HSC Biology

Nov 2014

HSC BIOLOGY:
MODULE 1:
MAINTAINING A
BALANCE

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Nov 2014

Identify the Role of Enzymes in Metabolism, describe their chemical

composition use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates
Role of enzymes in metabolism

- Metabolism: all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

- Enzymes: biological catalysts which increase rate of chemical reactions but remain
unchanged throughout entire reaction

- Without enzymes, metabolism would occur at a rate to slow to support life

- Enzymes assist metabolism by increasing reaction rate of formation, breaking down
and exchanging of molecules
Chemical Composition of Enzymes

- Enzyme: protein molecule made up of long chained amino acids, joined by peptide
bonds forming a polypeptide chain

- The shape of the enzyme is determined by its role and the reaction it controls
- In enzymes the polypeptide chain is folded into a 3D globular shape
- The active site is the area of the enzyme that binds to the substrate (molecules)
Specificity on Enzymes

- Enzymes are highly specific in action: each enzyme acts on one substrate only
- The shape of the active site matches the shape of the substrate material
Models to explain specificity:

- The Lock and Key Model: suggests the substrate fits exactly into the active site of
enzyme like a key/lock. It assumes that enzyme had a rigid and unchanging shape.

- Induced Fit Model: binding substrate to enzyme induces a temporary change in

shape of enzyme. New enzyme shape accommodates substrate: reaction occurs.
Lowering of activation energy

- Enzymes dont produce activation energy they reduce amount of activation energy
- Lower activation energy to start a reaction so that reaction can proceed quickly
without change in temperature
Example of enzyme (Sucrase)

- Sucrose: Obtained by crushing out contents of phloem tissue of sugarcane plants

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- Carb consists of 2 simpler sugar molecules: 1 glucose & 1 fructose molecule

- Sucrose- too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream from digestive system
- Molecules of glucose and fructose are small enough to be directly absorbed
through the membranes of the digestive system into the blood stream

Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

- pH is a scale which indicates the dissolved H+ concentration in a substance on a

scale of 0-14

- As a result we are able to identify whether the substance is acidic (pH<7), basic
(pH>7) or neutral (pH=7)

- The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions the lower the pH and vice versa
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for
optimal metabolic efficiency

- Metabolic efficiency relies heavily upon the optimal operation of enzymes

- However a range of factors inhibit this such as pH, Temperature and Substrate
Concentration

- It is known most enzymes can only work efficiently under a small range of
conditions

- This work of enzymes at optimal capacity is essential to maintain optimum

metabolic efficiency

- It ensures that external changes do not affect entire metabolic pathways producing
essential compounds. E.g. haemoglobin

- The enzyme catalase found in yeast has an optimum temperature of 35OC

- If conditions for optimal activity arent met (excess heat), enzyme is known to
denature, where the shape of the active site is destroyed, preventing activity

Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively

stable internal environment

- Homeostasis: process where organisms maintain a relatively stable internal

environment in response to changes in the internal and/or external env.

- Meets enzyme's optimal conditions, allows efficient body work efficiently and kept
as stable as possible.

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- System monitors all activities of cells, requirements and wastes they produce
- Keeps conditions as close to the optimum as possible so that the organisms
metabolism can operate as efficiently as possible

- Through homeostasis, organism maintain an internal equilibrium (stableness) by

adjusting physiological processes through the use of feedback systems

- Feedback systems are a self regulating mechanism & maintain homeostasis

- Role: maintain conditions and reaction within the small range to sustain life
Consists of 3 main parts:
1. Receptor- monitors/detects changes in the internal and external environment
2. Control centre (hypothalamus)- monitors information passed from the receptor
and determines and appropriate response.
3. Effectors- carries a message from the control centre
Counteracting changes from the stable state

- After the receptor detects the change, it will respond by counteracting the change
to ensure a stable environment is attained and maintained

- An effector receives the message from the control centre that an undesirable
change must be counteracted, and causes a response to counteract the change
and maintain a stable state (negative feedback)

- E.g muscles that cause movement, or glands that secrete a chemical substance
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: (1. Decting Changes from
Stable state) (2. Counteracting changes from Stable state)
Detecting Changes:

- The body needs to maintain a stable state in order to function properly

- Changes, or deviations, from the stable state are caused by the external and
internal environment

Any change, or information, that provokes a response is called a STIMULUS

RECEPTORS detect stimuli; organisms then react to the change
Examples of external stimuli: light, day length, sound, temperature, odours
Examples of internal stimuli: levels of CO2, oxygen levels, water, wastes, etc.
Receptors can range from a patch of sensitive cells, to complex organs like the
eyes and ears of mammals

