Measuring the Strength

Of Color Brand-Name Links

The Comparative Efficacy
Of Measurement Approaches
JENNI ROMANIUK

Ehrenberg-Bass Institute
Jenni@marketingscience.
info
MAGDA NENYCZ-THIEL

This study provides a theoretically and empirically validated approach to measuring the
strength of color as a brand-identity element. The authors conducted a split sample
test with 880 consumers across three categories: banking, chocolate, and hair care.
Comparing four measurement approaches helped determine the effect of cuing with

Ehrenberg-Bass Institute

the brand versus color (cue direction) and prompting with response sets versus not

Magda. Nenycz-Thiel@

prompting (difficulty of response). The key comparison measures were the number of

marketingscience.info

people who linked the brand with color (fame) and the relative presence of competitor
links (uniqueness). The color-cued, unprompted brand response measure is the
recommended approach.

INTRODUCTION

In today's cluttered media environment, one of the

key challenges for brands is to stand out in the mar
ket place. With new stock-keeping units introduced
into retail stores every week, distinctive packaging
may help increase sales by enabling consumers to
recognize and choose a brand over its competitors
(Yang and Raghubir, 2005).

of various distinctive elementslabel, brand name,

product description, or colorcan be crucial to
brand success (De Chernatony and McDonald,
1998). "Many times, multiple attributes will appear
to be equally important. It is tough to make a deci
sion about what to keep, what to put priority on,
what to subdue and what to discard" (Meyers et al.,
1998, p. 63).

Distinctiveness is a function of the strength and

uniqueness of the elements that form a brand's
identity. These elements may include colors, logos,
characters, and taglinesanything that triggers the
brand name in consumer memory. When creating
a distinct identity, decisions about the importance

To guide brand-management decision making,

practitioners, therefore, need correct measurement
approaches and appropriate metrics to assess the
distinctive strength of the various brand elements.
Such knowledge also could aid academic research
ers exploring the role of brand-identity elements.

To measure the brand linkage strength of colors, marketers should provide respondents with
the color and ask which brands are linked to that color, without prompting respondents with
brand names.

Prompting for brand names encourages guessing and provides inflated assessments of brandidentity strength.

In this research, colors are tested, but marketers can use this approach to test the strength of other
brand-identity elements, such as taglines or logos.

DOI: 10.2501/JAR-54-3-313-319

September 2014

JOUBflM. DF HDUERTISIflG RESEARCH 313

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF COLOR BRAND-NAME LINKS

In to d a y s c lu tte r e d m e d ia e n v ir o n m e n t, o n e o f t h e k e y

example of establishing a distinctive color

identity in a retail setting is Christian Dior,

c h a lle n g e s f o r b ra n d s is to s ta n d o u t in t h e m a r k e t p la c e .

whose products can be recognized at a dis

tance by their consistent pink color (Kes
sler, 2004). The more people link the color
pink to Christian Dior, the more easily con
sumers will correctly identify this display.
Colors, therefore, are critically important

Distinctive elements create a network

of cuesbeyond the brand namethat
combine to evoke the brand in consumer
memory. These elements often engage
different neurological aspectsamong
them, audio memory, colors, shapes, or
facesand, therefore, the ability to extend
the richness of category buyers' brandinformation processing.

Color is a popular element used to build

a brand identity (Klink, 2003), and the
current study focuses on its strength as a
brand-building component. Examples of
brands building strong identities around
color include Tiffany's blue or Coca-Cola's

This network of additional cues may

increase correct brand identification in
advertising (Romaniuk et ah, 2007). In
cases such as much of Nike advertising,
where only the "swoosh" is shown, this
brand identification can happen even in
the absence of the brand name.
To contribute to brand identification, the

use of red. The importance of color use is

emphasized through the attempts by com
panies to try to trademark specific colors,
such as Cadbury with the color purple
(Playle and Hodson, 2003).
Before a color is registered, singular own
ership needs to be established. When multi
ple colors are used by a brand and multiple
brands use the same color, ownership is
difficult to assert, hence the importance of a
validated measurement approach.

link between the element and the brand

name m ust easily be retrievable from
consumers' long-term memory. Among

Q U E S T IO N S

the most widely accepted theories about

the structure of human memory are the
Associative Network Theories of Memory
(ANT; e.g., Anderson et ah, 1988).
These theories suggest that concepts
are stored in memory as nodes that can
become linked together if encountered in
similar circumstances. When assessing the
strength of a link between two concepts,
ANT highlights three areas of importance:
the cue chosen for retrieval,
the presence of competitor links, and
the difficulty of the retrieval process.
The current research integrates these
areas, contrasting the outputs from four
resultant measurement approaches, spe
cifically in the context of color as a brandidentity element.

