SENSES

Sensation perception; conscious awareness of stimuli

received by sensory receptors; Sense ability to perceive
stimuli
TWO BASIC GROUP OF SENSES:

General Senses receptors are distributed over

large part of body; touch, pressure, pain,
temperature, vibration, itch, proprioception sense of
movement and position of the body and limbs
o Somatic Senses sensory information about
body and environment
o Visceral Senses sensory information about
various internal organs; pain and pressure
Special Senses - specialized; localized to specific
parts; smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance

Sensory Receptors sensory nerve endings; specialized

cells capable of responding to stimuli by action potential

Mechanoreceptors mechanical stimuli; bending or

stretching of receptors
Chemoreceptors chemicals; odor molecules
Photoreceptors light
Thermoreceptors temperature changes
Nociceptors stimuli resulting from pain

Local Anesthesia suppresses action potentials from

pain receptors in local areas; injected near a sensory
receptor or nerve
General Anesthesia loss of consciousness; affect
reticular formation
Gate Control Theory tactile receptors send action
potentials along the sensory axons to the spinal cord that
closes the gate and inhibit action potentials carried to the
brain by spinothalamic tract
Referred Pain perceived to originate in a region of the
body that is not the source of the pain stimulus
Olfaction sense of smell; occurs in response to
odorants airborne molecules, that enters nasal cavity;
olfactory neurons bipolar neurons within olfactory
epithelium lines the superior part of nasal cavity; 400
functional olfactory receptors, 10,000 different smells;
major sensation that directly goes through cerebral cortex
without passing thalamus
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction:

Receptors of the General Senses

Free Nerve Endings simplest and most common;

unspecialized neuronal branches similar to dendrites;
some respond to: pain, temperature, itch, movements
Cold or Warm Receptors respond to temperature;
cold respond to decreasing temp. but not < 12oC;
warm respond to increasing temp. but not < 47oC;
pain below 12oC and beyond 47oC
Touch Receptors more complex than free nerve;
many are enclosed by capsules
o Merkel Disks small, superficial nerve ending;
light touch, superficial pressure
o Hair Follicle Receptors hairs; light touch
cannot be precisely located
o Meissner Corpuscles found deep to the
epidermis; very specific in localizing tactile
sensations; fine, discriminative touches
o Ruffini Corpuscles deeper tactile receptors;
continuous pressure in skin
o Pacinian Corpusle deepest; tendons and
joints; deep pressure, vibration, position
(proprioception)

Pain characterized by group of unpleasant perceptual

and emotional experiences; either by:

Superficial Pain rapidly conducted action

potentials = localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting pain
Deep Visceral Pain action potentials propagated
more slowly = diffuse, burning; aching pain

Axons of olfactory neurons form olfactory nerves

Olfactory nerves enter olfactory bulb
Olfactory tracts carry action potentials from olfactory
bulbs to olfactory cortex of brain located within the
temporal and frontal lobes

Adaptation results from temporary decreased

sensitivity at level of receptors plus feeback

TASTE
Taste Buds detects taste stimuli; distributed throughout
other areas of mouth and pharynx; replaced every 10
days; oval structure found on the surface of papillae
enlargements on surface on tounge; composed of the
following: specialized epithelial cells form exterior
supporting capsule of taste bud, and taste cell 40,
contains taste hair that extends to the taste pore
Taste Sensations: sour, salty, bitter (most sensitive),
sweet, umami
Neuronal Pathways for Taste

Facial nerve (VII) anterior 2/3 of tongue -> thalamus

-> cortex
Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) posterior 1/3 of tongue
Vagus nerve (X) root of tongue -> thalamus -> cortex

VISUAL
Accessory Structures of the Eye

Eyebrows protect eyes by preventing perspiration;

help shade the eye
Eyelids protect eyes from foreign objects; blinking
helps lubricating the eye (Caruncle, tarsal plate,
lashes)
Conjunctiva thin, transparent, mucous membrane
covering inner surface of eyelids and anterior surface
of the eye; lubrication of surface; Conjunctivitis
inflammation of the conjunctiva
Lacrimal Apparatus lacrimal gland stuated in the
superior lateral corner of orbit and nasolacrimal duct;
lubrication
o Lacrimal gland produces tears
o Lacrimal canaliculi collects excess tears
o Lacrimal sac opening of the lacrimal canaliculi;
enlargement of nasolacrimal duct
Extrinsic Eye Muscles movement of each eyeball;
six skeletal muscles; superior, inferior, medial, lateral
rectus muscle, superior and inferior oblique

Anatomy of the Eye

TUNIC

Fibrous Tunic outer layer; composed of:

o Sclera firm, white, outer connective tissue layer
of the posterior five-sixths of the fibrous tunic;
maintains shape of eye; protects internal
structure; provides attachment sites for extrinsic
eye muscles; white of eye
o Cornea transparent anterior sixth of eye;
permits light to enter; bends, or refracts light
Vascular Tunic middle layer; contains most of
blood vessels of eye
o Choroid posterior portion of vascular tunic;
consists of vascular network and melanincontaining pigment cells; appears black that
absorbs light so that it is not reflected inside of
eye
o Ciliary Body continuous with anterior margin of
choroid