Counteracting Changes
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- After receptors detect changes, organisms can then react to the change
- This type of response will counteract the change to ensure the stable state is
maintained

- EFFECTORS bring about responses to stimuli

- Effectors can either be muscles or glands:
Muscles bring about change by movement
Glands bring about change by secreting chemical substances

Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to

environmental changes

- The nervous system: regulates & maintains animals internal environment in

response to a change in the internal and/or external environment

- The nervous system consists of 2 parts: Central Nervous System (PNS) and the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- The CNS: brain, spinal cord and retina. It acts as the control centre for all the
bodys responses. It receives information, interprets it and initiates a response

- The PNS: branching system of nerves that connect receptors and effectors. These
acts as communication channels and pass messages rapidly to the CNS and back

- The stimulus response pathway occurs as follows

1.

Special endings on sensory nerves in the PNS, e.g heat sensors detect stimuli
such as changes in heat, pressure or chemical condition

2.

Receptors relay messages that are processed within the CNS

3.

Response is formulated & message is relayed to effector. Organs/muscles respond

Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with
the narrow limits for individual species

- Ambient Temperature refers to the temperature of the external environment

- Ambient temperature at particular areas varies daily, monthly and seasonally and
the range of ambient temperatures over the world is very large

- Life is found in this great range of ambient temperatures

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- Life can be found in a range of -70OC to 100OC (e.g. bacteria in snow, boling
springs and undersea vents)

- While this range of ambient temperatures in which life is found is very broad, the
range of ambient temperatures in individual organism survival is very small

- E.g. Sugar Cane needs warm environment so grows in tropical/sub-tropical regions

- Mammals are generally found in an ambient temperature range of 0OC to 45 OC
Identify some responses of plants to temperature change

- Desert plants e.g Spinifex have a reduced surface area enables reduced water
loss and provide a smaller area for solar absorption

- Have shiny/hairy leaves that reflect solar radiation & reduce heat absorption
- Curling Leaves occurs in increased temps, reducing surface area exposed to sun
light. This minimises heat absorption & water loss through evap at leaf surface

- Plants e.g Eucalypts open their stomata in early morning but close them near
midday as temperature rises to prevent water loss through evap. and transpiration

- Leaves on plants in hot dry area hang vertically to reduce their surface area
exposed to sunlight. In cold shady areas, leaves from plants have a maximum
surface area exposed to the sun
Responses to cold:

- Vernalisation: plants e.g daffodils require exposure to cold conditions

before they will develop flowers

- Plants may leave dormant seeds & alter growth rate; in tropical regions growth may
cease below 15 degrees

- Frost-tolerant leaves
- In low temperatures, ice forms in spaces outside living cells. The inside of the cell
doesnt freeze because concentration of ions in the cytosol is greater.

- Because water concentration is decreasing outside cells (as ice produces), water
moves out by osmosis, increasing cytosol concentration, and lowering freezing
point inside cells even further. Pliable cell membranes prevent cell rupture.

Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic

organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these

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responses assist temperature regulation

Name
of
Organi
sm

Endo/
Adaptation/Response
Ectothermi
c?

Red
Endotherm Keeping warm:
Kangar
- Produces heat to keep warm using its metabolism
oo

- Insulating covering of fur. Hairs stand on end,

trapping air to insulate.

- Obtains heat by being active and in direct sunlight

Keeping cool:

- Less active during warm periods of the day

- Regulate metabolic rates to regulate body
temperature. Remain crouched in shade during times
of extreme heat.

- Pants so heat is lost from nasal passages (air

passages inside nose)

- They also have a mass of superficial capillaries on

their forelimbs.

- Blood vessels dilate when ambient temperature is

high. This dilation increases blood flow to the
forearms and promotes heat loss.

- Licks forearms so saliva evaporates & cools skin and

blood below through evap

- Sweats through its skin when it is active

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Name
of
Organi
sm
Central
Netted
Dragon

Nov 2014

Endo/
Adaptation/Response
Ectothermi
c?
Ectother
m:
organism
s that
have a
limited
ability to
control
their
body
temperat
ure as
their
cellular
activates
generate
little heat
by
changing
behaviou
r during
the day.

- Due to this they use the energy from their

environment to regulate their body temperature

- The Central Netted Dragon is known to regulate its

temperature by changing its behaviour through the
day

- They sunbake during the morning to absorb heat

which activates their daily body functions. Their
level of activity during the day is determined by the
ambient temperature

- Their skin is also darker in the cooler morning and

evenings in an attempt to absorb as much heat as
possible. While during they day their skin becomes
much lighter in an attempt to lower the absorption of
heat

- On hotter days, they retreat into their burrows to

avoid excess heat and adverse effects it causes
their bodies

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a

first-hand investigation to test the effect of:
increased temperature | change in pH | change in substrate concentration
on the activity of named enzyme(s)
1. Changing pH:

- Many enzymes work best at a pH that is just slightly alkaline

- Decreasing or increasing acidity from the optimum (the best possible) pH reduces
the activity of an enzyme.

