will be used

37

to collect both quantitative and qualitative data on academic performance, physical

infrastructure, instructional materials, motivation of teacher and school management.

Document analysis is a method of data collection from documented sources. The method will
be used to gather information that may not be captured in the responses in the
questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions. The Information will be
collected from paper documents as well as computer databases and policy
documents of the government and schools. Document analysis has advantage over
other data collection methods because the documents are expected to be complete,
detailed, and consistent and well structured. They will also save on time since they
are readily available. The records will include examination results both Kenya
Certificate of Primary Education examination results and school based end term
examination results, class registers and teachers records. This method will be used
to collect quantitative data.

Focus group discussions have been designed for the school management committees which
usually include representatives of parents. Focus groups will be used to obtain qualitative data
on school management and motivation of teachers. The method will be used because it will
offer an opportunity to gather in-depth data from various individuals.

Observation checklist will be used to collect data on school physical infrastructure. The
method will be used in the study in order to confirm the status of the school infrastructure.

The researcher will coordinate the data collection process after having sought the permission
of various stakeholders to conduct the research. The permission will be sought from the
relevant government authorities who include the Nairobi City Councils City Education
38

Department, The Ministry of Education, Directorate of Basic Education and the school
management of the targeted schools.

The researcher will recruit and train two research assistants to assist in data collection and data
entry. The research assistants will be taken through the training to clearly understand the
purpose of the research, ethics of research to be considered. The research assistants will
further taken through how questionnaires will be expected to be filled by the respondents, how
interviews, observations and document analysis will be undertaken. The first focus group
discussion and interviews will be conducted jointly with the research assistants for them to
understand clearly the process. Subsequent FGDs and in-depth interviews will be undertaken
separately by the assistants and the researcher. The questionnaires for the head teachers and
subject teachers will be self administered.

In order to ensure the security of the research team during collection of data in the rather
insecure slums of Kangemi, the provincial administration through the local chief(s) will be
informed about the intentions of the study in order to provide security and intervene whenever
there will be security problems. The researcher and the research assistants will establish a
rapport with the locals and ensure there are guides who are known to the locals attached to the
research team. The research team will also work closely with local community organizations
and the schools to enhance security measures.

3.6 Validity and Reliability of the study

The study will put into consideration the validity and reliability of the research instruments
and the results.

39

3.6.1

Validity of the study

Validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences which are based of the research
results. It is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions, a degree to which
results obtained from the analysis of data actually represents the phenomenon understanding.
Validity is whether an instrument is measuring what is required to measure. In order to
ensure internal validity of the study, the variables have been carefully analyzed which ensures
that appropriate indicators are associated with each variable and the required data collected
using the appropriate research instrument. For external validity appropriate and representative
samples have been selected for study which provides an assurance tor results to be generalized
to the population.

3.6.2

Reliability of the study

Reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results
or data the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects.
Reliability of the study results will be assured through triangulation where collected data will
be confirmed through the various research instruments and related questions to be used in the
study. This will ensure the results of the study are a true reflection of the situation studied. A
pilot study will be undertaken to test the research instruments. Furthermore, voice recorders
will be used during interviews and focus group discussions to ensure responses are accurately
captured. The research assistants will also be trained jointly to ensure they later own capture
responses accurately.

3.7 Operational Definition of Variables

This section provides an explanation of the variables to be investigated in this study. Table 3.3
provides a summary of the operational definition of variables.

40

3.7.1

Independent variables

Independent variables of the study include school enrolment; school physical infrastructure,
instructional resources and teacher motivation.
3.7.1.1 School enrolment
The school enrolment will be studied. The indicators of this variable which involves its
characteristics include the number of pupils segregated by sex and average age in each of the
sampled schools and classes four and eight.

The source of the data will be school and class records and registers collected through
document analysis guide as well as questionnaires and personal interviews with head teachers
and class teachers. Head teachers will provide data with respect to the entire school, while
class teachers will provide data on specific classes that have been sampled, which include
class eight and class four. One stream will be selected in cases where there are more than one
stream per class.

3.7.1.2 School Physical Infrastructure

Indicators of this variable include the condition of classrooms and school buildings, size of
classrooms; availability and size of library, availability of pupils desks, availability of
sanitation facilities such as toilets and water and availability of recreational facilities such as
playgrounds. The source of data will include school records, head teachers and class teachers
as well as observation. The data will be collected through observation and questionnaires.

3.7.1.3 Instructional resources

The indicators to be measured for this variable includes the availability and adequacy of text
books, availability of teachers guides; availability of blackboards, chalk and dusters. The
measurement scale will be the ratio of textbooks.
41

3.7.1.4 Teacher Motivation

The indicators for this variable include remuneration for teachers, in-service and other training
programmes for career development; punctuality and commitment, job satisfaction. The
perceptions and opinion of teachers towards the teaching profession and working environment
will also be assessed. Furthermore, the study will look into issues of teacher turnover rate and
the reasons for the same, absenteeism, management support and mechanisms for addressing
grievances by teachers. The data will be measures in terms of averages and percentages.

The source of data for this variable will be subject teachers and head teachers and members
and will be collected using questionnaires for teachers and head teachers and interview guides
for head teachers.

3.7.2

Moderating variable

The moderating variables include school governance and management systems, parents
participation.
3.7.2.1 School management
The indicators of this variable include the training and qualification of the head teachers,
parents involvement in decision making in the school and provision of school requirements,
number of discipline cases and conflict resolution mechanisms and the efficiency of school
administration.
3.7.3

Intervening variable

The intervening variable is the education curriculum. A part from the formal education
curriculum recommended by the ministry of education, schools, especially non-formal schools
may adopt other curriculum which incorporates other areas of education and training such as

42

vocational skills training and emphasis on co-curricula activities. The study assumes that the
schools in the slums make use of the same teaching syllabus and national examination system.

