Phys7 Ideas2ImplementationU

keep it simple science
HSC Physics Topic 3
FROM IDEAS to IMPLEMENTATION
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. FROM CATHODE RAYS to TELEVISION
2. FROM RADIO to PHOTOCELLS: QUANTUM THEORY
3. FROM ATOMS to COMPUTERS: SEMICONDUCTORS
4. FROM CRYSTALS to SUPERCONDUCTORS
...in the context of how Physics has contributed to modern technology
but first, an introduction...

The History of Physics
is marked by a
number of landmark discoveries that changed
our understanding of the Universe...
Newtons Laws of Motion, and Gravitation, and
Einsteins Theory of Relativity
have already been studied.
About the Same Time as Cathode Rays
This topic covers a number of other great

discoveries, experiments and scientists, so it is
definitely a study of the History of Physics, from
about 1850 into the 20th century.
No-one could have

guessed that this led
to, not only the radio
and mobile phone,
but to solar cells...
were becoming understood, other scientists

were studying electromagnetic radiation and
obscure phenomena such as the
Photoelectric
Effect.
However, it is not just history. Along the way,

you will be studying some concepts, theories
and facts that are vital to your overall
understanding of this subject.
and Meanwhile,
the unravelling of atomic structure and study of
electrical conductivity in weird substances
like Germanium and Silicon, led to the
discovery of semiconductors.
The invention of
the transistor
followed... the
basis of all
modern
electronics
and computer
systems.
In addition, as you learn both the history and

some of the foundation ideas of modern
Physics, you will see that much of our modern
technology is a direct result these discoveries...
When Cathode Rays
were being studied
between 1850-1900, people
said interesting, but
whats the use of it??
Little did they know...
The Study of Crystal

led to the
discovery of
Superconductors,
the applications of
which are only
just beginning to
be implemented.
...the study of Cathode

Rays led directly to the
invention of the TV set, so
familiar today.
HSC Physics Topic 3 Ideas to Implementation

Copyright 2005-2
2009 keep it simple science
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
Structure
Usage & copying is permitted according to the

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and
remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic,
come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Behaviour of a
Charged Particle
in a Magnetic
Field
Cathode Rays.
Discovery &
Properties
Hertzs
Discovery of
Radio Waves
Discovery of
the Electron...
Thomsons
Experiment
Planks
Quantum
Theory
Television
From CATHODE
RAYS
to TELEVISION
From RADIO
to PHOTOCELLS:
Quantum Theory
Photoelectric
Effect
&
Applications:
solar cells
photocells
From IDEAS
to
IMPLEMENTATION
From ATOMS
to COMPUTERS
From CRYSTALS
to
SUPERCONDUCTORS
The Braggs
& X-ray
Crystalography
Current & Potential
Applications of
Superconductivity
Conductivity in
Metals.
Superconductivity

Copyright 2005-2
Einsteins
Contribution:
Particle-Wave
Duality
of Light
Differing views
on Sciences
place in society
Atomic
Structure
&
Structures of
Solid Lattices
Band Theory of
Conductors,
Insulators &
Semiconductors
Valves to Transistors
to Microprocessors...
Impacts on Society
1. FROM CATHODE RAYS TO TELEVISION

Discovery of Cathode Rays
Experiments with CRTs
By the 1850s, scientists had developed the

technology to produce quite high voltages of
electricity and to make sealed glass tubes from which
most of the air had been removed using a vacuum
pump.
Maltese Cross Tube

CATHODE
( -v
ve)
It wasnt long before these 2 things were combined,

and some mysterious phenomena were discovered.
ANODE (+ve)
in the shape
of a Maltese
Cross
You may have done some laboratory investigations

with Discharge Tubes as follows...
Each tube contains a different pressure of gas.
(All are very low pressure, but some lower than
others.) High voltage from an induction coil is
applied to each tube in turn.
Shadow of the cross in the

glow at the end of the tube
What does this prove?

Cathode Rays travel in straight lines,
from the Cathode.
Furthermore, Crookes tried this experiment with
many different metals as his electrodes. The
type of metal made no difference... Cathode
Rays are identical, regardless of the materials
used.
This tube is
glowing and
showing light
and dark
bands, or
striations
Tube With a Fluorescent Screen

Beam of Cathode Rays causing a fluorescent screen to glow
The result is that each tube shows glowing

streamers, or light and dark bands, or glows at
the end(s).
Fluorescence was known
to be caused by certain
waves, such as ultraviolet (UV) rays
The patterns change at different gas pressures.

At the very lowest pressure, there is no glow
from gas in the tube, but the glass itself glows at
one end of the tube.
Tube With a Rotating Paddle-Wheel

It was soon established that whatever was
causing these glows or discharges in the
tubes was coming from the negative electrode,
or cathode...so these emissions were called
Cathode Rays.
Wheel spins when cathode

rays strike the paddles
This shows that the rays
have momentum, and
therefore have mass
Over the following 20 years these mysterious

rays were studied by many scientists, most
notably Sir William Crookes. He devised so
many clever variations on these Cathode Ray
Tubes (CRTs) that they were known as
Crookes Tubes.
This evidence from these various experiments

was very inconsistent... some of the features of
cathode rays suggested they are particles, other
results suggested they are waves.
You will have seen, in the school laboratory, a

number of different CRTs and repeated many of
Crookess famous experiments...
Copyright 2005-2

Tube Containing Electric Plates
Revision of Electric Fields

In a Preliminary Course topic you learned that:
CRT with
fluorescent
screen
Beam of
cathode rays on
screen
Electric plates
on either side
of beam
(no voltage
applied yet)
Electric Charges exert force on each other...

...like charges REPEL each other.
...opposite charges ATTRACT each other
Charges act as if surrounded by a Force
Field.
When voltage
is applied to
the plates, the
beam deflects
-ve
FIELDS AROUND POINT CHARGES

By definition,
the direction of
the field is the
way a positive
charge would
move in the
field
+ve
What does this prove?

Cathode Rays must be a stream
of charged particles.
FIELDS BETWEEN POINT CHARGES

Repulsion
In fact, by considering the charge on the plates

above, it follows that the particles must be
negatively charged, because the beam is
deflected by repulsion from the negative plate,
and attraction towards the positive.
Attraction
Confusion About Cathode Rays

Unfortunately, when the early experimenters
tried something similar to the above, they did
NOT detect a deflection of the beam. So, they
concluded there was NO charge associated, and
were confused about the nature of the Cathode
Rays.
WORKSHEET at the end of this section.

The strength of the field is defined as the force per
unit of charge experienced by a charge in the
field...
E= F
Q
Evidence that CRs were Waves
However, in this topic we are more interested in

calculating forces, so
Cathode Rays:
Travel in straight lines like light waves.
Cause fluorescence, like ultra-violet waves.
Can expose photographic film, as light does.
F = Q.E
is more useful.
F = Force, in newtons (N), experience by the charge.

Q = Electric charge in coulombs (C).
E =Electric field strength,
in newtons per coulomb (NC-1)
Evidence that CRs were Particles

Cathode Rays:
Carry kinetic energy and momentum,
and therefore must have mass.
Carry negative electric charge.
(but this vital clue was missed!)
Note: In this topic the most common charged

particle we deal with is the electron.
The value of its charge is
Qe = ( -)1.602 x 10-19C.
Get used to this very small value.
This debate was finally settled by a famous

experiment you will study soon...
Example Calculation:
In the CRT shown at top left of this page, a
stream of electrons passes between 2
electrically charge plates. The electric field
strength is 400NC-1.
What is the force acting on each electron?
In 1897, J.J. Thomson showed that cathode

rays had both
mass and negative charge.
He had discovered the electron.
Solution:
F = Q.E
= -1.602x10-19 x 400
= -6.41x10-17N.
The negative sign simply means that the
direction of the force will be in the opposite
direction to the electric field.
All these investigations and discoveries

involved the Cathode Ray Tube. This is a
relatively simple device that allows the
manipulation of a stream of charged particles.

Copyright 2005-2

Electric Field Between

Parallel Charged Plates
Force on a Moving Charge

in a Magnetic Field
The field around and between point charges is

irregular in direction, and varies in strength at
every point. The field between parallel charge
plates, however, is uniform in strength and
direction at every point (except at the edges).
The direction of the field is the way a positive
charge would move.
In the previous topic you learned that when an

electric current flows through a magnetic field, the
wire experiences a force... the Motor Effect.
Positively (+ve)
charged plate
Now you need to realise that the reason is that

every electric charge, if moving through a
magnetic field, will experience a force.
You may have seen the following experiment

with a CRT in the laboratory:
CRT with fluorescent
screen.
Cathode Ray beam
goes straight across.
Uniform Field
Between Plates
Negatively (-v
ve)
charged plate
If a magnet is
brought near, the
beam deflects.
The strength of the field depends on the

Voltage applied to the plates, and the distance
between them:
A force is acting
on the moving
charged particles.
E= V
d
E = Electric Field strength, in NC-1.
V = Voltage applied to the plates, in volts (V).
d = distance between the plates, in metres (m).
The size of the force can be calculated as

follows:
F = QvBsin
F = Force acting, in newtons (N).

Q = Electric charge, in coulombs (C).
v = velocity of the charged particle, in ms-1.
B= Magnetic Field strength, in Tesla (T).
= Angle between the velocity vector and
magnetic field vector lines.
Two parallel plates are 1.25cm apart.

(convert to metres)
A voltage of 12.0V is applied across the plates.
What is the magnitude of the field between the
plates?
Solution:
E=V/d
= 12.0 / 0.0125
= 960NC-1.
Since sin90o = 1,
and sin0o = 0,
then maximum
force occurs
when the charge moves
at right angles to the field.
WORKSHEET at the end of the section.
B
Mag.
Field
How do you know the direction of the force?

Remember the Right-Hand Palm Rule?
In the CRT above, the cathode rays
(electrons; Qe=-1.602x10-19C)
Velocity vector, v
are moving at a velocity of 2.50x106ms-1.
Magnetic
The magnet provides a field of 0.0235T.
B
Field
Held as shown, the field lines are at an
angle of 70o to the beam.
What force acts on each electron?
Force, F
However, this applies to
Solution:
positive (+ve) charges.
F = QvBsin
= -1.602x10-19x2.50x106x0.0235xsin70o For negative charges ( -ve) the force is in the
opposite direction... back of hand side.
= -8.84 x 10-15N.
(negative sign simply refers
Can you verify the upward deflection in the
to direction)
photo above is consistent with theory?
Copyright 2005-2

Discovery of the Electron...