314 JDURRRL OF RDUERTI5M G RESEARCH

BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH

T h e R o le o f C o lo r
In S h a p in g a B r a n d s I d e n t it y

Color is one of the most common and

prominent facets of a brand's identity
(Klink, 2003). The role of colors in creating
meaning and evoking emotion has been a
frequent topic of research. When colors are
changed, such as when Apple changed its
logo from red to silver, consumers often
react (Hynes, 2009).
Two major areas where color has an
impact on brand identity are packaging/
retail outlets and advertising/marketing
communications.
C o lo r U s e in P a c k a g i n g / R e t a i l O u t le t s

Although most consumers have a reper

toire of brands they consider before pur
chase, they often make their final selection
in stores (Dreze et ah, 1994). A successful

Septem ber 2014

because they help consumers "see" brands.

Color can convey meaning to the cus
tomer. Consider the claim that "60 percent
of the first impression [of a new product
or in-store display] comes from color"
(Heath, 1997, p. 44). Moreover, variants
of a brand often include colors that con
vey meaning about taste (red for tomato)
or scent (yellow for lemon). As these
variants often are common across brands,
there is the potential for brand identities
to converge. For example, many laundry
detergents offer lemon-, lavender-, and
pine-scented variants. If all lemon-scented
variants are yellow, all lavender-scented
variants are purple, and all pine-scented
variants are green, then brand colors will
be very similar. This potential for conver
gence makes it important that a measure
of brand-identity strength includes the
possibility for competitive links to identify
overlap with competitor brands. Brand
managers need to understand the mean
ing conveyed by color and how that color
may contribute to an identity that is dis
tinct from competitors.
A d v e r t is in g a n d O t h e r M e s s a g i n g
R o le s o f C o lo r

Color can be used as a background to the

advertisement or on creative elements
within an advertisement (i.e., Kellogg's
Special K's use of red dresses on the
women featured in advertising). Although
an advertisement rarely contains multiple
brands, it may contain multiple colors. If
a prominent color evokes a competitor
brand, there is the risk that consumers
incorrectly will brand the advertising.

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF COLOR BRAND-NAME LINKS

C o l o r is o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d p r o m i n e n t

on the fact that retrieval of an item from

memory depends first on having a link
to the cue used to stimulate memory
(Tulving and Pearlstone, 1966).

f a c e t s o f a b r a n d s i d e n t i t y . I t c a n b e u s e d
a s a b a c k g ro u n d to th e a d v e r tis e m e n t o r o n

The higher the fame of the link

between the brand and the color in the

c r e a t iv e e le m e n t s w ith in a n a d v e r t is e m e n t .

population, the more people have a

chance of retrieving the brand in future

Logos also rely on color to create a dis

tinct, recognizable identity. One research
scenario analyzed how a strong logo
needs to be recognizable and familiar and
have a shared meaning across consumers
(Henderson and Cote, 1998). This means
it would be advantageous that logo color
should have strong links to the brand
name to help facilitate these objectives.
In relation to packaging, color in a logo
also can evoke emotion and influence the
interpretation of the logo (Hynes, 2009).
Although color may contribute to the
meaning of a logo, color often can confuse
a consumer: If multiple organizations use
the same set of colors to evoke similar
attractive emotions relevant to the cate
gory (Lee and Barnes, 1990), the consumer
may get mixed messages. For example,
energy drink brand managers may think it
desirable to use bright, stimulating colors
to reflect their sub-category. If too many
brands, however, use the same dynamic
color palate, the results both may include
a reduced set of color options for brands
to use and a greater likelihood of overlap,
thereby reducing uniqueness.

There are, however, factors that interfere

with this process:
Inattentiveness of consumers at encod
ing, referred to as "encoding failure"
(e.g., Anderson et al, 1988). For example,
if the consumer fails to process that Shell
uses the color yellow, any links in mem
ory are too weak to meet the activation
threshold required for retrieval.