3.7.4

Dependent variable

The dependent variable of the study is academic performance in primary schools in urban
slums.
3.7.4.1 Academic Performance
The indicators of academic performance include the school mean grade in Kenya Certificate
of Primary Education examination, end of term examination class mean grade, the number of
students with scores above average in KCPE and class end of term examination and the
number of students joining secondary schools. The source of data will be school records and
examination results for previous year and term and the current term. The data will be obtained
by the use of document analysis guide and questionnaire administered to head teachers and
class teachers. The head teachers will provide data related to the school performance in KCPE
national examinations in the years 2008 to 2009. On the other hand class teachers will provide
data related to performance of pupils in their respective classes in school based end of term
examinations undertaken in the year 2011.

The operational definition of variables is summarized in Table 3.3 from the next page.

43

Table 3.3: Summary of Operational Definition of Variables

Objective

Variable
Dependent
Variables
Academic
performance

Indicator

Measurement

Source of Data

Instrument

Data analysis

Performance in KCPE
examination in year 2010,
2009, 2008

School mean grade

Number of pupils who
sat for KCPE

KCPE results
records for
previous
years 2010,
2009, 2008
Exam results
for the first
term for class
8
Head teacher
Schools
records
Head teacher
Exam results
for the first
term for class
4 and 8
Class
teachers
Exam results
for the first
term for class
4 and 8
Class
teachers
Class teacher

Document analysis
guide

Descriptive
statistics
(percentages
and
averages)
Parametric
tests
Hypothesis
testing

Number of pupils with

scores above average of 250
out of 500 in KCPE
examinations in the year
2010, 2009 and 2008
The number of KCPE pupils
in 2010, 2009 and 2008 who
joined secondary schools
Performance of pupils of
class 4 and class 8 in End of
first term examinations in
2010

Ratio Scale

Number of pupils of class 4

and class 8 with scores
above average in end term
exams;

Ratio Scale

Classrooms

Ordinal Scale
Number of
classrooms
Condition of
classrooms
Size of classrooms

Ratio Scale
Class mean grade

44

Questionnaire
Document analysis
guide
Questionnaire
Document analysis
guide
Questionnaire
Document analysis
guide
Questionnaire

Document analysis
guide
Questionnaire

Questionnaire
Observation guide

Objective

Variable

Objective 1: To establish Independent

the extent to which Variables
school
enrolment
influences
academic
performance in primary School
enrolment
schools in urban slums

Indicator

Measurement

Source of Data

The number of pupils in a

school

Average number of
pupils

Schools
records
Head teacher

The number of pupils in

class 4 and class 8

Average number of
pupils in class

Class register

Age of pupils in class 4 and

class 8

Average age

Class teacher

class teacher

Instrument
Document
analysis guide
Questionnaire
Document analysis
Questionnaire

Data analysis
Descriptive
statistics
(percentages
and
averages)
Hypothesis
testing

Document analysis
guide
Questionnaire

Objective 2:To assess Physical

infrastructure
the influence of school
physical
on

Library facilities

infrastructure
academic

Sanitation facilities

performance in primary
schools in urban slums
Pupils Desks

Recreation
facilities

Objective 3:To examine Instructional

resources
the
influence
of

Textbooks

Ordinal Scale
Availability
Size
Condition
Ordinal Scale
Condition of toilets
Number of toilets
Availability of water
Ordinal Scale
Number
Condition
Size
Ordinal Scale
Availability of
playground
Availability of
materials
Ordinal Scale
Availability of
textbooks
45

Head teacher

Questionnaire
Observation guide

Head teacher

Questionnaire
Observation guide

Class teacher
Measurement
s/Facilities

Questionnaire
Observation guide

Head teacher
Facilities

Interview Schedule
Observation guide

Class teacher
School book
records

Questionnaire
Document analysis
guide

Descriptive
statistics
(percentages
and
averages)
Nonparametric
tests
Hypothesis
testing

Descriptive
statistics
(percentages

Objective

Variable

Indicator

instructional resources on
academic performance in
primary schools in urban
Teachers guide books

slums

Blackboard, chalk and

dusters

Job satisfaction
Objective 4:To assess the
influence

of

teacher

Teacher
motivation

Measurement
Adequacy of
textbooks
Ratio
Pupil textbook Ratio
Ordinal Scale
Availability of
teachers guides
Adequacy of teachers
guides
Ordinal Scale
Availability of
materials
Adequacy of
materials
Ordinal scale
Level of satisfaction

Remuneration and
incentives

Interval scale
Salary scale

Punctuality

Ordinal scale
Frequency of lateness
and absenteeism

In service Training
programmes for teachers

Ordinal scale
Availability of the
programmes
Interval scale
Number and length of
training
Ordinal scale
Number of teachers
leaving the institution

motivation on academic
performance in primary
schools in urban slums

Teacher turnover

46

Source of Data

Instrument

Data analysis
and
averages)

Head teacher
School
procurement
records

Interview schedule
Document analysis
guide

Class
teachers
The Facilities

Questionnaire
Observation guide

Teachers

Questionnaire

Teachers
Head
teachers
Teachers
Teachers

Questionnaire

Head
Teachers
Teachers

Interview schedule
Questionnaire
Interview schedule

Head
teachers
Teachers

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Descriptive
statistics
(percentages
and
averages)

Objective

Variable

Indicator

Measurement

Source of Data

Instrument

Working environment

Ordinal scale
Opinions
Interval scale
Number of teaching
hours

Teachers

Questionnaire

Teachers

Questionnaire

Ordinal scale
Qualifications of head
teacher
Ordinal scale
Management structure
Qualifications of
SMC members
Frequency of
meetings