Thomsons Experiment
How a TV Screen Works

Thomson used a
fluorescent screen at the
end of his CRT to detect
and measure the
deflection of the cathode
rays (electrons).
In 1897, the confusion and debate about

Cathode rays was settled by one of the most
famous, and critically important, experiments in
the history of Science.
The British physicist J.J. Thomson set up an
experiment in which cathode rays could be
passed through both an electric field, and
through a magnetic field, at the same time.
Electric Field Effect
Over the following 30

years, CRT technology
evolved into the television
screen. By the middle of
the 20th century, TV was
developing to become the
major system for home
entertainment and by the
1980s the same screens
became the vital display
units for computers.
(charged plates)
+ve
Cathode Rays
E down page
-ve
Variable voltage
Magnetic Field Effect
Fluorescent screen to
measure deflection
A TV picture-tube is really just a more

sophisticated version of Thomsons CRT. The
image on the screen is made up of thousands of
spots of light, created as cathode rays strike a
fluorescent screen on the inside of the glass.
(Adjustable Electromagnets)
Cathode Rays
The 3 main parts of a TV picture-tube are:
The Electron Gun
B into page
produces the beam of cathode rays (electrons).
Thomson was able to adjust the strengths of the

2 fields so that their opposite effects exactly
cancelled out, and the beam went straight
through to the centre of the screen.
The electrons leave a cathode, and are

accelerated towards a series of anodes by the
high voltage electric field between them, just
like in the CRTs of Crookes or Thompson.
At this point,
The Deflection Plates
Force due to = Force due to

Electric Field
Magnetic Field
are used to deflect the beam to create spots of

light at different points on the screen.
Since the strengths of the fields could be

calculated from the currents and voltages applied
to the plates and electromagnets, Thomson was
able to calculate the ratio between the charge and
mass of the cathode rays.
Charge to mass ratio = Q
m
This established beyond doubt that cathode
rays were particles, not waves.
One set of charged plates are arranged so the

field can deflect the beam up or down. Another
set are arranged at right angles to cause
deflection left or right.
Between them, the sets of plates can steer the
beam onto any point on the screen.
The Fluorescent Screen
Furthermore, he repeated the experiment with many

different cathode materials and always got the same
result. This meant that the exact same cathode ray
particles were coming from every type of atom.
glows with light when the electron beam strikes the

fluorescent chemical coated on the inside of the
glass.
The total image is built from many thousands of lightspots (pixels = picture elements). The illusion of
movement is achieved by replacing each full-screen
picture many times per second.
Other experimenters had already determined the

charge-mass ratio for the hydrogen atom (the
smallest atom). It was apparent that the cathode ray
particle was much smaller than a hydrogen atom. The
conclusion was that all atoms must be made of
smaller parts, one of which was the cathode ray
particle, soon re-named the ELECTRON.
To produce colour TV there are actually 3 electron

guns, and 3 sets of deflection plates. Three separate
beams are steered onto separate spots of fluorescent
chemicals which glow red, green or blue (RGB). The
final colour is a combination of these 3 colours
combined.
This was a vital piece of knowledge for better

understanding of atoms and electricity, and the
development of many new technologies.
Copyright 2005-2

Worksheet 1
From Cathode Rays to Television
Fill in the blank spaces.
Student Name...........................................
The discovery of a).......................... Rays

was
made
with
simple
b)........................... tubes from which
most of the air was removed with a
c)............................. pump. When high
d)..................... was applied to electrodes
at each end of the tube, it would
produce a variety of e)........................,
............................ and ..............................
The exact pattern changed as the
f).......................... in the tube was altered.
It was discovered that the effects were
due to mysterious emissions coming
from the cathode (or g).............................
electrode).
The direction of the field is defined as

v)........................ .......................................
Any charge within a field will experience
a w)....................... The field between 2
x)...................... ........................... plates
is uniform in both y).............................
and ..........................., and is determined
by the z)............................. applied to the
plates and the aa).........................
between them.
Electric charges also experience a force
if they are ab).................................
through a ac)............................ field. This
is easily observed by bringing a
ad).......................... near a CRT with a
fluorescent screen; the magnet causes
the beam to ae).........................................
The direction of the force and the
deflection of the CR beam is easily
determined
by
the
af).................................................. Rule.
About
the
1870s,
Sir
William
h)...................... and others, built special
CRTs to study the cathode rays. The
famous i)............................. cross tube
showed that the rays travelled in
straight
lines.
Tubes
with
j).............................. screens showed that
the rays caused fluorescence, and
tubes equipped with a paddle-wheel
proved that the rays carried both
k).................... energy and l)......................
In 1897, J.J. ag)........................................

used the deflection of a CR beam by
both ah)........................ and ......................
fields to measure the ratio of
ai)......................................... of a cathode
ray. This established, beyond doubt,
that CRs are aj).......................... and are
a small part contained within all
ak)................... Thomson had discovered
the al).............................. The simple CRT
was later used as the basis to invent the
am).......................................... screen.
Unfortunately, attempts to detect

deflection
by
applying
an
m)...................... field were unsuccessful,
so for many years there was confusion
over whether CRs were n)......................
or ..........................
Evidence they were waves:
CRs travel in o)................................ like
light.
They cause p)............................ like UV
rays.
They can expose q)................................
The main parts of the picture tube are:

The an)............................. Gun, which
produces a beam of ao)...........................
from a ap)....................... and accelerates
them
towards
a
series
of
aq)..................................
The ar).............................. plates, which
use electric fields to as)............................
the beam onto the screen.
The at)............................. screen, which
forms the image when fluorescent
chemicals au)................... with spots of
light
when
struck
by
av).................................
Evidence they were particles:

Carry r)........................ and .....................
and therefore must have s)......................
Carry t)......................... electric charge.
An electric u)......................... is created
around anything with electric charge.

Copyright 2005-2

Worksheet 2
Practice Problems
Student Name...........................................
Electric Fields & Forces
1. Two parallel plates are 4.00cm apart in a
vacuum tube. A voltage of 50.0V is applied
across the plates.
An alpha particle with charge of (+)3.20x10-19C
passes between the plates.
a) What is the size of the electric field between
the plates?
b) What force will act on the alpha particle?
c) Describe the direction of the
i) field
ii) force
relative to the +ve and -ve plates.
3. (cont)
b) What charge does the speck of dust carry?
c) The static charge was created when some
electrons were either removed from, or added
to, the speck of dust.
How many electrons were added or removed?
d) The speck of dust was observed to move
toward the negative plate. Did the speck lose or
gain electrons?
4. Two parallel plates have a 40.0V potential
difference between them. An electron between
them experiences a force of (-)5.88x10-17N.
How far apart are the plates?
2. An electron (Q=-1.60x10-19C) experiences a

force of -7.82x10-15N within an electric field
created by parallel plates which are 2.50mm
apart.
a) Find the size of the electric field.
b) Find the voltage applied to the plates.
5. In an inkjet printer, small droplets of ink are

given an electric charge, then steered onto
the paper by accelerating them in electric fields
to achieve the desired velocities and directions.
3. A speck of dust carrying a static electric

charge, experiences a force of 2.29x10-12N in a
field produced by 2 plates 5.00cm apart. A 200V
potential difference is applied across the plates.
a) Find the strength of the field between the
plates.
What force would be experienced by a droplet

with charge of (+)9.75x10-10C, which is between
parallel plates with potential difference of 100V,
and separated by 5.00mm?
Worksheet 3
Practice Problems
Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field
Student Name...............................
8.
A particle of the solar wind with charge of
(+)1.60x10-19C (it is in fact a proton) encounters
the Earths magnetic field at an angle of 25o to
the field lines. At this point the field has a
strength of 5.48x10-4T. The proton experiences a
force of 7.40x10-15N. Find the velocity of the
proton.
1.
An electron (Q=-1.60x10-19C) is travelling north
at 3.00x107ms-1 in a cathode ray tube when it
enters a magnetic field of strength 4.96x10-2T.
The field is directed vertically upwards through
the CRT. Find the magnitude and direction of the
force experienced by the electron.
2.
In a nuclear accelerator, a charged ion has been
accelerated up to a velocity of 2.90x108ms-1. As
it enters a magnetic field of strength 8.05T (field
is perpendicular to ions velocity vector) it
experiences a force of magnitude 3.75x10-9N.
What is the magnitude of the charge on the ion?
9.
In an experiment similar to Thomsons, a stream
of electrons in a CRT are each experiencing a
force of magnitude 4.06x10-15N when travelling
through a perpendicular magnetic field at a
velocity of 7.80x106ms-1.
a) What is the strength of the magnetic field?
The force on the electrons is exactly
counteracted by an electric field produced by
charged plates which are 8.00mm apart.
b) What is the strength of the electric field?
Remember that for full marks

in calculations, you need to show
c) What is the voltage being applied across the
FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION, plates?
APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS
Copyright 2005-2

Worksheet 4 Test Questions

Multiple Choice
section 1
Longer Response Questions

Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to
give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
1. The Maltese Cross cathode ray tube proves

that cathode rays:
A. travel from anode to cathode.
B. travel in straight lines.
C. are particles with mass.
D. are electrically charged.
6. (5 marks)
Explain why the apparent behaviour of cathode
rays caused debate as to whether they were
charged particles or electromagnetic waves.
2. A cathode ray beam is passing

through an electric field
directed as shown in
the diagram.
E field
This is part of an experiment in
which the beam will simultaneously
pass through a magnetic field.
+
+
cathode
rays
a) Find the magnitude of the electric field

between the plates.
In which direction must the magnetic field be

directed in order to achieve this?
A. into the page
B. up the page
C. to the left
D. out of the page
b) Calculate the force that will act on the

electron due to this field.
c) At what rate will the electron accelerate?
(electron mass = 9.11x10-31kg)
3. Which of the following diagrams correctly

shows the electric field between point charges
and/or charged plates?
B.
A.
C.
-
D.
+
8. (8 marks)
An alpha particle
(Qa = + 3.20x10-19C)
is about to enter a
magnetic field of
strength 5.22T at a
velocity of
2.95x103ms-1.
a) Find the magnitude and (initial) direction of
the force due to the magnetic field it will
experience.
b) A pair of charged plates (not shown in the

diagram) are arranged so that the force due to
the magnetic field will be exactly cancelled out
by the force due to the electric field.
Sketch where the plates need to be to do this,
and indicate the type of charge on each plate.
4. Thomsons famous cathode ray experiment

was able to get a value for:
A. the charge to mass ratio, of cathode rays.
B. the mass of the electron.
C. the strength of crossed electric and
magnetic fields.
D. the electric charge of an electron.
c) If these electric plates are 10.0cm apart, what

voltage must be applied to exactly cancel the
magnetic deflection?
9. (6 marks)
A TV picture tube is made up of several main
components. Outline the role of the
a) electrodes of the electron gun.
b) deflection plates or coils.
c) fluorescent screen.
5. If you were to alter the voltage to the anode in the

electron gun part of a TV picture tube, the first
thing to change would be:
A. the position of the image on the screen.
B. the speed of the cathode ray beam.
C. the brightness & colours of the fluorescent image.
D. the size of the image.
Copyright 2005-2
7. (6 marks)
+
Two parallel charged plates +
are 6.00cm apart, in vacuum,
and have a potential difference of 30.0V
between them. An electron (Qe = -1.60x10-19C)
is located between the plates.
The arrangement and strengths of the 2 fields

is such that the effects will cancel out so the
beam travels through without deflection.
Student Name...........................................

