FORMAL SOCIOLOGY

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY, RATIONAL GHOICE

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Assumes: {1) indavaduals try to interact so as to maximize rewards and minimize costs, whele
rewards and costs involve resources, esteem, prestige, and power; (2)all social interactions are
structured by reciprocity, or the givinS and receiving of equivalent values; and {3} people act
rationally and on the basis of pastexperience. ExchanSetheorists believe that all social interactions and institutions can be understood in terms of the exchange and balancing of rewards and
costs. Exchange theory is rdentrfled with Geo,ge Homons ('1910-'1989) and Pete, Slou (1918-).

CULTURE

i Du,khelm, tuhctlomllst lhsry

I . Culture provides collective conscaence, social solidarity, and social control.
I . culture is widely sharedj it creates and reflects social harmony.
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whether culture creates unity or conflict is an empirical question.
lnterests are most amportant an shaping social life, but culture can play an important role in
certaan instances.
Syhbolic lnterectiohism

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cultureisunderstoodasthepatterns,rules,andmeaningsofsocialinteraction;thesearethe

Thinkers>Karl Mfr>Keyl
concepts>Ct$. (2) weber, social stratilication and Mobility research: A set of hierarchrcal i
categories that distinguish people based on their economic income, wealth, and, sometimes, i
occupational and educational status. ln this definition class relations do not necessarily entail i
domrnatron or

SGiol Clossr (1) Nlarx, conflict Theory: S@ Classical S@iologicd

foundatroq of all socral ordeI.

conflict.

I Srhbol: a sign that represents one or more meanings- signs and meanings are linked by social

convention. Examples: language, gestures, and art.

longuoger A rule-governed system ofcommunication usinSvocal and written symbols (words)
i that have common meanings among all members of a linSuistic group.
i volues: socially created ideas about what as desirable and worthwhile in life, which may Suide
i people's goals, choices. and jud8ments.

i Nom.:Standardsorcodesofbehavior,includingexpectationsandobligations,thatarespecific
i to particular social settings. Examples: manners, customs, and laws. Fulfilling or violating
norms often results in positive or neSative sanclions.

i ,rlole,iol cultuE: Materjal culture includes physical artifacts (e.9., adornments. buildings, and

weapons) and the ways thal societies produce and use them.

i Subcultu.e: A system of norms, material artifacts, and other cultural elements shared by

1n society associatedwith particular riShts, obliSations, i

and a certain level of honoL see note.
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Asc.ib6d slotu3: A social status such as sex or age that one cannot voluntarily change.
A.hiered Stolus: A social status gained through voluntary action or achievement, or the lack l
thereoi Examples: the status ofa college drop out, army officel wife.
MGter Stolusr The most prominent of all the statuses an individual holds, affecting his or her I
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rights, obligations, and prestiSe in every context.
Role: The obljgations, rights, and expected behaviors attached to a specific social status.i
contrast with social rnteraction>Key Concepb>symbolic lnter&tionism>Roles.
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Role Conflci: The situation in which a person with two or more roles finds that the roles'i
expected behaviors and attitudes do not mesh well,
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Sciol lnstilution: An established and cohesive set of standaldized and rule-governed behav- i
iors. According to functionalist theory. some social institutions are essential because they i
fulfill functional prerequisites. other theorists deny that any institution is essential.

SGiol Siolusr Arelativelyfixed position

Jre :ynbcls. volues. mcleiiol c.lifc.is, oid ru!es ai behovior lhc: c 5ccieiy or qreup
callecli\i:,, crcoles ond uses.

,rtairq Confict Th@ry

. culture creates and gives meaning to social divisions and conflicts.
. Dominant culture reflects the lives and interests of domlnant Sroups.
. culture as an element of a society's superstructure, shaped by its base. (Marx only)

Focuses on the forms, or recurinS and abstract patterns, ol socaal Sroups and interactions
rather than on their varying contents. Georg Simmel (1858-1918), a founder of this approach,
analyzed the properties and implications of Sroup size and divisions. Contemporary network
theorists map outneMorks of relationshaps among social actors; theysee institutions and anteractaons as products of these networks' formal characteristics, such as density and pattern of
relalaonships. see Elerents of Society>seial structurc>Key concepts>social fie, Network-

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manorityof people wathin a societythat distinSuishes the minority irom the rest. subcultures
are often seen as dominated by their parent cultures.
Culrurol
Cophol: Cultural elements such as knowledge or taste used as a form ot wealth, often
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to distinguish oneselffrom others and gain access to elite circles and opportunities. seen as
a means bywhich inequalities are maintained alongside formally equal opportunity.
I Cultu@l UnircEols: Elements common to all cultures or societies, though they may take different torms in diflerent societies. Examples: funeral rights. cooperative work.
I Culturol RelqtMsm: The position that there are no universal cultural values or ideas. A culture
can only be understood on its own terms, not from the perspectives of other cultures.
I Elhno@nlrism: A tendency to judge all cultures in terms of one's own; a belief that one's own
culture is morally, intellectually, and/or aesthetically superior to all others.
I ldology: A system ol ideas and values that iustifies a particular politrcal or social proSram.
conflict theory definition: A system oI ideas and values thatjustifies one group's subordination of another by presenting a distorted view of reality that conceals power imbalances and
reflects only the experiences of the powerful.