Uniqueness captures the competitive

ness of other item s/brands linked to
the same cue. Other items linked to the
cue interfere with retrieval, thus making
it less likely that the target item will be
retrieved (Heil et al, 1994).
For example both M acDonald's
and Burger King use yellow in their

Competitor links (e.g., Burke and Srull,

1988). For example, if BP also were to use
yellow as one of its brand-identity elem
ents, the consumer may link both BP and
Shell to yellow and can retrieve either or
both when presented with yellow.

logos, so that w hen M acDonald's

uses yellow, consum ers m ay have
a chance of retrieving Burger King.
M easuring uniqueness allows for
the quantification of this chance of
evoking competitors.

These two factors mean that simply using

When measuring fame and uniqueness,

an element in marketing activity does not

ensure the creation of strong links to the
brand name in consumer memory and that
any measurement approach needs to

two important methodological decisions

comprise the cue:

incorporate a test of retrieval strength,

and
consider the role of com petitor
interference.

Brand-Identity Metrics

Brands build up links to brand-identity

elements through consumers' learning
over time. Learning occurs when the con
sumer processes co-presentation of the
elements and the brand name. In line with
ANT (e . g Anderson et a]., 1988), when
associative links are established, the brand
name has the potential for retrieval when
consumers see the identity element.

situations, when the color is present.

Lower fame means greater risk of brandidentification failure.

Knowledge about human memory pro

cesses also informs the metricsfame and
uniquenessthat the authors of the cur
rent study used to assess of the strength of
brand-identity elements:
Fame reflects how many people can
retrieve the link between the identity
element and the brand name. This draws

the brand or color, and

whether the responses (either brands or
colors) are provided or elicited by con
sumers unprompted.
The cue used determines the competitive
set for retrieval. The wider the competi
tive set, the more difficult the retrieval
task for any one item. In one direction,
there are potential colors linked to the
brand. In the other direction, there are
the potential brands linked to a color.
The varied sizes and natures of these two
retrieval universes may affect the items
retrieved from memory.
Therefore, the first research questions are:

Septem ber 2 0 1 4

J O U M E OF AOUERTISIHG RESEARCH 315

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF COLOR BRAND-NAME LINKS

RQ1:

What is the impact of the cue

used to measure the prevalence
of the link between a color and a
brand name?

RQ2:

What is the impact of the cue

Research Design

used to measure the uniqueness

of the link between a color and a
brand name?

This study utilized a 2 x 2 betweensubjects design.

RQ5:

Which measurement approaches

more likely will lead to guessing?

METHODOLOGY

When the response set is provided,

retrieval is an easier process. In such
instances, the information should increase
the overall number of responses. As one
scenario showed, however, when cued
retrieval fails, there were three processes
respondents can use to match brands
(Pham and Johar, 1997):
"memory-trace refreshment," in which
respondents try to reconstruct the mem
ory trace, and
"schematic inferencing," in which
respondents use reasoning to reach
an answer.
Pure guessing is the third process,
and its very nature will lead to lower
accuracy. Prompting for responses
makes it easier for respondents to
guess and, therefore, may increase
the proportion of guesses consumers
make.
The effect of providing responses, and the
possibility of guessing leads to the next set
of research questions:
RQ3:

What effect does prom pting

for the response set have on
the fame response patterns for
brand/color links?

RQ4:

What effect does prompting for

the response set have on the
uniqueness response patterns for
brand / color links?

316 JD URnflL OF RDUERTISIRG RESEARCH

The first factor was cue type: brand

name or element, and the second factor
was the response format: prompted or
unprompted. After being screened for cate
gory usage, respondents were asked ques
tions about three categories, which were
hair care, chocolate, and banking. These
three categories covered products and
services, as well as routine and impulse
product purchases and were chosen for
the purpose of replication and to test the
generalization of the results.
For each category, each individual
responded to a different treatment to
ensure no learning effects. All analyses
were conducted between subjects. The
data were collected online, as this pro
vided the opportunity to show colors and
brand names where appropriate.
In the prompted treatment, respondents
were provided with the color or brand
cue and lists of possible responses. In
addition, there was an open-ended text
box to write any other responses. In the
unprompted treatment, only open-ended
text boxes were provided. All questions
allowed for multiple responses, with a
"none-of-these" option provided to dis
courage guessing.
The color block stimuli also included the
name of the color (e.g., lighter blue) to mini
mize the variability in color perceptions
between respondents. The order of presen
tation was randomized across respondents.
The sample for this study was recruited
randomly from a large Australian city via
an opt-in panel. A quota on gender and
age was employed to ensure that the sam
ple was representative of the population.