2. FROM RADIO to PHOTOCELLS: QUANTUM THEORY

The Radio Experiments of Hertz
Investigating Radio Waves
By the 1880s, the theory of electromagnetic

radiation (EMR) had been around for 20 years,
but no-one had found proof that these waves
existed. Until, that is, the famous experiment of
Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
You may have done some simple studies in

the laboratory, such as:
Array of wire connected to
induction coil acts as a
transmitting antenna
Using the familiar induction coil to produce

sparks across a gap, Hertz showed that some
invisible waves were being produced... he had
discovered radio waves.
Radio waves
Emitted from
spark
Sparks produced in
small gap in
receiving loop
spark
gap
High-v
voltage
Induction coil
The induction coils

high-v
voltage
sparking produces
all sorts of EMR,
including radio,
light, UV & even
X-rrays.
Wire loop acts as a receiving

antenna.
The radio waves induce
currents in the wire, and sparks
in the gap.
Induction coil & Power Pack
By adding a tapping key switch to the

transmitter circuit, it is easy to send
messages to the receiver in the form of dotsand-dashes of static noise.
Hertz went on to experiment with these invisible

waves and showed that they could be reflected,
refracted, polarised and diffracted just like light
waves. The clincher was when he measured their
velocity and got an answer of 3x108ms-1... the
speed of light!
What Hertz Failed to Investigate

In one of his many experiments with the new
waves he had discovered, Hertz found that his
receiving loop became more sensitive and
sparked more if it was exposed to other
radiations coming from his transmitter.
This was powerful evidence supporting the

theory that light was just one of a whole
spectrum of Electromagnetic waves that had
been predicted earlier.
He didnt realise the significance of this

observation, and failed to follow up on it.
How did Hertz measure speed of the radio waves?
We now know (with perfect hind-sight) that he

had produced the Photoelectric Effect:
He reflected the radio waves (from metal sheets) so

that they set up interference patterns. By moving his
receiving loop around the lab. he could measure
exactly where the peaks of interference occurred
(where the waves added in amplitude). From this,
the wavelengths of the waves were calculated.
Ultra-v
violet rays give their
energy to electrons on the
metal surface.
The frequency could be determined from the

settings of his wave transmitter.
Then the wave equation was used:
Wire of receiving loop.
V = .f
This can eject an

electron from the surface
so sparks are more likely.
Spark gap
Later, this phenomenon was used by Einstein as

proof of the new Quantum Theory... read on.
He found the radio waves travelled

at the speed of light.
This Photoelectric Effect was exploited in the

20th century to develop the technology of
photocells and solar cells.
In recognition of Hertzs contribution to our

knowledge of waves, the unit of wave frequency
(Hz) is named in his honour.
Solar
Within another 20 years, radio was being used

for long-distance communications using morse
code. Within 100 years the world was blanketed
with radio transmissions for communication
and entertainment.
Copyright 2005-2
Radio receiver picks up

loud bursts of noise,
from some distance away
Cells
10

Planks Quantum Theory proposed that the

amount of energy carried by a quantum of
light is related to the frequency of the light:
Black Body Radiation

In a previous Preliminary topic (Cosmic
Engine) you learned about the way that energy
is radiated from hot objects. A perfect emitter
of radiation had become known as a blackbody...
E = h.f
Amount of Energy Radiated
BLACK BODY
RADIATION
CURVES
E = energy of a quantum, in joules ( J)

h = Planks constant, with a value of 6.63x10-34
f = frequency of the wave, in hertz (Hz)
You are reminded also, of the wave equation:
very hot
object
peak
wavelength
shorter
V = .f
(or, for light)
.f
c =
c = velocity of light (in vacuum) = 3.00x108ms-1.

= wavelength, in metres (m).
f = frequency, in hertz (Hz)
hot
object
peak
wavelength
A ray of red light has a wavelength of 6.50x10-7m.
warm
a) What is its frequency?

b) How much energy is carried by one quantum of this
light?
object
peak wavelength
longer
shorter
Wavelength of Radiation
Solution:
a)
c =.f
3.00x108 = 6.50x10-7x f
f = 3.00x108/6.50x10-7
= 4.62x1014Hz.
b) E = h.f
= 6.63x10-34 x 4.62x1014
= 3.06x10-19 J.
longer
It was well known that as a black body became

hotter, it not only emitted more energy as radiation,
but that the wavelength of the peak of the radiation
became shorter, and frequency became higher.
TRY THE WORKSHEET at the end of this section
The problem was that the standard Physics

theories of the time could not explain the shape of
these graphs, which were obtained from
experiment.
Problems with Classical Physics

At the same time that Plank was proposing his
Quantum Theory to explain the Black Body
radiation details, the Photoelectric Effect (that
Hertz had observed but failed to study) was
being investigated by others.
Planks Quantum Theory

In 1900, Max Plank proposed a radical new theory
to explain the black body radiation. He found that
the only way to explain the exact details coming
from the experiments, was that the energy was
quantised: emitted or absorbed in little packets
called quanta (singular quantum).
What IS the Photoelectric Effect?

When metal surfaces are exposed to light waves
(especially high frequency light or ultra-violet) some
electrons are found to be ejected from the metal
surface, as long as a certain critical
energy level is exceeded.
The existing theories of classical Physics

assumed that the amount of energy carried (say)
by a light wave could have any value, on a
continuous scale. Planks theory was that the
energy could only take certain values, based on
units or quanta of energy.
Experiments on the photoelectric effect were

producing results that could NOT be explained
by the existing theory of light. For a century or
more, light had been accepted as a wave. This
explained its reflection, refraction, interference,
and many other phenomena.
Its the same as with matter: The smallest

amount of (say) carbon you can have is 1 atom.
Then you can have 2 atoms, 3 atoms and so on,
BUT you cannot have 1/2 atoms of carbon... the
matter is quantised, with whole atoms as the
minimum quantum. Well, says Plank, energy
is the same!
Copyright 2005-2
However, the photoelectric effect experiments

were giving results that suggested light was
best explained as a stream of particles... this
could turn Science on its ear!
Enter Albert Einstein...

11

Einstein and Quantum Theory
Applications of the
Photoelectric Effect
It was Albert Einstein who came to the rescue

and neatly combined Planks Quantum Theory
with the classical wave theory of light, in a way
that solved all the apparent conflicts, and
explained the Photoelectric Effect as well!
Solar Cells
Solar Cells (or photovoltaic cells) are devices

which produce electricity directly from light
energy. They are very familiar in the popular
garden lights which need no wiring or battery
replacements.
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.

Principle) Einstein proposed that:
During the day, the solar cell(s) charge up a

small re-chargable battery.
Light is a wave, but

the energy of the wave is concentrated in little
packets or bundles of wave energy, now
called Photons.
Each photon of light has an amount of energy
given by E = h.f, according to Planks Quantum
Theory.
When a photon interacts with matter, it can
either transfer all its energy, or none of it... it
cannot transfer part of its quantised energy.
At night, the battery provides electricity to a

low-power garden lamp.
Small array of solar cells

powering a small electric
motor and fan
Light is NOT
a stream of
particles
Light is NOT
a wave
More importantly, solar cells hold the promise

of cheap, efficient, environmentally-friendly
electricity production. Already they are used in
remote areas (see sketch on front page) and in
special situations, such as power for orbiting
satellites.
Light is a stream of wave packets... PHOTONS.

They have wave properties... refraction, interference, etc.
They can also behave like a particle sometimes.
Each photon is a Quantum of light energy.
Einsteins model for light involves a duality...

light must have a dual nature. Many of its
properties are wave related; e.g. ability to
reflect, refract and show interference patterns.
In other cases, especially when energy transfers
are occurring, the light photons are like little
particles. This explained the Black Body
Radiation curves, and the weird features of the
Photoelectric Effect.
Solar cells produce electricity from the

Photoelectric Effect:
Light photons falling on the cell give up their
quantum of energy to electrons in a sandwich of
semiconductor material, called a p-n junction.
The energy gained by electrons causes them to
be emitted so that they travel through the
semiconductor structure and create a potential
difference across it. This voltage causes a
current to flow in the electrical circuit.
Confirmation of Einsteins Model

Einsteins idea is very neat, but is it correct?
Photocells
Einstein was able to make certain mathematical

predictions regarding further features of the
Photoelectric Effect. (The exact details are
complicated, and not required learning)
A photocell is a device which can detect and

measure light. Photocells are used in light meters
(photography), electric-eyes and a variety of
light-measuring scientific equipment, such as
photometers.
In 1916, the experiments were done to test

Einsteins predictions, and the results agreed
with his predictions precisely!
Once again, the photoelectric effect is involved.