- Enzymes change shape and are denatured (take away natural qualities) when the
pH varies too much from their optimum

- Any change in pH above or below the Optimum will quickly cause a decrease in the
rate of reaction, since more of the enzyme molecules will have Active Sites whose
shapes are not, or at least less, Complementary to the shape of their Substrate.

- Small changes in pH above or below the Optimum do not cause a permanent

change to the enzyme, since the bonds can be reformed but extreme changes are

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Nov 2014

irreversible.
2. Changing temperature

- Decreasing temperature = decreases activity of an enzyme & molecules have lower

energy

- Increasing temperature = increased activity until shape of the enzyme begins to alter
- If the temperature is high enough to permanently change the enzymes shape then
the enzyme is denatured and can no longer catalyse the reaction

- Human optimum temp- 35-40c

- Enzymes that are partially denatured by heat may regain their correct shape
on cooling but complete denaturation is irreversible

3. Changing substrate concentration

- Decreasing the concentration of substrate decreases the activity of an enzyme

- Increasing concentration of substrate = increased activity until all enzyme is involved
in catalysing reactions

- If substrate concentration increases, enzyme concentration stays the same & rate of
reaction increases to a point and remains constant > caused by active sites on the
enzyme molecule being occupied > known as the saturation point.

- Increase in substrate molecules doesnt increase rate of reaction > causes no

active sites available.

- Cofactors: inorganic chemicals that help catalyse, by binding tightly to the enzymes
active site as permanent residents or bonding loosely alone with the substrate

- Coenzymes- perform same function but are organic molecules

- Enzyme inhibitors: chemicals that inhibit the action of specific enzymes, by attaching
to the active site/changing its shape.

1.2.2 Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use
available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism

- Homeostasis involves the detection of the change in the environment and the
response to that change to maintain a stable internal environment

- The mechanism that brings about this change is called a feedback mechanism. In
feedback systems, the response alters the stimulus
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- In Endotherms a constant internal temperature of 36.1OC to 37.8OC is maintained by

an inbuilt thermostat called the hypothalamus

- Its role is to regulate the internal temperature by detecting and responding to

changes in the stable state caused by stimuli

- Thermoreceptors within the skin inform the hypothalamus of changes in the internal
and external temperature

- The hypothalamus can then respond to an increase in temperatures by sending

messages through the PNS and activating cooling mechanisms such as vasodilation
( blood vessels dilate, moving closer to the skin surface allowing heat to escape),
sweating and panting

- The hypothalamus can then respond to a decrease in the internal temperature by

directing the PNS to activate heating mechanisms such as increased muscle activity
(shivering), vasoconstriction (constricts blood vessels, reducing heat loss to
surrounding areas).

- The involvement of the hypothalamus and PNS in dealing with temperature regulation
is an example of a negative feedback mechanism

Identify form(s) in which each of following is carried in mammalian blood: carbon

dioxide, oxygen, water, salts, lipids, nitrogenous waste/other products of
digestion
Substance

Form carried in mammalian blood

Carbon Dioxide

- 7% dissolves in the plasma

- 23% combines with haemoglobin forming carbaminohaemoglobin
- CO2 converts into carbonic acid then 70% of CO2 forms hydrogen
carbonate ions and travels in the plasma

Oxygen

- Binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells, forming 98.5% as

oxyhaemoglobin in blood

Water
Salts
Lipids
Nitrogenous
wastes

- 1.5% dissolved in plasma

- Water travels in the plasma as water molecules & is 60% of blood volume
- These are transported directly dissolved in the plasma, e.g. sodium
- As glycerol and fatty acids suspended in plasma
- Wastes such as ammonia are toxic & thus are changed in urea
- Conversion occurs in the liver & the kidneys filter the urea from the blood

- Urea travels in the plasma

Other products - As separate molecules, e.g. Amino acids & glucose, dissolved in plasma
of digestion
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Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

- Haemoglobin is protein and a respiratory pigment carrying oxygen needed for

respiration. Globule-shaped protein containing four polypeptide sub-units

- Oxygen fuses with haemoglobin where concentration of oxygen in blood is low;

lungs. It makes an unstable compound oxyhaemoglobin and where oxygen is
needed, oxygen bond easily breaks and the oxygen is used.