September 2014

A total of 880 respondents completed the

survey online, which provided samples
of approximately 200 respondents per cell
for each treatment. The data collection took
place in October 2009.
Metrics

The two metricsfame and uniqueness

were calculated across the four treatments
for each category for brand/color combi
nations that had large enough sample sizes
for a brand (n > 20). This provided 9 pairs
for banking, 22 pairs for chocolate, and
20 pairs for hair care.
The following equations describe
the metrics:
Fame is the proportion of people who
link the brand to the color measured as:
N people who linked the brand
to the color
N of sample
For example, if 30 percent of consumers
recall the brand when prompted with
green, then it has 30 percent fame.
Uniqueness is the proportion of
responses one brand gets relative to
competitors, measured as:
The number of times the brand
is linked to the element
The number of times any brand in
the category is linked to the element
For example, if green as a cue has
30 percent of people recalling the
brand, but a further 10 percent asso
ciate the color to other brands, this is
30 p ercent/(10 percent + 30 percent) or
75 percent uniqueness.
RESULTS

The results showed high and statistically

significant Pearson's correlations between
the two prompted approaches for both fame
and uniqueness (over 0.90; See Table 1):

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF COLOR BRAND-NAME LINKS

TABLE 1

Prompted (both around 30 percent);

nor was there any significant difference
between the Prompted and Unprompted
uniqueness scores when the brand was the

Pearsons Correlations between Treatments

Banking
PBC#

Chocolate
PEC

UPBC

PBC

Hair Care

PEC

UPBC

PBC

PEC

UPBC

Fame
PEC

0 .9 2 *

UPBC

0 .9 6 *

0 .9 0 *

UPEC

0 .8 2 *

0 .9 6 *

0 .9 4 *

0 .8 3 *

0 .9 2 *

0 .8 3 *

0 .8 3 *

0.3 3

0 .5 1 *

0.32

0 .9 9 *

0 .9 1 *

0 .7 9 *

0 .7 7 *

0 .7 7 *

Uniqueness
PEC

0 .9 4 *

UPBC

0.61

0.56

UPEC

0 .8 0 *

0 .9 4 *

0 .9 6 *

0.52

0 .9 5 *

0 .9 8 *

0 .9 6 *

0 .7 0 *

0 .6 4 *

#PBC = Prompted/Brand Cued; PEC = Prompted/Element Cued; UPBC

Element Cued.

0 .6 4 *

0 .9 2 *

0 .9 0 *

0 .8 8 *

0 .8 3 *

0 .8 7 *

= Unprompted/Brand Cued; UPEC = Unprompted/

*p < 0.05

The fame scores for the Unprompted,

Brand Cued (UBC) treatment were
correlated highly w ith the scores
obtained for the two prompted treat
ments, except in banking (r = 0.61 and
r = 0.56, ns).

strength: the association between a brand

and a color was stronger under the Brand
Cued condition than it was under the Ele
ment Cued condition.
For uniqueness (RQ2, RQ4), cuing by
brand or by color resulted in no signifi
cant differences when responses were

The Unprompted, Element Cued (UEC)

treatment had the lowest correlations,
and, therefore, the lowest convergent
validity with the other options.
To address the first three research ques
tions, the researchers compared the
uniqueness and fame scores across the
different treatments for each category
(See Table 2). Chi-squared tests conducted
on the individual pairs revealed that
fame was significantly higher under the
Brand Cued treatments than the Element
Cued treatments.
This was evident whether the responses
were Prompted (42 percent versus 28 per
cent, x 2 = 4.7, p = 0.03) or Unprompted
(35 percent versus 8 percent, x 2 = 20.8, p <
0.001). There was, however, a greater dif
ference in the Unprompted treatment.
This finding addresses RQ1 and RQ3
and reveals asymmetries in associative

cue (34 percent versus 30 percent, x 2 = 0.5,

p = 0.48).
The Unprompted, Element Cued (UEC)
treatment, however, did have systemati
cally lower uniqueness scores at 23 per
cent, compared to around 30 percent for
the other treatments.
Therefore, for both fame and uniqueness,
the combined effects of Element cued and
Unprompted responses provided substan
tively different results than other meas
urement options. This approach gained
fewer responses for the brand, resulting in
lower fames scores and a wider variety of
responses for competitors, which, in turn,
resulted in lower uniqueness scores.
Therefore, it was the most conservative
in its assessment of color/brand linkage
strength and was not able to be substituted
with other methods.
Testing Propensity to Guessing