When a photon of light strikes the receiving
surface, its energy causes emission of an
electron, which is collected on a nearby anode.
This was confirmation that the photon theory of

light, and the quantum theory of energy were
both correct. Einstein was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Physics in 1921, for his contribution to
understanding the Photoelectric Effect.
Copyright 2005-2
A sensitive electric circuit is able to measure the

level of electron emission, and this gives a
measure of the amount of light being received.
12

Assessment of Einsteins Contribution to Quantum Theory

Assess means to measure or judge the value of something. The syllabus requires you
to assess Einsteins contribution to the Quantum Theory
in relation to Black Body Radiation.
To begin with, you might note that Einstein did NOT think up the Quantum Theory... Max
Plank did that in 1900. However, it seems that Plank invented the quantum idea purely as
a mathematical trick to explain the Black Body Radiation curves. Plank never proposed
that the quanta might give light a particle-like nature. Plank never suggested that the old
ideas of classical Physics might need changing.
It was Einstein who did that! His particle-wave (photon) idea combined Planks Quantum
Theory with the classical idea that light is a wave. This totally new way to look at things
was one of the turning points of modern Physics, and set other scientists off into new and
innovative directions of research.
It should be noted that the other major turning point for Physics was Einsteins
Theory of Relativity, which he proposed in the same year (1905).
No wonder we credit him as being one of the greatest!
Einstein,
1905
Atom-bomb damage
Hiroshima, Japan
Is Science Research Removed from Social & Political Forces?

In World Wars I & II, Science and scientists played a
major role in research and development of new
weapons and war technologies. Some examples
include:
radio communications and Radar.

nuclear weapons.
rockets.
new aircraft designs and jet engines.
chemical weapons such as poison gas systems.
There are two contrasting views about the morality of

weapons research, and the two great scientists of this
section of the topic epitomise these different views.
Max Plank was a patriotic German who believed that
it was his duty to help his country fight a war. He
gladly contributed to weapons research in WW I, and
leading up to WW II he was the director of the main
Scientific Institute in Nazi Germany. Planks outlook
seems to have been that Science is part of the
political & social structure, and must take an active
role in it.
Copyright 2005-2
13
Einstein was German-born, but became a

Swiss citizen, and later American. In WW I
he (and only 3 others) signed an anti-war
declaration. He spent the war in neutral
Switzerland, lobbying for peace and an end
to war. In the 1930s he was forced to flee
Nazi Germany because he was of Jewish
descent. In America, he fought against the
development of the atomic bomb
(developed directly from his own theories)
and was appalled when it was used against
Japan in 1945.
Einstein believed that Science is a process
that should work for peace and the good of
all people, and not be involved in the
political & social forces that come and go.
Who was right? There is no correct, nor
simple, answer to that. You must form your
own opinion... just be sure you have an
informed opinion.
Worksheet 5
Quantum Theory
Student Name...........................................
The Photoelectric Effect occurs when
p)......................... is absorbed at a metal surface.
The energy is transferred to an q).........................
which may then be r)..................... from the
surface. Experiments with this effect were
producing results that could not be explained.
In
1887,
Heinrich
Hertz
discovered
a)....................... waves. His experiment involved
high voltage from an b)................................ coil
which produced c)..................... across a gap.
The sparking produced radio waves which he
detected with a d)............................................ in
which a small gap also sparked. He was able to
show that the new radiations showed typical
wave properties such as e)............................ and
............................ Hertz was also able to measure
the f)............................. of the waves, and show it
was equal to the speed of g)..............................
He
also
produced
evidence
of
the
h)........................................ Effect, but failed to
investigate it further.
In 1905, Einstein used Planks s)...........................

Theory to explain all the difficulties. His idea
was:
Light is a wave, but the energy is concentrated
in bundles called t)................................
Each bundle carries a u)............................ of
energy, as described by Planks theory.
When a photon interacts with matter, it can
either transfer v)............... of its energy, or
w).................... of it, but cannot transfer
x).....................................................
Meanwhile, other researchers had studied the

way energy is emitted from hot objects. The
i)................................ Radiation curves showed
a shape that could not be explained by the
accepted theories. In 1900, j)........................
proposed the k)............................. Theory to
account for the problem. The basic idea of his
theory is that the energy of light (or other EMR)
is l)............................
the same way that
matter is. The minimum quantity of matter is one
m)........................, and fractions cannot occur.
Plank proposed that the energy of EMR is the
same, and that the amount of energy carried by
one n)...................... is related to the
o)................................ of the wave.
Worksheet 6
Quantum Theory
(Planks Constant =
6.63x10-34)
This idea allows light to have its wave

properties such as y)......................................,
................................. and .......................................,
but to also sometimes show z)............................like properties when it transfers energy.
Based on his theory, Einstein made certain
mathematical aa)............................... regarding
the ab).................................. Effect. These were
confirmed by ac).................................. in 1916.
This confirmed Planks ad).............................
Theory, and explained all the problems with
ae).............................. ...................... radiation &
the af).................................. Effect.
Practice Problems
Student Name..........................................
(c =
3.00x108
4.
To cause emission of an electron from the
surface of a certain metal requires the electron
to gain a minimum of 2.38x10-20J of energy.
a) Find the frequency and wavelength of the
photon of EMR which carries this threshold
amount of energy.
b) What happens if the electron is struck by a
photon with a longer wavelength than this?
c) What will happen if the electron was struck by
a photon of higher frequency than calculated in
(a)?
ms-1)
1.
A light wave has a wavelength of 4.25x10-7m.
a) What is its frequency?
b) How much energy is carried by one photon?
2.
Compare the amount of quantum energy carried
by a photon of
i) infra-red (heat) radiation (l = 5.45x10-6m)
and ii) UV radiation (l = 5.45x10-9m)
5.
An electron was emitted from a metal surface
after being struck by a photon of EMR.
The electron left the surface with energy of
6.22x10-17J. It firstly had to use 9.28x10-19J of
energy to escape the metal surface. All of this
energy was gained by interaction with a single
photon.
Find the frequency and wavelength of the
photon.
3.
A photon of radiation is carrying 8.75x10-14J of
energy.
Calculate
a) its frequency
b) its wavelength

Copyright 2005-2
14


Multiple Choice
section 2
Student Name...........................................
6. (6 marks)
Two different photons of light have wavelengths
of 5.00x10-7m (photon P) and 2.40x10-8m
(photon Q).
Qualitatively (no calculation required) compare
P & Qs:
a) speed
1. Which of the following best describes the

outcome of Hertzs famous experiments of
1887?
A. His discoveries led to the Quantum Theory of light.
B. He showed that light gives interference patterns.
C. He confirmed that light is an electromagnetic wave.
D. He determined a more accurate value for the speed
of light.
b) frequency
2. According to Quantum Theory, if you

compared the energy of 2 photons of light and
found that one had more energy than the other,
then the one with more energy must have:
A. more mass.
B. longer wavelength.
C. higher frequency.
D. a higher velocity.
c) energy
Explain your answers in each case.
3. The Photoelectric Effect involves:

A. emission of electrons that have absorbed a
quantum of energy from a photon.
B. emission of a photon of light that has
absorbed the excess energy from a
falling electron.
C. using photographic film to get an image of
x-ray interference patterns.
D. using an electrical induction coil to cause
sparks in a separate receiving coil or antenna.
7. (4 marks)
For an electron to escape from the surface of a
particular metal, it needs to absorb a minimum
of 6.75x10-19J of energy. Calculate the
a) frequency
b) wavelength
of a photon with just enough energy to cause
this.
4. According to Einstein, light often behaves like

a wave, but sometimes acts like a particle. A
phenomenon in which the particle nature of a
photon is noticeable, is:
A. interference of photons scattered by crystals.
B. refraction of light by a glass lens.
C. photoelectric effect occurring in a solar cell.
D. polarization of light by sunglasses.
8. (3 marks)
Identify the contribution made by Einstein to
Quantum Theory.

5. (4 marks)
As part of your studies you have carried out an
investigation to demonstrate the production
and reception of radio waves.
Describe briefly how you did this.
9. (4 marks)
a) What is the photoelectric effect?
b) Summarize how this effect is used in a solar

cell.

Copyright 2005-2
15

3. FROM ATOMS to COMPUTERS: SEMICONDUCTORS

Revision of Atomic Structure
Band Structure Theory
After Thomson identified the electron as a

particle present in all atoms, it didnt take long
for scientists to figure out the details of atomic
structure. You are reminded of the basic model
of a typical atom:
Structure
of an
ATOM
The explanation just given for conductors and

insulators is OK, until you find out about
Semiconductors. Elements such as Silicon
and Germanium have a number of strange
properties including being rather poor
conductors of electricity until given a little jolt of
energy. Then, suddenly they become quite good
conductors.
Electrons in orbit at different

Energy Levels
This ability, called Semiconductivity,

allows these materials to act as
electrical switches, turning electrical
currents on and off, according
to their energy state.
Electrons are
relatively easy
to remove
from some
atoms...
this leads to
electrical
conductivity,
Photoelectric
Effect, etc
Atomic Nucleus
of protons & neutrons
This is the basis of all modern

electronics & computer systems
To understand semiconductivity, you need to
learn about Band Structures.
We have known since the early 20th century that
the electrons around an atom can occupy
different orbits or energy levels surrounding
the nucleus. These energy levels are
quantised (Quantum Theory applies) so there
may be forbidden energy zones between
them. An electron cannot exist in this fobidden
zone because the energy level there does NOT
correspond to a whole quantum.
Electrical Conductivity
When millions and billions of atoms form a
lattice structure (most strong solids are like
this) they do so by forming chemical bonds with
each other in a regular array.
ATOMS in a SOLID ARRAY
Electrical Conduction occurs when electrons can migrate

freely from one atom to the next
Migrating
electron
Chemical
Bonds
The unoccupied band

above the valence
band, is called the
conduction band
Forbidden
energy gap.
Electrons
cannot exist
there.
In a conductor, electrons
can jump from one atom
to the next
Electrons in
quantised
energy bands
Some bands
overlap
In a metal atom, the outer (valence) electrons are

very loosely held by the atomic nucleus. They
feel the force of attraction from other,
surrounding atoms just as strongly as the
attraction from their own atom. The result is that
these outer electrons can easily move from atom to
atom.
Nucleus
Electrons can jump up and down through the

different bands as they gain or lose energy. To
jump up over a forbidden zone they must have
enough energy to achieve the quantum energy
level required to occupy the next band.
In any atom in its rest state, the highest band
occupied by electrons is the Valence Band. If
an electron has enough energy to get to the
unoccupied levels above there, the electron is
effectively free to wander off. If an electric
field is applied, the electron becomes part of a
flowing current, and the substance is
conducting electricity.
If an electric field is present (due to a voltage being

applied) billions of electrons begin moving in the
same direction... an electric current is flowing, and
we say the metal is a good Conductor.
In other solids such as plastic or glass, the outer
valence electrons are more strongly attracted to
their own atom, and cannot easily escape from it,
to move from atom to atom. We say these things
are poor conductors, or good Insulators.
Copyright 2005-2
The highest energy

level that has
electrons in it, is
called the
valence band
Thats why any energy band above the valence

band is called a Conduction Band.
16

Conduction of Electrons & Holes
Conductors, Insulators &

Semiconductors
Normally we imagine that an electric current is

composed of a flow of negative electrons. However, in a
semiconductor, when an electron jumps out of the
valence band and flows off somewhere, it leaves behind
a hole in the valence band. This hole, is a space that
an electron from elsewhere can jump into.
In terms of Band Theory, the difference in

conductivity between different substances is
simply the relationship between the Valence
Band and the Conduction Band.
In Conductors, In Insulators,
In Semiconductors,
these bands
the bands are there is a small gap
overlap.
separated by a between the bands.
wide forbidden
energy gap.
Imagine a line of atoms in a semiconductor lattice:

Electron has enough energy to conduct away,
leaving a hole behind.
hole
Conduction
Band
Conduction
Band
Valence
Band
Conduction
Band
Forbidden
Energy gap
Valence
Band
Now imagine a sequence of movements in which the

next electron in the valence band has enough energy to
jump into the hole, leaving its own hole behind...
Valence Band
In metals, electrons can move into the conduction

band at any time, so the solid array of atoms is a
good conductor at all times.
Electrons are jumping to the right
In an insulator, such as plastic, the electrons can

never achieve the conduction band unless they are
given a huge boost of energy. At normal
temperatures and voltage levels, the substance will
not carry a current.
...and the hole is jumping left.
A semiconductor, like Silicon, will not normally

carry current, because electrons lack the energy to
jump the forbidden energy gap. However, if the
temperature is increased, and a voltage applied,
there comes a point when electrons jump the gap
in great numbers, and the substance suddenly
conducts very well indeed.
If you can imagine this sequence like the pictures making a

motion cartoon, you can imagine that an electron flows to
the right and the hole flows to the left.
In fact, in terms of electrical energy, it makes no

difference whether the current really is negative
electrons going one way, or holes going the
other way... either way, it constitutes an electric
current. The holes are considered as positively
charged spaces (relative to the electrons) and
so the flow of positive holes may be thought of
as genuine Conventional Current.
This effect does not occur at room temperature

unless the semiconductor substance is Doped.
Doping a Semiconductor
Doping means to add a very small quantity of
a different type of atom to an otherwise pure
solid lattice of semiconductor atoms.
So, there is another way to Dope a

semiconductor. The diagram on the left shows
the use of atoms with an extra valence
electron. The other way to do it is to use atoms
with only 3 valence electrons, creating extra
holes in the lattice.
Atoms of Semiconductor substance

e.g. Silicon, normally have 4 valence electrons
Each
chemical
bond is
formed by
atoms
extra valence
electron
Atom with
3 valence
electrons
used to
Dope the
sharing 2
electrons.
These
electrons
are in the
valence
energy
band
extra hole in
the lattice
lattice.
Atom with 5 valence electrons

used to Dope the lattice.
DOPING increases the conductivity of the lattice

Copyright 2005-2
17

p-Type & n-Type Semiconductors
Invention of the Transistor
The two different ways to dope the lattice result in

two different types of semiconductor material:
Thermionic valves had been widely used in

radios for some years and were vital
components of the new industry of television.
n-Type Semiconductors are doped with

atoms with 5 valence electrons, such as arsenic or
antimony. This adds extra valence electrons to the
lattice. Electrical current is carried mainly by this flow
of negative charges (hence n-type).
Valves were also important in the switching of

connections in telephone exchanges, where the
growing communication demands required
automatic dialing and connection technology.
(The original system involved human
operators manually plugging wires into
sockets to connect phone calls.)
p-Type Semiconductors are doped with

atoms with 3 valence electrons, such as aluminium or
gallium. This adds extra holes to the lattice.
Electrical current is carried mainly by this flow of
positive holes (hence p-type).
However, the valve-based technology was

proving too slow, too unreliable and too
expensive for the booming telephone industry.
The major U.S. phone company Bell
Telephone set its scientists the task of
researching new materials and processes to
replace the valves.
History: Electronics & Computers

The concept of a machine to carry out high
speed calculations and logical operations has
been around for centuries. Prior to the 20th
century, any such device had to be mechanical,
using clockwork gears and so on. There were
some notable successes with control devices
for weaving looms, and mechanical adding
machines, but applications were very limited.
Transistors
2 cm
During World War II the first electronic

computers were built (in tight secrecy) to help
decode enemy radio messages. Instead of gears
and dials, the Collosus computer used
thermionic valves to electronically switch
circuits on and off, to store and manipulate data.
In 1947, 3 scientists at Bell Laboratories,

invented the transistor, using a sandwich of ptype and n-type doped semiconductor material.
Thermionic Valves: Cathode Ray Tubes

Thermionic refers to the way these CRTs would
emit many electrons from the cathode (and
thereby carry a current) when the cathode became
hot. Once warmed up the valve can act as an
electronic switch in a circuit, when the voltage
to the anode is varied.
Because of the properties of the semiconductor

(conductivity that can be switched on and off)
the transistor can do the same job as the
thermionic valve, but
is only a fraction of the size and
costs much less to make.
Characteristics:
relatively large &
expensive
consumes only tiny amounts

of electricical power.
consume relatively large

amounts of electricity
produces virtually no waste heat.
10 cm
produce large amounts

of waste heat
operates much faster than a valve.
although faster than

mechanical switches,
valves are slow-acting by
modern standards
does not need to warm-up.

is highly reliable, and rarely
needs maintenance.
require time to
warm up
The comparison is a no-brainer...
Despite these limitations,

Collosus was very
important in helping to
win the war.
have a limited lifetime,

and can burn out like a
light bulb. Therefore their
reliability is low,
and maintenance
needs are high.

Copyright 2005-2
The transistor replaced Thermionic Valves

as rapidly as electronics industries could
re-design their products, and begin
mass production
18

Assessment of Impacts
of the Transistor on Society
Silicon v Germanium
To make semiconductor material with the
desired conductivity properties, it is necessary
to firstly prepare extremely pure samples, then
add minute amounts of the doping chemical,
and finally grow crystals of the semiconductor
from the molten material in a furnace.
It could be argued that the invention of the

transistor was one of the most profound
technological developments in history. It ranks
right up there beside the developments such as:
Fire, 500,000 years ago.

The original transistors were made from
Germanium because the technology to produce
crystals of the pure element was already known.
However, Germanium is a rare element, whereas
its close sister element Silicon, is one of the
most abundant elements on Earth.
Fire transformed human society because of its

power to warm people, cook food and protect
from predators.
Agriculture, about 10,000 years ago.

This transformed society from nomadic huntinggathering to settled communities that invented
law, commerce, government and civilization.
By the 1960s, the technology to obtain pure

crystals of Silicon had been developed, and
because Silicon is so abundant and therefore
cheaper, it quickly replaced Germanium.
Silicons electrical properties turned out to be
better too. For example, it held its
semiconductive properties constant over a
wider range of temperatures.
Metallurgy & the Industrial Revolution,

which led to new tools, machinery, mass
production, urbanisation, and mass transport
systems.
The transistor helped create the
Information & Communication Revolution,
which is still developing today. Electronic
circuits, using microchips, are the basis of all
the computers which allow:
Also in the 1960s, the technology of the

computer began to emerge for financial and
communication uses. The solid-state
transistor technology allowed a computer to be
built to fit a table-top, rather than fill a room.
Every teenager had a brick-size transistor
radio, in the same way that in this decade
everyone has an MP3 and a mobile phone the
size of a matchbox.
instant access to (virtually) all the information

on the planet via the internet.
instant access to money from your bank
account from (virtually) any town or city
anywhere in the world.
instant communication via your mobile phone
to and from (virtually) anywhere.
The miniature
integrated
circuit board
led to the
technology of
the silicon
chip where
thousands, and
now millions of transistor-equivalents can be
printed microscopically in the space of a
postage stamp... a microchip.
Computers are the key to the global economy

and mass consumerism which keeps thing
cheap through mass production & distribution.
Computers keep track of the billions of business
transactions that feed us, clothe us, entertain
us, transport us and service all our needs.
Like it or hate it, (some people think we should
have stayed in the trees) the modern world
could not exist without the invention of the
transistor!
In the 1980s
the first cheap
PCs (personal
computers)
could process
a magnificent
2x103 bytes
of information.
Computer motherboard
Twenty years later, these notes are being typed

on an even cheaper PC which can process
2x109 bytes, (2GB). The computers have
become a million times more powerful!
Copyright 2005-2
19

Worksheet 8
From Atoms to Computers
Student Name...........................................
a)...................... orbit around the nucleus

of atoms at various b)................... levels.
Basically, a substance will be an
electrical conductor if c)..........................
can
move
from
d)................................................... freely.
If electrons cannot do this at all, the
substance is an e).....................................
In a semiconductor, the valence and

conduction bands are separately by a
x)........................ gap. In the rest state,
electrons cannot get across, and the
substance does not y)..............................
However, it only requires a slight
increase in energy and suddenly many
electrons z)................. the gap and the
substance begins aa)...............................
A semiconductor is a substance
which has very low f)................................
until its electrons are given just a little
energy. Then, at a certain point, it
suddenly becomes g)..............................
This allows electrical circuits to be
h)................................. on and off, and is
the basis of modern i)...........................
and j).................................
The semiconductor material can be

made more sensitive and conductive if
ab).......................... quantities of other
elements are added to the atomic lattice.
This is called ac.............................. the
semiconductor.
Semiconductors can carry electricity in
2
ways:
by
the
flow
of
ad)........................... which have reached
the conduction band, or by the flow of
ae).................... left behind by
departing electrons.
The
best
explanation
of
semiconductivity involves k)..............
.......................... Theory, summarized as
follows:
the highest energy level in an atom
that has electrons in it, is called the
l).................................. band.
any further (unoccupied) levels above
this are called m)......................................
bands.
If an electron has enough energy to get
to a m).............................. band, then it is
free to flow, and form an electric
n).......................................
If a af)................................. is doped with

atoms with 5 valence electrons, this
results in ag)......................... in the lattice
to carry the current. This is an ah).......Type semiconductor.
If it is ai)......................... with atoms with only
aj)............ valence electrons, this creates extra
ak).................. in the lattice to carry current. This
is a al)........-Type semiconductor.
However, between the bands there may

be forbidden o)......................................
The energy levels are quantised, so a
forbidden level is where the energy is
not equal to a whole p).............................
Before semiconductors, electronic switching

was done by am)...................... valves. These
were an).............. ................. tubes. The
ao).......................... was invented to replace
these valves. Compared to a valve, a transistor
is
ap) ................. (size) and aq)................... (cost)
consumes ar)................ electricity and
produces almost no as)...........................
operates at a at)............................ rate
does not need to au)..............................
is highly av)......................................
In a conductor, the q)...................... band

and
r)......................
bands
s)................................... each other. This
means electrons can freely enter the
conduction band and t).............................
can flow through the substance.
The early transistors were made from

aw)..............................., but this was later
replaced by ax).......................... because it is
more
ay).........................
and
a
lot
az)....................... Miniaturization of electronics
on silicon ba).................... has led to the
development of bb)...................................
which are at the heart of all modern computers.
In an u)....................................., these
bands are separated by a wide
v).............................................. so that
electrons can never reach the
w)................................... band.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Copyright 2005-2
20