Head teacher

Questionnaire

Head
teachers
School
managemen
t records

Questionnaire
Interview schedule
Document analysis
FGD guide

Head
teachers
School
management
records
Class
teachers
Head
teachers

Interview schedule
Document analysis
FGDs

Teaching hours

Moderating Variable
Objective

5:To

determine the level to

which

School
management

Training of head teachers

Efficiency of administration

school

management influences
academic performance in
primary schools in urban

Parents involvement

slums

Discipline cases

Participation of
parents in meetings
Material and moral
Contributions

Number
Resolutions

47

Questionnaire
Interview schedule
Document analysis
guide

Data analysis

Descriptive
statistics
(percentages
and
averages)
Qualitative
analysis

3.8 Methods of Data Analysis

Quantitative and qualitative methods will be used in the analysis of data. The data will be analyzed
using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The process will include both descriptive and
inferential analysis. Descriptive analysis will be used for categorical variables which will be
described in terms of frequencies and percentages. Furthermore, continuous and discrete data or
variables, the mean as a measure of central tendency, measures of variation, standard deviation and
variance will be used in the analysis.
Quantitative methods will be used to analyze numeric data in order to measure and explain the
relationship and differences amongst variables such the population of students, pupil teacher and
pupil book ratio. The techniques will also be used to analyze the academic performance of students in
terms of grades. Qualitative data will be organized, coded and categorized for proper interpretation.
The researcher will analyze variables or cases of qualitative data that illustrate themes and make
comparisons and contrasts.
Parametric and non-parametric tests will be carried out in the analysis of data. According to Arora
(2008) parametric tests are those hypotheses-testing procedures that assume that random samples are
selected from a normally distributed population. It is therefore based on the assumption that in some
way data follow a normal distribution and also that the spread of the data (variance) is uniform either
between groups or across the range being studied. Parametric tests depend on the mean, proportion
and standard deviation. The method will therefore enable inferences to be made from the sample
statistic to the population parameter through sampling distributions. The analysis of variance
(ANOVA) in the means of the samples and the population will be calculated. Pearsons correlation
will be calculated to measure the relationship between the variables of the study. This will help in
establishing the relationship between independent variable and dependent variable as well as the
relationship among the independent variable. A correlation will be useful in establishing the
relationship between two (or more) normally distributed interval variables.
48

On the other hand, non-parametric tests do not require data to follow a particular distribution and
therefore the underlying population does not have to be normal. The method will be used to analyze
non-numerical data and qualitative data using Chi Square.

3.9 Summary
The study will take the form of a cross-sectional research design. A mixed mode where both
quantitative and qualitative approaches will be employed in the study. The target population is 17
primary schools in Kangemi urban slums in Nairobi. A sample of 12 schools, 2 public and 10 private,
non-formal and community schools will be selected. A total of 114 respondents will be involved in
the study. Sampling procedures include stratified random sampling, simple random sampling and
purposive sampling. The study will use questionnaires to collect data from the head teachers, class
teachers and subject teachers, in-depth interviews for head teachers, and focus group discussions for
school management committees. The study will also use document analysis and observation to collect
data.
The dependent variable in this study is academic performance while independent variables include
school enrolment, school physical infrastructure, instructional resources and teacher motivation. The
moderating variable is school management while the intervening and extraneous variables include
education curriculum and economic status of pupils families respectively. The study will make use of
both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis as well as descriptive and inferential
analysis.

49

REFERENCES
Abagi, O. and Odipo G. (1997). Efficiency of Primary Education in Kenya: Situational Analysis
and Implications for Educational Reform. Discussion Paper No. DP

004/97. Institute of

Policy Analysis and Research, Nairobi.

Aga Khan Foundation (2007). Non-State Providers and Public-Private-Communit Partnerships in
Education Contributions towards Achieving EFA: A Critical Review

of

Opportunities and Issues. Background Paper commissioned for the

EFA

Challenges,
Global

Monitoring Report 2008, Education for All by 2015: will we make it?
Arnold, M. L. (2000). Rural schools: Diverse needs call for flexible policies [policy brief].
Aurora, CO: Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning.
Arora, P. N. and Arora, S. (2008). Statistics for Management. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company
Ltd.
Bailey, K. D. (1987). Methods of Social Research, 3rd ed., New York: Free Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective. Annual Review of
Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: The Free Press.
Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (Eds.) (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through
transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact.
Mahwah,

NJ: Erlbaum.

Buckland, P. (2000). Making quality basic education affordable: What have we learned? New
York : UNICEF.
Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
50

Bush, T. (2003) Theories of educational leadership and management. London: Sage publications
Limited.

Cameron, S. (2010). Access to and Exclusion from Primary Education in Slums of Dhaka,
Bangladesh.

Research Monograph No. 45. Consortium for Research on Educational

Access, Transitions and Equity. United Kingdom: Centre for International Education,
University of Sussex, Falmer BN1 9QQ.
Coggon D. Rose G. and Barker D. (1997). Epidemiology for the Uninitiated: Case-control and cross
sectional studies. British Medical Journal.
Crampton, F. E. (2009).

"Spending on school infrastructure: does money matter?", Journal of

Educational Administration, Vol. 47 Iss: 3, pp.305 -322.

Dibal, G. (1982). An Examination of the Causes of the Low Performance in Primary School
National Common Entrance (NCE) Examination in Borno State. African Studies in
Curriculum Development & Evaluation No. 63.
Duflo, E., Hanna, R. and Ryan S. (2008). Monitoring Works: Getting Teachers to Come to
School. CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP6682
Earthman, G. and Lemasters, L. (1996). Review of Research on the Relationship between
School Buildings, Student Achievement, and Student Behavior. A paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the Council of Educational Facility Planners.
Eshiwani G. (1983). Factors Influencing Performance among Primary and Secondary School
Pupils in Western Province of Kenya: A Policy Study. Kenyatta Univ. College, Nairobi:
Bureau of Educational Research.
Fletcher, A. (1980). Effective Interviewing, New Delhi: Universal Book Stall.
Fyfe, A. (2007). The use of contract teachers in developing countries: Trends and impact.
International Education Consultant Working paper. Geneva: International Labour Office.

51

Glewwe, P. and Kremer, M. (2005). Schools, teacher and education outcomes in developing
Countries. Harvard Centre for International Development, Working Paper No. 122, Sep.
2005.
Government of Kenya (2000). Handbook for inspection of educational institutions. Nairobi:
Ministry of

Education, Science and Technology.