TABLE 2

Average Scores across

Treatments
PBC# PEC

UPBC

UPEC

Banking

60

37

58

1 5 **

Chocolate

40

30

32

5 **

Hair Care

25

19

15

Average

42

28*

35

8*

Fame

Uniqueness
Banking

49

46

53

43

Chocolate

24

24

26

Hair Care

18

18

21

17

Average

30

30

34

23

#PBC = Prompted/Brand Cued; PEC = Prompted/Element

Cued; UPBC = Unprompted/Brand Cued; UPEC
Unprompted [Element Cued.
*p < 0.05; **p <0.10

Propensity to guessing (RQ5) was cap

tured via a "fake" brand that was added
to each category wherein responses were
prompted. The fake brands were brands
that existed in the U.S. market at the time
of the data collection, hence were real
istic options but had no presence in the
Australian market. The researchers calcu
lated the proportion of people who gave
a response to the fake brand to assess the
level of guessing.
The results showed that the level of
guessing was highest for the Prompted
and Brand Cued treatments, followed by
Prompted responses in the Element Cued
treatment (averages of PBC = 19 percent
age points (pp); PEC = 13 pp; UBC = 7 pp).
Therefore, prompting respondents for
response options could have a substantive
inflation effect on the fame scores achieved
and decrease the accuracy of the results.

Septem ber 2 0 14

JDURnflL OFHDUERTISII1G RESEARCH 3 1 7

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF COLOR BRAND-NAME LINKS

"Could you tell me which hair-care

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The aim of this research was to com

pare four theoretically derived possible
approaches to measuring the strength of
the link between the brand name and a
brand-identity element, in this case color.
The authors' aim was to assess the poten
tial for the color to be a stand-alone brandidentity element and replace, or supplement,
the brand name in consumer touch-points.
Testing involved the impact of both
the cue used (brand versus color) and the
difficulty of retrieval (Unprompted ver
sus Prompted response sets). The results
showed that cue direction and the difficulty
of the retrieval task do interact to influence
the nature of the responses obtained. Put
simply, measurement approach matters.
The authors found that cuing with the
brand o r/an d prompting for response
gave the impression of higher fame and
uniqueness. This could lead to a type 1
errora false-positive resultif market
ers overestimate the distinctiveness of their
identity elements.
If marketers incorrectly assume that
brand-identity elements can compensate
for low direct branding in communica
tions, there would be a reduction in adver
tising effectiveness.
Further, the evidence from testing with
"fake" brands showed that, when cuing
with the element and prom pting for
responses, respondents tended to have a
higher level of guessing than in other treat
ments, thereby decreasing the accuracy of
these inflated results. The results were con
sistent across the three categories tested.
Therefore, the recommended approach
for measuring the strength of the relation
ship between a color and a brand name
was to cue with the color and to elicit
responses unprom pted (Unprompted,
Element-Cued approach).
In this approach, the authors provided
an image of the color to respondents, with
the following instructions:

318 JOURnHL OF RDUERTISIFIG RESEARCH

brands you associate with each of the

following colors? You can name as many

key metrics to assess the strength of brandidentity elements: Fame and uniqueness
capture the two key components needed

brands as you like. If you can't think of

any, then just check the 'none' box."
"Please answer in the text boxes given

for a strong brand-identity element.

Furthermore, tools are provided to be
able to measure and track the progress of

below (note: multiple text boxes and a

'none of these' check box provided)."

brand-identity development, particularly

in the face of competitive activity. This will
allow researchers to assess the impact of
marketing activities on the building of dis
tinctive brand assets.
Uniqueness and fame each play differ
ent roles:

In addition to offering an empirical vali

dation, this approach matches the context
for using the brand-identity element. Con
sumers encounter the element in commu
nications or packaging/retail situations,
and the aim is that this encounter will
evoke the brand (instead of competitors).
Further, this approach allows for testing
of the differences in the shades of colors
(light/dark) and the ability to capture
unexpected competitor brands linked to
the color.
A final advantage of this measurement
approach is that it will be more sensitive
to decay, as this is more likely to show in
unprompted measures than ones where
responses are prompted (du Plessis, 1994).
This is important when tracking the devel
opment and maintenance of distinctive
identity elements.
The current research also provides an
important contribution to the research
on asymmetries in associations' strength.
Past research on hum an memory has
addressed the possible issue of asymme
try, which has been discussed in a brand
ing context (Holden and Lutz, 1992) but
typically has not been a major factor in
empirical measurement (except Torres and
Bijmolt, 2009). The current research shows
that the bi-directional links between con
ceptsin this case brand and colorhave
different strengths, and this difference can
lead to differing interpretations of brandidentity strength.
In addition to providing empirical
evidence for a specific measurement
approach, this research also presents two

Septem ber 20 14

Uniquenessor being the only brand

linked to the coloris crucial for
brand identity, as a marketer has no
control over what competitor brands
communicate. Once consumers form
strong links to competitor brands, it
likely will be difficult to make consum
ers "unlearn" these associations and
restore uniqueness.
This means that uniqueness needs to
be a primary objective, independent of
fameAnd the goal should be 100 per
cent uniqueness.
The importance of fame is in its link to
risk. Risk, in this instance, is the level
of failed linksor the proportion of
consumers who do not link the brand
to the element.
If fame is 100 percent, then there is lit
tle or no risk. The fewer the consumers
who make the link, the greater the risk
that the identity element will be ineffec
tual, and the consumer will fail to iden
tify the brand. Therefore, the goal for
fame should also be 100 percent.
FUTURE RESEARCH AND LIMITATIONS

There are many avenues for future

research, some of which draw from the
limitations of this study. Its authors exam
ined only one element of brand identity:
color. Further testing on other elements,

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF COLOR BRAND-NAME LINKS

such as taglines, jingles, or characters,

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Franzen, G., and M. Bouman. The Mental World

propensity to develop links betw een the

o f BrandsMind, Memory and Brand Success.

b rand nam e and non-brand nam e iden

G reat Britain: W orld A dvertising Research

tity elements.

Centre, 2001.

sumer Research 24,3 (1997): 249-265.

P layle, S., and S. H odson. "Color Marks: Unfair

Monopolies or Hard-Earned Protection." Brand

Management 11,1 (2003): 75-79.

H eath, R. P. "The Wonderful World of Color."

J enni R omaniuk

is research professor and associate director

Marketing Tools 4,9 (1997): 44-51.

R omaniuk, J., B. Sharp, a n d A. S. C. Ehrenberg.

H eil, M., F. R osler, and E. H ennighausen .

ceived

"Dynamics of Activation in Long-Term Mem

M arketing Journal 15, 2 (2007): 42-54.

(International) at Ehrenberg-Bass Institute, University of

"E vidence C oncerning

South Australia, and co-executive editor o f the Journal of

Advertising Research. Professor Romaniuks areas of

research cover brand equity, advertising effectiveness,

the Importance of

P er

Brand D ifferentiation ." A ustralasian

ory: The Retrieval of Verbal, Pictorial, Spatial,

word of mouth, and brand growth.

M agda N enycz-T hiel

is senior research associate at

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T orres, A., and T. H . A. Bijmolt. "Assess

Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 20,1

ing B rand Im age thro u g h C om m unalities

(1994): 185-200.

and Asymm etries in Brand-to-Attribute and

Ehrenberg-Bass institute, University o f South Australia.

Dr. Nenycz-Thiels main areas of expertise are buyer and
shopper behavior, private label brands, and marketing
metrics. She manages the Mars Marketing Laboratory

A ttribute-to-B rand A ssociations." European

H enderson, P. W., and J. A. C ote. "Guidelines

Journal of Operational Research 195, 2 (2009):

for Selecting or M odifying Logos." Journal of

628-640.

Marketing 62, April (1998): 14-30.

at the Ehrenberg-Bass Institute and is area editor for the

Journal o f Consumer Behaviour.

T ulving, E., and Z. P earlstone. "Availability

H olden, S., and R. J. L utz . "Ask N ot What the

Versus Accessibility of Information in Memory

Brand Can Evoke; Ask W hat Can Evoke the

for Words." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal

Brand?" Advances in Consumer Research 19, 1

Behavior 5,4 (1966): 381-391.

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September 2 0 14

JO U M lflL OF fiDUERTISM G RESEHRCH 319

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