Multiple Choice
section 3
Student Name...........................................
5. (cont.)
c) explain the difference between
conductors
insulators
semiconductors
1.
According to Band Structure Theory of
electrical conductivity, the valence band and
the conduction band in a semiconductor:
A. overlap each other.
B. are sparated by a very wide
forbidden energy gap.
C. are inverted in reverse order to normal.
D. are separated by a narrow energy gap.
2.
Which line of information below, best describes
a p-type semiconductor?
Valence of atoms
Current mainly
used to dope lattice carried by
A.
5
electrons
B.
3
holes
C.
5
holes
D.
3
electrons
6. (5 marks)
Compare
and
contrast
a
p-type
semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor.
3.
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a
transistor, compared to a thermionic valve?
A. consumes less power.
B. needs time to warm up.
C. operates faster.
D. smaller and more reliable.
4.
The original transistors were made from
Germanium, but the technology later switched
to use Silicon, because:
A. Silicon crystals are easier to grow.
B. Germanium supplies were running out.
C. Silicon is more abundant and cheaper.
D. Germanium crystals couldnt be miniaturised
as well.
7. (4 marks)
Describe the differences between a solid state
and thermionic device in terms of structure and
discuss why solid state devices replaced
thermionic devices.

5. (5 marks)
In relation to the Band Structure Theory of
conductivity,
a) what is meant by the valence band of an
atom?
8. (4 marks)
Assess the impact of the invention of the
transistor on society, with particular reference
to their use in microchips.
b) what is meant by the conduction band of an

atom?

Copyright 2005-2
21

4. FROM CRYSTALS TO SUPERCONDUCTORS

Investigating Crystal Structures...
Bragg and Son
Crystal Structure of Metals

Unlike silicon, salt and other crystals, metal
atoms are not chemically bonded to each other
by the sharing or exchanging of electrons.
The regular shapes of crystals (such as salt) had

long been assumed to be due to a regular
arrangement of the atoms or ions in a lattice-like
structure. However, until the early 20th century,
there was no way to prove or confirm this idea.
You will remember that the outer valence

electrons in metals are weakly held, and can
access the conduction band at any time. The
result is that the valence electrons on each
atom are NOT confined to that atom, but freely
wander around from atom to atom.
The discovery of high frequency EMR in the form of

X-rays opened up a new line of investigation. Sir
William Bragg and his son Lawrence, beamed Xrays through crystals and studied the diffraction
patterns which were formed as the crystal lattice
scattered the X-rays.
Each metal atom is, therefore, ionised because

its valence electron(s) are on the loose. The
metal lattice is often described as
an array of ions, embedded in
a sea of electrons.
Photographic film
sensitive to x-rrays
x-rray
beam
Crystal
The Braggs were able to analyse the

interference pattern in order to deduce the
arrangement of the atoms within the crystal. For
this, they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize
for Physics in 1915.
Si
Each
chemical
bond is
formed by
atoms
sharing 2
electrons
with each
neighbour
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
+
+
Any impurities in the metal distort the shape of

the lattice and impede the electron flow. Also, as
the ions vibrate due to thermal energy, the
vibration causes more collisions among
electrons, so their flow is resisted. As
temperature increases, the vibrations increase
too, and thats why resistance in metals
increases with temperature.
Si
Si
So why is there resistance in a metal wire?

Although the electrons can flow quite easily,
their movement is not totally free.
Thanks to scientists like the Braggs, we now

understand the atomic-level structure of most
substances. You learned previously how a
substance like the semiconductor Silicon is a
lattice of atoms chemically bonded together:
Si
Resistance in Metals
Crystal Structures
Si
This sea of electrons shifts and flows freely. If

an electric field is present, the electrons will all
flow in the same direction as an electric current.
Thats why metals are all good conductors.
This opened up a whole new investigative

technique, allowing scientists to probe the
structure of matter as never before. It was X-ray
diffraction crystallography, for example, that
allowed the structure of DNA to be determined in
the 1950s.
Si
X-rrays diffracted by the crystal

lattice & form Interference patterns
which are captured on the film.
Logically, if you re-read the previous paragraph

and think backwards, you might infer that if you
had a really pure metal, and cooled it right down
so that all lattice vibrations stopped, then it
would become a perfect conductor.
Superconductivity!
Si

Copyright 2005-2
22

Superconductivity in
Metals and Ceramics
How Superconductivity Occurs...

BCS Theory
In 1911, a Dutch physicist managed to cool mercury

down to about 4oK (-269oC) and found that its
electrical resistance dropped to zero.
How do we explain the phenomenon of

superconductivity?
The accepted explanation is known as BCS
Theory, where BCS are the initials of the 3
scientists who developed the theory in the
1950s.
Over the following years, various other metals were

found to become superconducting at very low
temperatures. The potential to build electrical
generators and equipment with zero resistance was a
very attractive idea, but the temperatures involved
(no higher than about 20oK) were so low that there
seemed no practical way to take advantage.
Imagine part of the solid lattice of positive ions

in a conducting metal or ceramic. As an electron
(part of an electric current) approaches, it
attracts the positive ions and distorts the crystal
structure slightly:
Then in 1986, Swiss scientists discovered some

ceramic materials containing rare elements like
Yttrium
and
Lanthanum,
which
became
superconductors at much higher temperatures. Still
cold by human standards, but 100o higher than the
metal superconductors, these ceramics had zero
resistance at temperatures as high as 130oK (around
-150oC). This is a temperature that is much more
practical to achieve.
This distortion concentrates the positive charge

in this part of the lattice, and attracts other
electrons.
In a normal conductor, this distortion leads to
collisions and loss of energy by the flowing
electrons which repel each other... this is the
normal electrical resistance within the
conductor.
But in a superconductor below its transition
temperature, something very strange occurs;
due to Quantum Energy Effects, 2 nearby
electrons pair up to form what is called a
Cooper Pair:
(Cooper is the C in BCS
Theory)
The Meissner Effect

You may have seen a practical demonstration of a
superconductor in action, in class. The Meissner
Effect is named after the scientist who discovered it.
If a disk of superconductor ceramic is chilled below
its transition temperature, a small magnet placed
close above it will levitate; spinning freely if
prodded, but held up against gravity by unseen
forces.
Small
Levitating magnet
Approaching
electron
The syllabus requires that you identify some of the

superconducting metals and compounds. Here is a
very short list...
Temperature
Superconductor
of Transition (oK)
Metals
to Superconductivity
Mercury
4
Lead
9
Alloy
Niobium-Germanium
23
Ceramics
Yttrium-Barium-Copper oxide
92
Thallium-Barium-Calcium-Copper oxide
125(-148oC)
Disk of
Superconducting
Ceramic
Cooper Pair
of electrons forms
+
Liquid
Nitrogen
Due to quantum effects (which are beyond the

scope of this Course... KISS Principle) each
electron of the Cooper Pair helps the other to
pass through the lattice without any loss of
energy. This means there is ZERO resistance.
dish
Explanation:
As the magnet is brought near, its magnetic
field induces currents in the ceramic. Since
there is NO electrical resistance, the currents
flow freely, non-stop and generate a magnetic
field that repels the approaching magnet.
However, at a temperature above the

transition, the thermal vibrations in the lattice
keep breaking up the Cooper Pairs as fast as
they
can
form.
This
destroys
the
superconductivity, and the normal electrical
resistance of the substance returns.
Superconductors will never allow an external

magnetic field to penetrate them.
Copyright 2005-2
23

Using Superconductor Technology

Advantages
Superconductor technology
offers
Possible Future Applications
High efficiency in any

electrical situation, because
there is no energy loss
due to resistance.
The ability to generate
extremely strong magnetic
fields from superconducting
electromagnets.
Faster operation of
computers, since
superconducting switching
devices could be 10 times
faster than a semiconductor
transistor
A superconductor computer could open a whole

new level of enhanced performance due the
possible high speed switching of circuits.
Limitations
A lot of energy is lost due to resistance heating

in transmission lines. This could be eliminated if
power lines were superconductors.
Current computer technology is based on

semiconductor microchips. Although these
become faster and more powerful every year,
there is a limit to how far they can go.
Electricity generation & distribution could be

made much more efficient with
superconductor technology.
Superconducting metals must

be chilled with liquid helium.
This is impractical and
expensive.
New, superconducting
ceramics can be chilled with
liquid nitrogen, which is
cheaper and much more
practical, BUT these ceramics:
are fragile and brittle and
difficult to make into wires.
can be chemically unstable
and have a limited life span.
Generators lose energy by resistance heating in

the coils needed to produce magnetic fields, and
are limited in the strength of the fields they can
produce. Superconducting coils would allow
generators to be much more
powerful and efficient.
Greater efficiency generally in electrical
technology would reduce associated
environmental problems, such as
Greenhouse gas emissions.
The Maglev Train

The idea of using superconducting electromagnets
to levitate a train above a magnetic guide-rail has
been around for many years and experiments have
been going on for decades.
MAGLEV = MAGnetic LEVitation
The guiderail(s) under the train contain

conventional electromagnets. On board, heliumchilled super-conducting electromagnets produce
powerful magnetic fields.
The fields in the rail and the train repel each other
so that the entire train is levitated 1-2cm above the
track.
Shanghai
Maglev
Train
Propulsion and braking is also done magnetically, by

the fields in front and behind the train attracting and
repelling it. The actual motive power is supplied from
the rail, not from onboard the train.
Experiments have been going on for years in