Government of Kenya (2008). Economic Survey. Nairobi: Government Press.

Haddad, W. D. (1978). Educational Effects of Class Size. Staff Working Paper No. 280.
Herzberg, F. et al (1959). The Motivation to Work (2nd ed.). New

York: John Wiley & Sons.

Husain, Z. (2005). Analyzing demand for primary education: Slum dwellers of Kolkata. Delhi,
India: Institute of Economic Growth.
Kellaghan, T. and Greaney, V. (1992). Using Examinations to Improve Education: As study in
Fourteen African Countries. World Bank Technical Paper Number 165. Africa

Technical

Series. Washington D.C: World Bank.

Kathuri, J. and Juma, J. (2007). Slum Education: Making Low Income Schools Relevant.
Nairobi: The Inter Region Economic Network (IREN).
Kothari, C. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods and techniques, New Delhi: Wishwa
Prakashan.
Lockheed, M. et. al. (1991). Improving education. Education Review, 16 (3), 303-311.
Macharia, D. and Ngigi, A. (2006) Kenya Education Sector Policy Overview Paper. Nairobi,
Kenya.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and Personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row.
Mbiriru, M. (1983). Problems of Teaching Junior Secondary Mathematics in Kenya. African
Studies in Curriculum Development & Evaluation.
MoEST (2005). Kenya Education Sector Support Programme. Nairobi: Government Press.
52

MoEST (2004). The Development of Education in Kenya. Nairobi: Government Press.

MoEST (2005). Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005, Policy Framework for Education, Training

and

Research. Meeting the challenges of Education, Training and Research in Kenya in the 21st
century. Nairobi: Government Press.
Muola, J. (2010). A Study of the Relationship between Academic Achievement Motivation and
Home Environment among Standard Eight Pupils. Educational Research and Reviews,
5

Vol.

No. 5 p213-217 May 2010

MoEST (2008). The Development of Education: National Report of Kenya. Nairobi: Government
Press.
Ngware et al (2008). What Quality of Primary Education are Children in Urban Schools Receiving?
Evidence from Nairobi. The African Population and Health Research Center,

Working

Paper

No. 39, 2008.

Onsomu et al (2004). Mechanisms and strategies of educational finance, Community schools in
Kenya: Case study on community participation in funding and managing schools. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning/UNESCO.
Saravanavel, P. (1992). Research Methodology. New York: Kitah Mahal.
Society for International Development (2004). Pulling Apart: facts and figures on Inequality in
Kenya.
Tooley, J. and Dixon P. (2005). Private Education is Good for the Poor: A Study of Private
Schools Serving the Poor in Low Income Countries. Washington D.C: CATO Institute.
UNICEF (2006). Formal Schools Aim to Fill Need in Kenyas Slums.
UNESCO (2005). Challenges of Implementing Free Primary Education in Kenya: Experiences
from the Districts. Nairobi.

53

UNESCO (2004). Education for All: The quality imperative. Paris.

United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UN-HABITAT) (2003). The Challenge of Slums.
Global Report on Human Settlements. Nairobi.
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UN HABITAT) (2001). Nairobi situational
Analysis. Nairobi.
Waweru, J. (1982). Socio-Economic Background as an Influence Factor in Pupils' Achievement in
Primary Schools in Embu District, Kenya. African Studies in Curriculum Development &
Evaluation No. 69.
Young, B. I. (1989). Teacher job satisfaction: A study of the overall job satisfaction and work
facet of K 8 teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI) 49 (7).

APPENDICES
Appendix I: Letter of transmittal of data collection instruments
54

Ezan Mwiluki Efeza,

P.O Box 4357-00200,
Nairobi.
April 2011
To whom it may concern

RE: DATA COLLECTION FOR STUDY ON FACTORS INFLUENCING ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KANGEMI SLUMS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, National Identity No. 21959775, a student at the University of Nairobi,
School of Continuing and Distance Education, registration number L50/76294/2009. I am currently
undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of Masters of Arts in
Project Planning and Management. I am therefore carrying out a study on factors influencing
academic performance in primary schools in Kangemi slums.
The

purpose of this letter is to kindly request for your cooperation during my data collection

process for this study. I am involving two research assistants whom I would also like to request you
to allow in obtaining the necessary data. The data that will be provided by respondents will be treated
with utmost confidentiality and only used for the purpose of this research. The details of respondents
and other sources of information shall also be kept confidential.
For any more information or clarification, I may be contacted on mobile 0721 726 088 or email
mwiluki@gmail.com.
I look forward to your cooperation.
Thank you,

Ezan Mwiluki Efeza

55

Appendix II: Questionnaire for head teachers

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, a student at the University of Nairobi, School of Continuing and Distance
Education. I am currently undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of
Masters of Arts in Project Planning and Management. The study is on the factors influencing academic
performance in primary schools in Kangemi slums.
The findings and recommendations of the study will contribute to the knowledge base in the education
sector and also form a basis for improvement of performance of primary schools in urban slums in Kenya.
Therefore, I would like to collect data that will assist in accomplishing the objectives of this study. Kindly
answer the question by ticking and/or explaining. Your contribution will be much appreciated and the
information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Kindly answer the questions in this
questionnaire.

A. SCHOOL AND RESPONDENTS DETAILS

Name of the school: ____________________________________________________________
School Code:
team)

_________________________________ (to be entered by the research

Name of the Head Teacher: ______________________________________________________

B. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN KCPE EXAMINATIONS FROM THE YEAR 2008-

2010
Question
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

Year 2008

How many pupils sat for KCPE examination in the year

2008, 2009, 2010?
What is was the schools mean score in KCPE examination
for the year 2008, 2009, 2010?
What is the number of pupils who scored above average of
250 out of the possible 500 marks in KCPE examination in
2008, 2009 and 2010?