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Group: A collectivity of individuals, bound by membership criteria, that interact and shares i
some values, norms, and symbols. Differs from a social cateSory, which includes all lndivid-;
uals who share a social characterishc but don't necessarily interact.
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Dyodr Agroup oftwo. Eecause theyare destroyed ifonlyone person departs, dyads require hrgh l
levels of social lnteraction. They can provide more emotional sustenance than other groups. l
Triod: A group of three. Two of the three members often come toSether and exclude the third. l
The third may act as a mediator or dividing wedSe between the other two.
Sociol T.Er A link between ffio individuals, Sroups, or other social entities, which may transmat resources, prestige, or meanings. Examples: hdividuals may be tied by friendship;
businesses by transactions; books by having the same publisher
Seiol Nelwork A set of actors or entlties and of all the ties between them, where ties involve
a specific type of relationship.

SOCIAL INTEEACTION
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in which peclile ocl 1o!roid ond resloiC lc eoah aihel iriccunlers mcy
ioce'ic-frae, cr lhe,r,mcy ile fir..e enCrring cnd cantiex

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Asocrely'senduringoverqllfromewcrkfiielef;ieniscndrelqli,inshins,ineJhicheny
gilen indrvrduol or group hos q portiaulcr locotron or sei of !ocoiroris rhol shooes ?herr
belqviorsondopporlunilies.

r.lod
i . Social structure consists of a haerarchy of classes.
I . Relationships between classes are characterized by donination,

exploitation, and conflict.

I Functioholism

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s@ial structure consists of statuses, roles, and social institutions.

Each element of structure performs some functaon in the overall social system.
Conlct Th@ry
. S@ial structure is comprised of a number of hierarchies among different Sroups defined by
I class, social status, ethnicity, and gender, among others.
I . croup relationships are characterized by domination, exploitation, and conflict.

fomll

Soclolo!,

Social structure is comprised of individuals, groups, and other social entities, and of the networks of social ties between them.

I DMslon of Lqbor: A social process whereby productive activities become separated into dif-

Symbolic lnteroctionisfr ond Drohoturgy

. lnteraction is mediated by symbols and meanings.
. Participants in an interactaon actively create and interpret these symbols and meanings.
xchonge Theory ond Rorionol Chole
. lnteraction is mediated by the exchange of resources, esteem, prestige, and power
. lnteraction participants actively try to maximize their rewards and minimize costs.

ferent specialized tasks.

Gesiu,e: one act in an onSoanS interaction amonS several participants. George Herbert Mead i
distinguishes two types. Non-significonl tsstuc. include automatic reflexes such asi
breathing or blinking, SlEnilicontg.sluGs include actions perceived as intentional; interac- i
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tion participants try to interpret their intentions before responding to them.
Roles: Expectations about how people will behave an interactions that endure over time and I
across different situations. Such expectations make interaction more smooth and predict- i
able. Contrast with s@ial Strctue>Key concepts>Furctiomtist Approeh>Role.
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Tqklng the Rols olthe Other: lmaSinatively putting oneself in another's situation. Mead claims i
this is necessary in attachinS meanings to others' gestures and anticapating thetr future i
actions, and is thus essential to all social interaction.
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lmprcsdon McnoEemenl: lnteraction participants' attempts to control the impressions about i
themselves that others receive sothat they appear to have a particular role or status or sim- i
ply appear in a Iavorable light. (Dramatur8y)
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f,onlstoge ond aocl Stogs:IWo socially defined regions in which interaction occurs. The front i
stage is where impression management takes place; the back stage is where participants i
may relax and prepare for the nqt performance. {Dramaturgy)

soctALtzATtoN

iire croae5s b'/vihicr peopie ieorn iiie (u:li,re ond sociol skills ol lheir socreiy ond ct
lhiir portiflJlci so.ic! lilc.lion Seciallzrlion l{kes plqce thrcrglroui life. :irough mdny
thecries fccus cn iiiqnl: ond childre0.

I Sclql Divlslon ot Lobori society's total activities are dafferentiated into specialized occupa-

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tions and institutions.

tshnlcol Olvlslon ofLobor: specialization oftaskswithin aworksetting. often atthe

of owners seekinB rncreased effrciency.

command

Syhbolic

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lnte.octlonbm

interaction.

Focuses on emergence of the self through social

Mead's stages of development of the self: ('l) Young children have no sense of self and only
interact by imitating others; {2) ln pla, older children learn to take the role of the other,

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