Germany and in Japan. The first truly operational
Maglev now connects the city of Shanghai in China,
with its airport 30km away. German built, it cost
US$1.2 billion, and reaches speeds of
around 430km/hr.
The big advantage is the high speed possible

without any rail friction, and the low maintenance
and low noise that goes with this. A disadvantage
is the very high cost of building the guide rail track.
Copyright 2005-2
24

Worksheet 10 Crystals to Superconductors

Student Name...........................................
Sir William Bragg, and his son Lawrence

beamed a)..................... through crystals.
The waves were b)....................................
by the atom/ion array, and formed
c)..................................... patterns, which
were recorded on d).................................
film. By measurements of these images,
they could deduce the exact structure
and geometry within the e).......................
The explanation of superconductivity is

v)..................... Theory, which states:
an approaching electron causes a
slight w)........................ of the ion lattice.
this concentrates the density of
x)............................
charge,
which
attracts more electrons.
2
electrons
can
form
a
y)................................................. which
results
in
both
of
them
z)............................................... the lattice
without
energy
loss,
due
to
aa).................................... energy effects.
Unlike other crystals, metals have a

structure described as an array of
f).........................., embedded in a sea of
g)............................. The electrons have
free access to the h).................................
band, so the metal is a good
i)...................................... of electricity.
There is some j)........................................
because of collisions caused by thermal
k).................................. of the lattice.
The
advantages
and
possible
applications offered by superconductor
technology include high ab).....................
of
electrical
generation
and
ac).................................., because it
could eliminate energy losses due to
ad)..........................................
Another possiblity is in computers,
which could operate ae)............................
because
a
superconducting
af)..................... can work ag).............
times faster than a ah).............................
l).......................................... was first

discovered in mercury metal which had
been
m).............................
to
a
temperature of about n)..........................
In the 1980s, a new class of
superconducting o)..................................
were discovered, with transition
temperatures
up
around
p).........................
A limitations of superconductor
technology is the need to ai)....................
a metal using aj)......................................,
which is very ak).............................. and
...............................
The higher temperature al)....................
superconductors solve part of this
problem, but they are am).........................
and ............................. and difficult to
make into an)........................................
They may also be ao)......................
...................................... and have a short
life-span.
If a magnet is placed above a

superconductor, it will q).........................,
being held up by r)...........................
forces. The field is created by
s)......................................
in
the
superconductor, induced by the
external t)........................................
Superconductors will never allow an
external field to u).....................................
them.
One superconductor technology that

has
been
implemented
is
the
ap)................................ train, which uses
superconductor
magnets
to
aq)............................ the train above its
guide rail.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES

Copyright 2005-2
25

section 4
Student Name...........................................
Multiple Choice

The following diagram describes a famous

experiment carried out by Sir William &
Lawrence Bragg.
31. (3 marks)
Outline the methods used by the Braggs to
determine crystal structure.
Photographic film
Crystal
The diagram refers to Q1 & Q2.

1.
The radiation used by the Braggs was:
A. x-rays
B. radio waves
C. ultra-violet
D. visible light
32. (3 marks)
Discuss the BCS Theory of superconductivity.
2.
The pattern captured on the photographic film
was due to the phenomenon of:
A. refraction.
B. photoelectric effect.
C. polarization.
D. interference.
3.
Superconductor technology is currently limited
by:
A. lack of suitable applications to apply it to.
B. superconducting chemicals being fragile
and brittle.
C. the operating temperatures being too low
to achieve.
D. semiconductors do the same job
more efficiently.
33. (3 marks)
Outline the possible benefits from applying
superconductor technology to computers,
generators and electrical transmission systems.
4.
In a superconductor above its transition
temperature:
A. lattice vibrations break up the Cooper Pairs
as fast as they can form.
B. lattice distortions attract electrons to form
Cooper Pairs.
C. the Meissner Effect can levitate a magnet.
D. the holes in a doped lattice allow electrons to
tunnel.

Copyright 2005-2
26

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
From IDEAS
to
IMPLEMENTATION

Copyright 2005-2
27

Answer Section
Worksheet 1
Worksheet 3
Moving Charges in Magnetic Fields
1.
F = QvBsin
= -1.60x10-19x3.00x107x4.96x10-2xSin90o
= -2.38x10-13N.
(Negative sign indicates direction is opposite to
whatever the RH Palm rule tells us)
RH Palm rule: if v vector is north, and B vector
vertically up, then F vector is east for a +ve charge.
Therefore, for -ve electron, is west.
Force = 2.38x10-13 N, west.
a) cathode
b) discharge
c) vacuum
d) voltage
e) glows, streamers and striations
f) gas pressure
g) negative
h) Crookes
i) Maltese
j) fluorescent
k) kinetic
l) momentum
m) electric
n) waves or particles
o) straight lines
p) fluorescence
q) photographic film
r) kinetic energy & momentum
s) mass
t) negative
u) field
v) the direction a positive test charge would move
w) force
x) parallel, charged
y) strength & direction z) voltage
aa) distance
ab) moving
ac) magnetic
ad) magnet
ae) deflect
af) Right-Hand Palm
ag) Thomson
ah) electric & magnetic
ai) charge to mass
aj) particles
ak) atoms
al) electron
am) TV
an) electron
ao) electrons
ap) cathode
aq) anodes
ar) deflection
as) steer/direct
at) fluorescent
au) glow
av) electrons
2.
F = QvBsin, so Q = F/vBsin
= 3.75x10-9/(2.90x108x8.05xsin90o)
= 1.61x10-18C.
3.
F = QvBsin,
so v = F/QBsin
= 7.40x10-15/(1.60x10-19x5.48x10-4xSin25o)
= 2.00x108ms-1. (2/3 light speed!)
4.
a) F = QvBsin,
so B = F/QvSin
= 4.06x10-15/(1.60x10-19x7.80x106xsin90o)
= 3.25x10-3T.
b) The force due to the electric field must be equal,
so F = 4.06x10-15N.
E = F/Q = 4.06x10-15/1.60x10-19
= 2.54x104NC-1.
c) E = V/d, so V = E.d = 2.54x104x0.00800
= 203 V.
Worksheet 2
Electric Fields & Forces
1.
a) E = V/d = 50.0/0.0400 = 1250 = 1.25x103NC-1.
b) F = Q.E = 3.20x10-19x1.25x103 = 4.00x10-16N.
c) i) Field is directed from +ve plate to -ve plate.
ii) Force is also directed towards -ve plate.
Worksheet 4
1. B
2. D
3. D
4. A
5. B
6.
Cathode rays were found to have some waves
properties
(e.g. travel in straight lines, fluorescence, expose
photo film) and also to have some particle properties
(e.g. carry kinetic energy and momentum). This
caused confusion and debate about their nature,
finally resolved when Thomson measured the
charge/mass ratio, proving them to be particles.
2.
a) F = Q.E, so E = F/Q = -7.82x10-15/-1.60x10-19
= 48.9x104 NC-1.
b) E = V/d, so V = E.d = 48.9x104 x 0.00250 = 122V.
3.
a) E = V/d = 200/0.0500 = 4.00x103NC-1.
b) F = Q.E, so Q = F/E = 2.29x10-12/4.00x103
= 5.73x10-16C.
c) No. electrons = charge on speck/ Qe
= 5.73x10-16/1.60x10-19 = 3.58x103 electrons.
d) Attracted to -ve plate, therefore speck must have
+ve charge, therefore must have lost electrons.
7.
a) E = V/d = 30.0/.0600 = 500NC-1.
b) F = Q.E = -1.60x10-19x500
= -8.00x10-17N. (left in diag.)
c) F = ma, so a = F/m = -8.00x10-17/9.11x10-31
= 9.78x1013ms-2.
8.
a) F = QvBsin
= 3.20x10-19x2.95x103x5.22xSin90o
= 4.93x10-15N. Initial direction up the page.
b) Plates need to
be as shown in
diagram.
4.
First find field, from force on electron:
E = F/Q
= -5.88x10-17/-1.60x10-19
= 368NC-1.
Now use E = V/d,
d = V/E = 40.0/368 = 0.109m.
(10.9cm)
5.
Find E: E = V/d = 100/0.00500 = 20,000NC-1
Next use: F = Q.E = 9.75x10-10x20,000 = 1.95x10-5N.
+ve
-v
ve
c) Force on particle must be equal to (a)
F = 4.93x10-15N.
E = F/Q = 4.93x10-15/3.20x10-19 = 1.54x104NC-1
and E = V/d, so V = E.d = 1.54x104x0.100 = 1.54x103V.