How many pupils who sat for KCPE examination in

2008, 2009 and 2010 you are aware joined
secondary schools?
How many pupils who sat for KCPE examination in
2008, 2009, 2010 you dont know whether they
joined or did not join secondary school?
How many pupils who sat for KCPE examination in
2008, 2009 and 2010 you are aware did not join
secondary school?

56

Year 2009

Year 2010

7.

What was the mean grade of the school in the mock

examinations just before the candidates sat for KCPE
in 2008, 2009 and 2010?

C. SCHOOL ENROLMENT IN FIRST TERM OF 2011

1.

Question
Answer
What was the total number of boys and girls in the school from
Boys:
standard one to standard 8 during the first term of 2011?
Girls:

2.
3.

D.

What was the age of the youngest pupil in the school (class one to
class eight) during the first term of 2011 (in years)?
What was the age of the oldest pupil in the school during the first
term of 2011 (in years)?

SCHOOL PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

1. What is the general condition of classes and school buildings with regard to the materials used
for roofing, walls and floor, ventilation and lighting? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
2. Generally, how is the size and space in classes used by pupils in the entire school? (Tick only
one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not
adequate

3. Do you have a school library equipped with reading tables and relevant books? (Yes or No, Tick
only one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
57

If yes, does the library have adequate space to accommodate enough pupils at a time? (Tick only
one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not
4. If you have a school

adequate

library, what is the general condition of the

school library with respect to the ventilation, and lightening, cleanliness? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
5. What is the condition, ventilation, state of the floor, walls and cleanliness of toilets used by
pupils in the school? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space provided
to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
6. How is the number and size of toilets used by pupils in the school? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not
adequate
7. Do you have separate toilets for girls and boys? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

58

If yes, how many toilets are there for boys and how many for girls?
Boys: __________
Girls: ___________
8. Is water available in the school for use by pupils at all times?
Always
Sometimes
Not
available
9. What is the general condition of desks and chairs for pupils in the entire school? (Tick only one
of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
10.

Does the school have a fence? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the

space provided to the right)

Yes
No

11.

Does the school have its own playground? (Tick only one of the options below which

applies in the space provided to the right)

Yes
No

If No (the school does not have a play ground), where do children play? Explain _______
_________________________________________________________________________

59

12. Does the school have games and sport equipment and materials?
Yes
No

If yes, list some of the main equipment and materials. _________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

E.

TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS

1. What is the total number of teachers in the school? ___________

2. What are the employment terms for teachers? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Contract
Permanent
Both Contract and Permanent

If the employment terms are both permanent and contract, how many teachers are employed
on contract and how many are on permanent?
Contract:

________________

Permanent: ________________
3. What is the number of teachers who teach class 4?

________

4. What is the total number teachers who teach class 8?

________

60

5. Do teachers leave your school for other employment? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

If yes, what is the average number of teachers who leave your school for other employment in a
year?
_______________
What are the reasons why they leave? (Briefly Explain)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

F.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

1. What is your highest academic and professional qualification? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies or specify in the space provided to the right)
P1
P2
P3
Graduate
Degree
Secondary
(KCSE)

(Diploma

or

Education

61

Other(specify):
..

2. Does the school have a school management committee? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

If yes (you have a management committee), briefly describe the structure (membership and
officials).____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

If No (there is no school management committee), how are management decisions made and
executed? Explain. ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3.

How are parents involved in the management of the school and ensuring set targets in
academic performance is achieved? Briefly explain.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

4. If you have in place a school management committee and/or a Parents Teachers Association,
what is the criteria and process of selecting its officials?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

62

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. How many members are there in the school management committee (SMC) or the PTA
officials according to sex? (write the number in the spaces provided below)
SMC
Male:

_____________________

Female: ____________________
PTA officials
Male:

_____________________

Female: ____________________
6. What is the highest and the lowest academic and professional qualification of the members of
the school management committee or officials of the PTA apart from yourself, the head
teacher?
-

Highest qualification: ______________________

Lowest Qualification: ______________________

7. How active is the school management committee? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Active
Active
Somehow active
Not active
8. How often does the School Management Committee hold meetings? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
More than once in a term
Once every term
Once in a year
Never holds meetings

63

9. How often does the PTA hold meetings(Tick only one of the options below which applies in
the space provided to the right)
More than once in a term
Once every term
Once in a year
Never holds meetings
10. Do you experience any indiscipline cases in your school? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

If yes, how many cases did you handle during he first term of 2011? ______________
11. How did you resolve the cases? Explain.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

64

Appendix III: Questionnaire for Class Teachers, Class Four

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, a student at the University of Nairobi, School of Continuing and Distance
Education. I am currently undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of
Masters of Arts in Project Planning and Management. The study is on the factors influencing academic
performance in primary schools in Kangemi slums.

The findings and recommendations of the study will contribute to the knowledge base in the education sector
and also form a basis for improvement of performance of primary schools in urban slums in Kenya.
Therefore, I would like to collect data that will assist in accomplishing the objectives of this study. Kindly
answer the question by ticking and/or explaining. Your contribution will be much appreciated and the
information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Kindly answer the questions in this
questionnaire.

A. SCHOOL AND RESPONDENT DETAILS

Name of the school: ___________________________________________________________
Class: ______________________________________________________________________
School Code: _________________________________ (to be entered by the research team)
Name of the class teacher (Optional): _____________________________________________

B. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF CLASS 4

Question
Answer
1. What was the class mean score in first term examination for
students in class 4 in 2011?
............................
2. How many pupils in class 4 scored 250 marks and above out
of the possible 500 mark in end of term examinations, first
term of 2011?

65

C. ENROLMENT FOR CLASS 4

Question
Answer
1. What is the number of boys and girls in class four during first
term 2011?
Boys:
Girls:
2. What is the age of the youngest pupil in class 4 (in years)?

3. What is the age of the oldest pupil in class 4 (in years)?

4. What is the average mean age of the pupil in class 4 (in

years)?

D.

SCHOOL PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

1. What is the general condition of classroom used by class 4 pupils with regard to the
materials used for roofing, walls, floor, ventilation and lighting? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
2. Generally, how is the size of classes used by pupils from class four? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not adequate

3. Do pupils in class for make use of the school library? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

4.