Ciliary Muscles smooth muscle that

attatch to the perimeter of the lens by
suspensory ligaments
o Lens flexible, biconvex, transparent disc
o Iris colored part of the eye; attached to anterior
margin of ciliary body, anterior to lens; regulates
diameter of pupil controlling the light entering the
eye; parasympathetic stimulation from
oculomotor nerve (III) causes circular smooth
muscles to contract; sphincter & dilator
o Pupil opening; light passes through; dilates as
light decreases; constricts as light increases
Nervous Tunic innermost tunic; consists of retina
o Retina covers posterior five-sixths of eye

Outer Pigmented Retina keeps light from

reflecting back into eye

Inner Sensory Retina contains

photoreceptor cells
Rods dim light; contains rhodopsin
photosensitive pigment composed of

opsin colorless protein in loose chemical

combination with retinal yellow
pigment

Retinal is attached inside opsin to

make rhodopsin

Light activates rhodopsin by causing

retinal to change shape, which causes
opsin to change shape

Activated rhodopsin stimulates cell

changes that result in vision

Following rhodopsin, activation, retinal

detaches from opsin

Energy from ATP is required to bring

retinal back to its original form

Retinal attaches to opsin to form

rhodopsin
Cones color vision
Macula small spot near the center of
posterior retina;

Fovea Centrallis center; small pit;

contains only cone cells; region with
greatest ability to discriminate fine
images
Optic Disk white spot medial to
macula; spot at which axons from retina
meet, pass through the two outer tunics,
and exit the eye as optic nerve; blind spot

CHAMBERS OF THE EYE

Anterior and Posterior Chamber located

between the cornea and lens; iris separates them but
continuous through the pupil; filled with aqueous
humor (watery fluid) produced by ciliary body as
blood filtrate, that maintain pressure within eye,
refracts light and provides nutrients to inner surface
of eye; glaucoma pressure in eye increases due to
flow of aqueous humor being blocked through the
venous ring
Vitreous Chamber filled with vitreous humor
transparent, jellylike substance, holds lens and retina
in place, refracts light
Lens- biconvex; protein-crystallines

FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE

Light Refraction light crosses in the focal point

(fp); focusing causing light to converge
Focusing System: Cornea, Humors, and Lens;
Retina- inverted image
o Emmetropia

flat lens; distant object; resting

condition

Accomodation; focus on a nearby

object
o Presbyopia

Lens become rigid; old age

o Convergence

Medial rotation of eye

Neuronal Pathways for Vision

Axons pass through the optic nerves to the optic

chiasm, where some cross. Axons from the nasal
retina cross, and those from the temporal retina
do not
Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the thalamus
Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to the
visual cortex in the occipital lobe

AUDITORY
1. External

Sound waves travel at 332m/s

Auricle- collects sound waves

External Acoustic Meatus- passage;

ceruminous glands

Tympanic Membrane- vibration by

sound waves
2. Middle (air)

Amplification of 20 fold

Auditory Ossicles- Malleus; Incus;

Stapes (transmission)

Muscles- tensor tympani & stapedius

(dampen vibration; sound attenuation
reflex to protect Inner ear)

Air Passages- Mastoid air cells &

Auditory/Pharyngotympanic/Eustachian
tube (responsible for when altitudepressure alteration)

Membrane Coverings- Round Window:

mechanical release for sound waves; relief
of pressure within the perilymph
Oval Window- Transmit vibration
to inner ear
3. Inner (fluid)

linings: bony labyrinth -> endosteum ->

endolymph-> membranous labyrinth->
Basilar membrane-> scala tympani->
perilymph

Vestibule (Balance)- Static; position in

reference to gravity; Otolithic membrane
(oto: sound, litho: stone) bend kinocilias to
create action potentials
o Saccule & Utricle

Semicircular Canal (Balance)Dynamic; angle of the head; cupula

membrane bend crista ampullaris

o Ampulae
Cochlea (Hearing)
o Organ of Corti; stereociliareceptors

K channels open->
depolarization->
neurotransmitter is
released (glutamate)->
Action Potential
Volume increases, greater vibrations of
Basilar M., increases stimulation of
stereocilia, greater AP

Sound

Volume- loudness ; wave height (dB: decibels

>125 painful to the ear)
Pitch- frequency; number of waves/second (Hz:
Hertz 20-20,000 normal to human ear)
Timbre- smoothness of wave

Neural Pathway: Hearing

Vestibulocochlear nerve -> medulla oblongata ->

inferior colliculi -> thalamus -> auditory cortex ->
superior colliculi (turns eyes and head toward the
sound)
Sound Attenuation Reflex: from medulla
oblongata-> trigeminal nucleus (controls tensor
tympani and stapedius muscle)

Neural Pathway: Balance

Vestibular nerve-> Vistibular Ganglion->

Vestibular nucleus (medulla oblongata)-> CNS
throughout esp. Extrinsic Eye muscles;
Nystagmus- eye tracks direction of motion

Aging (Presby- old)

Visual- Most common: Presbyopia (Cataract, Macular
degeneration, Glaucoma, Diabetic Retinopathy)
Hearing- Presbyacusis (decrease in stereocilia)
Balance- Dizziness and Vertigo (decrease in otoliths,
haircells in Saccule, Utricle, and Ampullae)