Copyright 2005-2
28


4. (cont)
b) A longer wavelength photon would have lower
frequency, and therefore less energy. Since this
would be below the threshold energy for emission
of an electron, no emission would occur.
c) A higher frequency photon will transfer all its
energy to an electron. The threshold energy is used
to escape the metal surface, while any excess
becomes the kinetic energy of the electron.
Worksheet 4 (cont)
9.
a) Electron gun has a cathode to act as a source of
cathode rays (electrons), and a series of anodes to
accelerate the electrons up to the desired velocity.
b) The deflection plates are parallel charged plates
(or magnetic coils) which deflect the electron beam
with the electric (or magnetic) field, to steer the
beam to any point on the screen. One set of
plates/coils deflect left/right, another set deflect
up/down.
c) Fluorescent screen glows when struck by
electrons. The image is formed by many glowing
spots of fluorescence.
5.
Total energy of the photon = 6.22x10-17 + 9.28x10-19
= 6.31x10-17J.
Frequency, f = E/h = 6.31x10-17/6.63x10-34
= 9.52x1016Hz.
Wavelength, = c/f = 3.00x108/9.52x1016
= 3.15x10-9m.
Worksheet 5
a) radio
b) induction
c) sparks
d) wire loop antenna
e) reflection & diffracted f) velocity
g) light
h) Photoelectric
i) Black Body
j) Max Plank
k) Quantum
l) quantised
m) atom
n) quantum
o) frequency
p) light energy
q) electron
r) emitted
s) Quantum
t) photons
u) quantum
v) all
w) none
x) part of its energy.
y) reflection, refraction and diffraction (plus others)
z) particle
aa) predictions
ab) Photoelectric
ac) experiment
ad) Quantum
ae) Black Body
af) Photoelectric
Worksheet 7
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. C
5.
(many possible answers) A spider web of wire was
connected to an induction coil. When switched on,
the fluctuating, high voltage from the coil caused the
wire to act as a tranmitting antenna, giving off radio
frequency waves.
This was proven by placing a modern radio receiver
on the other side of the room. It picked up loud bursts
of static noise whenever the coil was on.
6.
a) both travel at the same velocity (= 3x108ms-1 in
vacuum) because ALL EMR waves travel at this
speed of light.
b) Photon Q has a shorter wavelength, and therefore
must have higher frequency.
c) Photon Q carries more energy, because quantum
energy is proportional to frequency.
7.
a) E = h.f, so f = E/h = 6.75x10-19/6.63x10-34
= 1.02x1015 Hz.
b) c = .f, so = c/f = 3.00x108/1.02x1015
= 2.94x10-7m.
8.
Quantum Theory was proposed by Max Plank as a
mathematical convenience to explain the shape of
the Black Body Radiation curves. However, it was
Einstein who used quantum theory to cause a major
change in the direction of Physics. His photon idea
changed classical Physics, and caused physicists
to look at the things quite differently.
Worksheet 6
Quantum Theory
1.
a) c = .f, so f = c/
= 3.00x108/4.25x10-7
= 7.06x1014Hz.
b) E = h.f = 6.63x10-34x7.06x1014 = 4.68x10-19 J.
2. i) infra-red
ii) UV
c = .f,
so f = c/
c = .f, so f = c/
= 3.00x108/5.45x10-6
= 3.00x108/5.45x10-9
13
= 5.50x10 Hz
= 5.50x1016 Hz
E = h.f
E = h.f
= 6.63x10-34x5.5x1013
= 6.63x10-34x5.5x1016
= 3.65x10-20 J.
= 3.65x10-17 J.
Comparison: UV photon carries 1,000 times more
energy
3.
a) E = h.f, so f = E/h = 8.75x10-14/6.63x10-34
= 1.32x1020 Hz.
b) c = .f, so = c/f = 3.00x108/1.23x1020
= 2.44x10-12m.
(this is extremely high energy, high frequency, short
wavelength EMR in the range of hard x-ray or
gamma radiation)
Einsteins contribution was to combine Planks theory

with classical wave ideas so that phenomena (like the
photoelectric effect) could be explained and
understood.
9.
a) The photoelectric effect occurs when light waves
are absorbed by a metal surface so that the energy of
the light causes electrons to be emitted from the
surface.
4.
a) E = h.f, so f = E/h = 2.38x10-20/6.63x10-34
= 3.59x1013 Hz.
c = .f, so = c/f = 3.00x108/3.59x1013
= 8.36x10-6 m.

Copyright 2005-2
29


5. c) (cont)
In an insulator the valence and conduction bands are
separated by a very wide forbidden energy gap in
which an electron cannot exist because the energy
required does not correspond to a whole quantum of
energy. To get to the conduction band, an electron
needs a huge amount of energy, and at normal
temperatures and voltages, this does not happen.
Worksheet 7 (cont)
9.
b) In a solar cell (or photovoltaic cell) the
photoelectric effect occurs in a sandwich of
semiconductor materials called a p-n junction. The
light energy promotes valence electrons to the
conduction band in such a way that a potential
difference is set up across the junction. This can
cause a flow of current in an external circuit, so the
device is a way to generate electricity directly from
light energy.
In a semiconductor, the gap between valence and

conduction bands is narrow. A small energy input can
kick and electron up so the substance goes from
non-conducting to conductor.
Worksheet 8
6.
Compare and contrast means to point out
similarities and differences... be sure to shown both.
Similarities
Both types of semiconductor are solid crystals of
silicon with a lattice structure made up of atoms
chemically bonded to 4 neighbours. The atoms have
a narrow forbidden gap between valence and
conduction bands, and can switch from being a nonconductor, to a good conductor with a very small
change in energy. The sensitivity to this switching
on can be increased by doping the lattice with
other atoms.
a) Electrons
b) energy
c) electrons
d) atom to atom
e) insulator
f) conductivity
g) conductive
h) switched
i) electronics
j) computers
k) Band Structure
l) valence
m) conduction
n) current
o) energy gaps
p) quantum
q & r) conduction & valence
s) overlap
t) currents/electricity
u) insulator
v) forbidden energy gap w) conduction
x) narrow
y) conduct
z) cross
aa) to conduct
ab) minute / very small ac) doping
ad) electrons
ae) holes
af) semiconductor
ag) extra electrons
ah) n-type
ai) doped
aj) 3
ak) holes
al) p-type
am) thermionic
an) cathode ray
ao) transistor
ap) much smaller
aq) cheaper
ar) less
as) waste heat
at) faster
au) warm up
av) reliable
aw) Germanium
ax) Silicon
ay) abundant/ common
az) cheaper
ba) chips
bb) microchips / microprocessors
Differences
In n-type semiconductors, the lattice has been
doped with atoms with 5 valence electrons. This
places extra valence electrons in the lattice and
increases the sensitivity of the substance to carrying
currents by the flow of negative electrons.
In p-type semiconductors, the lattice has been
doped with atoms with only 3 valence electrons. This
leaves extra holes in the lattice and increases the
sensitivity of the substance to carrying currents by
the flow of positive holes.
7.
A Thermionic valve is a cathode ray tube: a glass tube
containing metal electrodes in a vacuum. Typically
the valve is 10-20cm in size. A solid state transistor is
a sandwich of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material (i.e. doped silicon crystals). A transistor can
range in size from 1-2 cm, down to microscopic layers
etched into the crystal in a microchip.
Worksheet 9
1. D
2. B
3. B
4.C
5.
a) The valence band is the highest orbit or energy
level of an atom that has electrons in it (when the
atom is in its ground state)
Transistors can do exactly the same job as valves,

but
are much smaller and cheaper.
use much less electricity, and produce hardly any
waste heat.
are faster, more reliable, and do not need time to
warm up.
For all these reasons, the transistor replaced the
valve in electronics.
8.
The invention of the transistor has had an enormous
impact on society by making possible the
development of electronics, especially computers,
operated by cheap, efficient and miniature
microchips. This has allowed the development of:
business and financial systems for cheap, efficient
operation of a global economy.
instant access to information, communication and
entertainment via the internet, TV, DVD technology,
mobile phones, etc.
b) The conduction band is any energy level above the

valence band. In an atoms ground state, the
conduction bands would normally be empty. If an
electron can reach a conduction band it is effectively
free to flow through the lattice of the substance.
c) In a conductor, the valence & conduction bands
overlap with each other, so that valence electrons can
access the conduction band at any time, and thereby
flow as a current.
cont...

Copyright 2005-2
30

Worksheet 10
Worksheet 11
a) x-rays
b) diffracted
c) interference
d) photographic
e) crystal lattice
f) ions
g) electrons
h) conduction
i) conductor
j) resistance
k) vibrations
l) Superconductivity
m) cooled
n) 4oK (-269oC)
o) ceramics
p) 125oK (approx -150C)
q) levitate
r) magnetic
s) currents
t) field
u) penetrate
v) BCS
w) distortion
x) positive
y) Cooper Pair
z) pass through
aa) quantum
ab) efficiency
ac) distribution/ transmission
ad) resistance heating
ae) much faster
af) switch
ag) 10
ah)semiconductor/ transistor
ai) cool/chill
aj) liquid helium
ak) expensive & impractical
al) ceramic
am) brittle & fragile
an) wires
ao) chemically unstable ap) Maglev
aq) levitate
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. A
5.
Sir William & Lawrence Bragg beamed x-rays through
crystals. The atomic or ionic lattice in the crystal
diffracted the x-rays, which then formed interference
patterns. These were captured as geometric patterns
on photographic film. Analysis of the geometry of the
x-ray diffraction pattern allowed them to calculate
the spacing and geometry of the lattice.
6.
BCS theory states that:
an electron (in the conduction band of a conductor)
causes a slight distortion of the ionic lattice.
This increases the density of +ve charge in this area,
which attracts more electrons.
Normally this causes electron collisions and heating
in a conductor, resulting in electrical resistance.
In a superconductor below its transition
temperature, the electrons can form cooper pairs
which use quantum effects to tunnel through the
lattice with zero resistance.
7. Possible benefits:
faster computers, because superconducting
switches are 10 times faster than transistors.
more efficient generation of electricity from
superconducting coils producing more powerful
magnetic fields in generators.
Elimination of restistance heating losses in
transmission lines could save energy, and reduce
costs and environmental impacts.
NOTICE ANY ERRORS?

Our material is carefully proof-read
but were only human
If you notice any errors, please let us know
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Copyright 2005-2
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keep it simple science

HSC Physics Topic 3

FROM IDEAS to IMPLEMENTATION

What is this topic about?

but first, an introduction...

About the Same Time as Cathode Rays

This topic covers a number of other great

No-one could have

were becoming understood, other scientists

However, it is not just history. Along the way,

In addition, as you learn both the history and

The Study of Crystal

...the study of Cathode

HSC Physics Topic 3 Ideas to Implementation

Usage & copying is permitted according to the

keep it simple science

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

HSC Physics Topic 3 Ideas to Implementation

keep it simple science

1. FROM CATHODE RAYS TO TELEVISION

Experiments with CRTs

By the 1850s, scientists had developed the

Maltese Cross Tube

It wasnt long before these 2 things were combined,

You may have done some laboratory investigations

Shadow of the cross in the

What does this prove?

Tube With a Fluorescent Screen

The result is that each tube shows glowing

The patterns change at different gas pressures.

Tube With a Rotating Paddle-Wheel

Wheel spins when cathode

Over the following 20 years these mysterious

This evidence from these various experiments

You will have seen, in the school laboratory, a

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keep it simple science

Tube Containing Electric Plates

Revision of Electric Fields

Electric Charges exert force on each other...

FIELDS AROUND POINT CHARGES

What does this prove?

FIELDS BETWEEN POINT CHARGES

In fact, by considering the charge on the plates

Confusion About Cathode Rays

WORKSHEET at the end of this section.

Evidence that CRs were Waves

However, in this topic we are more interested in

F = Force, in newtons (N), experience by the charge.

Evidence that CRs were Particles

Note: In this topic the most common charged

This debate was finally settled by a famous

In 1897, J.J. Thomson showed that cathode

He had discovered the electron.

All these investigations and discoveries

HSC Physics Topic 3 Ideas to Implementation

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Electric Field Between

Force on a Moving Charge

The field around and between point charges is

In the previous topic you learned that when an

Now you need to realise that the reason is that