What is the general condition of desks and/or chairs for pupils in class 4? (Tick only one of
the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
66

Poor
5. Do pupils in class participate in recreational activities in the school? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
If your answer is No, Give reasons. _________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
E. INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES
1. Do you have teachers guide books for the subjects you teach? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

2. Do you prepare lessons plans for your lessons? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

3. How is the availability of textbooks for the subject you teach? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not
adequate
Not
available
If adequate or not adequate, what is the pupil to text book ratio? __________________
4. Does your class have a blackboard? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right)
Yes
No
67

5. How is the availability of chalks and dusters for the blackboard? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not adequate
Not available

F.

TEACHER MOTIVATION
1. Do you teach any subject in class four? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in
the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
If yes, how many subjects do you teach in class four?

_____________

What is your highest level of education attained? _____________________________

_________________________________________________________________
3. How many years have you worked as a teacher? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Less
than 1
year
1-3
years
4-10
years
11
above
years
4. Was this school your first work station as a teacher? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

68

5. Are you employed on contract or permanent basis in this school? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
6.
Contract
Permanent
7. Have you ever attended an in-service training relevant to your teaching profession since you
joined this school? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space
provided to the right)
Yes

8. If you answerer to question 7 above is yes, you have attended an in-service training, how
long did the training take? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space
provided to the right) e right) If your answer was no, skip to question 9.
Below One month
1-3 months
4-6 months
6 months-1 year
Over one year
9. If your answer to question 7 is yes, who paid for the in-service training?
My self
The school
My self and the school
Another sponsor

10. If you have never attended any in-service training, what are the reasons? (Tick any of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
There are no opportunities
There are opportunities but the school does not allow
The school does not have funds to support training
I do not have fees to pay for myself
I do not see the need for in service training
I personally do not have time for training

69

11. Do you generally like the teaching profession? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
12. How much monthly gross salary do you earn? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Ksh. 1000-5000
Ksh. 5001-15000
Ksh. 15000-25000
Ksh. 25000 and above
On average how many hours do you teach per week?
______________________
14.

Have you ever been absent from school for reasons that are not official in the last one term?
(Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

15.

If yes, how many times on average have you been absent from school in a term? (Tick only
one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Once
1-10 days
10-30 days
31 days and above

G. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
1. What is your opinion about the working environment in your school with regard to school
facilities and teaching materials? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor

70

2. What is your opinion about the teachers working relationship with the school administration
management support and cooperation among teachers? (Tick one of the options below which
applies)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
3. How is the material support by parents for students in your class in terms of provision of
uniform, books, pens and other school requirements? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Inadequate
Not at all
4. How is the psychological and moral support by parents for students in your class in terms of
moral advice, checking homework and other psychological needs? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Inadequate
Not at all
Appendix IV: Questionnaire for Class Teacher, Class 8

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, a student at the University of Nairobi, School of Continuing and Distance
Education. I am currently undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of
Masters of Arts in Project Planning and Management. The study is on the factors influencing academic
performance in primary schools in Kangemi slums.

The findings and recommendations of the study will contribute to the knowledge base in the education sector
and also form a basis for improvement of performance of primary schools in urban slums in Kenya.
Therefore, I would like to collect data that will assist in accomplishing the objectives of this study. Kindly
answer the question by ticking and/or explaining. Your contribution will be much appreciated and the
information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Kindly answer the questions in this
questionnaire.

71

H. SCHOOL AND RESPONDENT DETAILS

Name of the school: ______________________________________________________________
Class: _______________________________________________________________________
School Code:
team)

_________________________________ (to be entered by the research

Name of the class teacher (Optional): ________________________________________________

I. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF CLASS 8

Question
Answer
1. What was the class mean score in first term examination for
pupils in class 8 in 2011?
............................
2. How many pupils in class 8 scored 250 marks and above out
of the possible 500 mark in end of term examinations, first
term of 2011?

J. ENROLMENT FOR CLASS 8

Question
Answer
1. What is the number of boys and girls in class 8 during first
term 2011?
Boys:
Girls:
2. What is the age of the youngest pupil in class 8 (in years)?

3. What is the age of the oldest pupil in class 8(in years)?

4. What is the average mean age of the pupil in class 8 (in

years)?

K. SCHOOL PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

72

1.

What is the general condition of classroom used by class 8 pupils with regard to the
materials used for roofing, walls, floor, ventilation and lighting? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very
Good
Good
Fair
Poor

2. Generally, how is the size of classes used by pupils from class 8? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not adequate
3. Do pupils in class for make use of the school library? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
4.

What is the general condition of desks and/or chairs for pupils in class 8? (Tick only one of
the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor

5. Do pupils in class participate in recreational activities in the school? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
If your answer is No, Give reasons. _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
L.

INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

1. Do you have teachers guide books for the subjects you teach? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
73

2. Do you prepare lessons plans for your lessons? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

3. How is the availability of textbooks for the subject you teach? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)

Adequate
Not adequate
Not available
If adequate or not adequate, what is the pupil to text book ratio? __________________

4. Does your class have a blackboard? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right)
Yes
No

5. How is the availability of chalks and dusters for the blackboard? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not adequate
Not available

M. TEACHER MOTIVATION
1. Do you teach any subject in class 8? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in
the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

74

If yes, how many subjects do you teach in class 8? _____________

2. What is your highest level of education attained? _________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. How many years have you worked as a teacher? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Less
than
1
year
1-3 years
4-10
years
11 above
years
4. Was this school your first work station as a teacher? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
5. Are you employed on contract or permanent basis in this school? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Contract
Permanent
6. Have you ever attended an in-service training relevant to your teaching profession since you
joined this school? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space provided
to the right)
Yes
No
7. If you answerer to question 7 above is yes, you have attended an in-service training, how
long did the training take? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right) e right) If your answer was no, skip to question 9.
Below One month
1-3 months
4-6 months
6 months-1 year
Over one year

75

8.

If your answer to question 7 is yes, who paid for the in-service training?
My self
The school
My self and the school
Another sponsor

9. If you have never attended any in-service training, what are the reasons? (Tick any of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
There are no opportunities
There are opportunities but the school does not allow
The school does not have funds to support training
I do not have fees to pay for myself
I do not see the need for in service training
I personally do not have time for training

10. Do you generally like the teaching profession? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
11. How much monthly gross salary do you earn? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Ksh. 1000-5000
Ksh. 5001-15000
Ksh. 15000-25000
Ksh. 25000 and
above
12. On average how many hours do you teach per week? ______________________
13. Have you ever been absent from school for reasons that are not official in the last one term?
(Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)

76

Yes
No
14. If yes, how many times on average have you been absent from school in a term? (Tick only
one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Once
1-10 days
10-30 days
31 days and above

N. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
1. What is your opinion about the working environment in your school with regard to school
facilities and teaching materials? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
2.

What is your opinion about the teachers working relationship with the school administration
management support and cooperation among teachers? (Tick one of the options below which
applies)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor

3. How is the material support by parents for students in your class in terms of provision of
uniform, books, pens and other school requirements? (Tick only one of the options below
which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Inadequate
Not at all
4. How is the psychological and moral support by parents for students in your class in terms of
moral advice, checking homework and other psychological needs? (Tick only one of the
options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Inadequate

77

Not at all

78

Appendix V: Questionnaire for Subject Teachers (Class Four and Class Eight)

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, a student at the University of Nairobi, School of Continuing and Distance Education.
I am currently undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of Masters of Arts in
Project Planning and Management. The study is on the factors influencing academic performance in primary
schools in Kangemi.
The findings and recommendations of the study will contribute to the knowledge base in the education sector
and also form a basis for improvement of performance of primary schools in urban slums in Kenya. Therefore,
I would like to collect data that will assist in accomplishing the objectives of this study. Kindly answer the
question by ticking and/or explaining. Your contribution will be much appreciated and the information provided
will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Kindly answer the questions in this questionnaire.

A. SCHOOL AND RESPONDENT DETAILS

Name of the school: ______________________________________________________________
Class: ________________________________________________________________________
School Code:

__________________________ (to be entered by research team)

What is your Full Name? (Optional) _________________________________________________

B. INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES
1. Do you have teachers guide books for the subjects you teach? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

2. Do you prepare lessons plans for your lessons? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

79

3. How is the availability of textbooks for the subject you teach? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)

Adequate
Not adequate
Not available
If adequate or not adequate, what is the pupil to text book ratio? ______

4.

Does your class have a blackboard? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right)
Yes
No

5.

How is the availability of chalks and dusters for the blackboard? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Not adequate
Not available

C. TEACHER MOTIVATION
1.

Do you teach any subject in class 8? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the
space provided to the right)
Yes
No

If yes, how many subjects do you teach in class 8? _____________

2.
3.

What is your highest level of education attained? _________________________________

How many years have you worked as a teacher? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)

80

Less than 1 year

1-3 years
4-10 years
11 above years
4.

Was this school your first work station as a teacher? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

5.

Are you employed on contract or permanent basis in this school? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Contract
Permanent

6.

Have you ever attended an in-service training relevant to your teaching profession since you
joined this school? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space provided to
the right)
Yes
No

7.

If you answerer to question 7 above is yes, you have attended an in-service training, how long did
the training take? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the
right) e right) If your answer was no, skip to question 9.
Below One month
1-3 months
4-6 months
6 months-1 year
Over one year

8.

If your answer to question 7 is yes, who paid for the in-service training?
My self
The school
My self and the school
Another sponsor

81

9.

If you have never attended any in-service training, what are the reasons? (Tick any of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
There are no opportunities
There are opportunities but the school does not allow
The school does not have funds to support training
I do not have fees to pay for myself
I do not see the need for in service training
I personally do not have time for training

10. Do you generally like the teaching profession? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No
11. How much monthly gross salary do you earn? (Tick only one of the options below which applies
in the space provided to the right)
Ksh. 1000-5000
Ksh. 5001-15000
Ksh. 15000-25000
Ksh. 25000 and above

12.

On average how many hours do you teach per week? ______________________

13. Have you ever been absent from school for reasons that are not official in the last one term? (Tick
only one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Yes
No

If yes, how many times on average have you been absent from school in a term? (Tick only
one of the options below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Once
1-10 days
10-30 days
31 days and above

D.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

82

1. What is your opinion about the working environment in your school with regard to school
facilities and teaching materials? (Tick only one of the options below which applies in the space
provided to the right)
Very Good
Good
Fair
Poor
2. What is your opinion about the teachers working relationship with the school administration
management support and cooperation among teachers? (Tick one of the options below which
applies)
Very
Good
Good
Fair
Poor
3. How is the material support by parents for students in your class in terms of provision of
uniform, books, pens and other school requirements? (Tick only one of the options below which
applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Inadequate
Not at all

4. How is the psychological and moral support by parents for students in your class in terms of
moral advice, checking homework and other psychological needs? (Tick only one of the options
below which applies in the space provided to the right)
Adequate
Inadequate
Not at all

83

Appendix VI: In-depth interview guide or the head teacher

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, a student at the University of Nairobi, School of Continuing and Distance Education.
I am currently undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of Masters of Arts in
Project Planning and Management. The study is on the factors influencing academic performance in primary
schools in Kangemi slums.

The findings and recommendations of the study will contribute to the knowledge base in the education sector
and also form a basis for improvement of performance of primary schools in urban slums in Kenya. Therefore,
I would like to collect data that will assist in accomplishing the objectives of this study. Your contribution will
be much appreciated and the information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality. I wish to conduct
an interview with you by asking you some questions.

84

1. How is the performance of the school in academics at the lower primary, upper primary and in
KCPE examination in the past three years?
2. How has been the enrolment of students in various classes in the past three years in terms of
numbers, age, and class of entry?
3. How is the motivation of teachers in this school and their commitment to their work? Are their
specific undertakings that show they are committed and motivated?
4. Does the school have adequate physical infrastructure?
5. Does the school have adequate teaching and learning materials?
6. How is the cooperation of the school management committee and the Parents Teachers
Association? Do they attend meetings, making proper decisions that promote the academic
standards of the school?

Appendix VII: Focus Group Discussion Guide for School Management Committees

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
I am Ezan Mwiluki Efeza, a student at the University of Nairobi, School of Continuing and Distance Education.
I am currently undertaking my research project as a requirement for award of the degree of Masters of Arts in
Project Planning and Management. The study is on the factors influencing academic performance in primary
schools in Kangemi slums.

The findings and recommendations of the study will contribute to the knowledge base in the education sector
and also form a basis for improvement of performance of primary schools in urban slums in Kenya. Therefore,
I would like to collect data that will assist in accomplishing the objectives of this study. Your contribution will
be much appreciated and the information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality. I would like us to
have a discussion with regard to performance of your primary school.

85

1. When was the school established?

2. With which government agency is the school registered?
3. Which is the source of funding for the school?
4. What role does the school management committee and parents teachers association play in
promoting good academic performance?
5. How is the working relationship between teachers and the school management?
6. How is the working relationship between teachers and parents?
7. Do parents provide adequate support for children material and psychological needs of the
children including provision of uniforms, books and other school materials and equipments as
may be required?
8. What are the achievements of the school in academic and co-curricular activities?
9. What are the challenges faced by the management in ensuring good academic performance of
the school at all levels/in all classes?

Appendix VIII: Observation Guide

1. KCPE results for the year 2008, 2009 and 2010:

What to look for

Year 2008

1.

The Number of pupils sat for KCPE examination

in the year 2008, 2009, 2010.

2.

The schools mean score in KCPE examination

for the year 2008, 2009 and 2010.

3.

The number of pupils who scored above average

of 250 out of the possible 500 marks in KCPE
examination in 2008, 2009 and 2010.
The school mean grade in MOCK examinations
before the candidates sat for KCPE.

4.

2. End of first term examination results for 2011 for class four:

86

Year 2009

Year 2010

Question
Answer
1. What was the class mean score in first term examination for
students in class 4 in 2011?
............................
2. How many pupils in class 4 scored 250 marks and above out
of the possible 500 mark in end of term examinations, first
term of 2011?

3. End of first term examination results for 2011 for class 8:

Question
Answer
1. What was the class mean score in first term examination for
pupils in class 8 in 2011?
............................
2. How many pupils in class 8 scored 250 marks and above out
of the possible 500 mark in end of term examinations, first
term of 2011?

4. School Overall enrolment register:

What to look for
Answer
1. The total number of boys and girls in the school from
Boys:
standard one to standard 8 during the first term of 2011.
Girls:
2. The age of the youngest pupil in the school (class one to class
eight) during the first term of 2011 (in years)?
3. What was the age of the oldest pupil in the school during the
first term of 2011 (in years)?

5. Class four enrolment register

Question
Answer
1. What is the number of boys and girls in class four during
first term 2011?
Boys:
Girls:
2. What is the age of the youngest pupil in class 4 (in
years)?
3. What is the age of the oldest pupil in class 4 (in years)?

4. What is the average mean age of the pupil in class 4 (in

years)?
6. Class eight enrolment register

87

Question
Answer
1. What is the number of boys and girls in class 8 during
first term 2011?
Boys:
Girls:
2. What is the age of the youngest pupil in class 8 (in
years)?
3. What is the age of the oldest pupil in class 8(in years)?

4. What is the average mean age of the pupil in class 8 (in

years)?

7. School brochure with information on school mission, vision and motto

Relevance of the school mission, vision and motto to performance or

achievement targets of the school?

Any other support programmes mentioned in the school documents and policies.

8. School management committee records, reports and minutes

Relevance of the issues mentioned in the records to the schools performance and
achievement targets

9. Students records
a. Discipline cases, Disciplinary measures
b. Any compliments by the teachers or head teachers
10. Teachers records
-

Any disciplinary issues mentioned in the records

Any compliments by the head teacher or the management

Appendix IX: Document Analysis Guide

1.

The type of materials of the class rooms, toilets

and other school buildings

2.

The size and number of class rooms, toilets and

other school buildings
88

3.

The general condition of class rooms, toilets and

other school buildings

4.

The size, type and condition of the library

room/building and the collection of books and information materials in the library.

5.

The size, number and condition of desks for

students

6.

The condition and type of school fence

7.

The general school environment

89

Appendix X: Timeframe
Activity
Dec

Jan

Feb

Month
Mar
Apr

2010

2011

2011

2011

1. Concept
Development
2. Research Proposal
Development,
discussions

with

the supervises and

adjustment
3. Defense
approval

and
of

the

Research Proposal
4. Collection of data
5. Analysis of data
6. Report writing and
editing of the First
Draft of Project
report
7. Revised

project

report

and

Approval of the
Final

Project

report
8. Submission of the
Final Report

90

2011

May

June

Jul

2011

2011

2011

Appendix XI: Budget

Activity
1. Development

Requirements
Budget in Ksh.
of 1.1 Transport for consultative meetings with
3,000

Research Proposal

2. Data collection

3. Data analysis
4. Report writing

the supervisor, colleagues and other

stakeholders
1.2 Email communication and online searches

3,000

for literature
1.3 Printing of copies of the draft proposal and

2,000

the final research proposal

2.1 Training of 2 research assistants
2.2 Copies of research instruments
2.3 Transport for the research and research

5,000
5,000
3,000

assistants for 3 days

2.4 Payments for research assistants (for 5

8,000

days @ Ksh. 800)

3.1 Data entry by research assistants for 2

3,200

days
4.1 Editing of the report
4.2 Printing of copies of the Final Research

1,000
4,000

Project Report
Total Budget

37, 200

91

92