- If blood carried oxygen without haemoglobin, the oxygen would have to be dissolved
directly into the plasma (into water). However, oxygen is not very soluble in water

- Presence of haemoglobin increases oxygen carrying capacity of blood by 100 times

- Dissolved oxygen results in 0.2 ml oxygen being carried per 100 ml blood, whereas
the presence of haemoglobin results in 20 ml oxygen being carried per 100 ml blood

- This ability of blood to carry large quantities of oxygen gives mammals a survival
advantage because mammalian cells need a lot of energy and therefore must have a
continual supply of OXYGEN for CELLULAR RESPIRATION

- Organisms with blood (containing haemoglobin) are able to deliver oxygen to cells
more efficiently than other organisms with blood that has no haemoglobin.

- The net effect is that these organisms are more effective operators in a given
environment than their competitors.

- This higher rate of respiration allows an increase in amount of released energy which
allows the animal to: move faster, grow large, live in cold areas and give mammals
the ability to maintain a constant body temperature enabling them to be active in a
large temperature range for example.

- The structure of haemoglobin is also an adaptive advantage because it is a type of

molecule that can combine with oxygen loosely at the respiratory surfaces and then
release the oxygen freely in capillaries.

- The extra energy allows mammals to be active, as well as grow large.

NOTE: Cellular respiration is the conversion of stored energy into usable energy
Glucose combines with oxygen to produce ATP (useable energy)
The waste gas and by product is carbon dioxide
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Equation: Glucose + oxygen CO2 + Water + energy (ATP)

Compare the structure of arteries,capillaries and veins in relation to their function

ARTERIES:

- Carry blood away from heart (high blood pressure)

- The pressure created by the hearts pumping creates great stress in the arteries
- This is why the arteries are thick walled, elastic and muscular.
- The arteries are not motionless; they have muscle fibres in them which can contract
and relax.

- This contracting maintains the pressure on the blood, so that the blood travels in
spurts towards the body tissues (the contracting and relaxing also creates the pulse
on your wrist or neck).

- The muscle fibres of the arteries also maintain the rate of the flow of blood.
- Arteries usually carry oxygenated blood
- Arteries lead to arterioles (small arteries).

CAPILLARIES:

- Capillaries are an extension of the inner layers of the arteries and veins
- They join arterioles and venules (small veins)
- Capillaries are only one cell thick, and are so narrow, that only one red blood cell can
pass at a time.

- Capillaries surround all tissue cells

- Thus, they provide a very large surface area over which exchange of materials
between blood and body can occur.

VEINS:

- Veins carry blood back to the heart

- The capillaries join to form venules, which join to form veins

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- Veins are not under a lot of stress - blood pressure is low

- This is why they have thinner walls than arteries, less muscle and a wider diameter.

2.1.4 Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it
moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
Pulmonary circuit:

- It is mainly composed of the lungs and the heart.

- Blood enters the right atrium of the heart via the vena cava:
- The blood is deoxygenated, and high in carbon dioxide
- It is low in glucose and other nutrients; it is also high in urea, other nitrogenous
wastes and various poisons.

- As the heart beats, the right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary artery,
to the lungs:

- Here the blood gains oxygen, and loses its carbon dioxide.
- The blood then enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein.

SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT (Body):

- The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta.
- In the body, various changes occur to the blood. The blood loses oxygen and gains
carbon dioxide in all body cells, as respiration occurs. Glucose levels also drop.
LIVER:

- Levels of glucose are regulated excess glucose is changed to glycogen, or

glycogen stores are changed to glucose (if needed)

- Excess amino acids are changed to ammonia, and then to urea

- Poisons are also reduced, as the liver changes them to less toxic forms
In the INTESTINES:

- Levels of nutrients from digestion increase.

- Glucose, amino acids, ions, lipids and other substances from food enter the
blood. The increase is through the small intestines reabsorption of food

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In the KIDNEYS:

- Salt and water levels are regulated

- All urea is removed, toxins are excreted into the urine
Changed blood, again highly deoxygenated, flows back to pulmonary circuit.

Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why the
removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential:

All living cells need oxygen for respiration.

As a result of respiration, carbon dioxide is produced and when dissolved in

water, it makes carbonic acid.

Carbonic acid makes the body cells (& the blood) acidic which increases
breathing

This means that if a lot of carbon dioxide is produced, the body cells (and the
blood and lymph) will become acidic.

As studied before, enzymes can only function within a specific pH range

So an increase in carbon dioxide will result in a lowering of pH, which will affect
the overall metabolism of the body.

Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of

materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue:
XYLEM:

- Transport of water is passive and depends on transpiration and the physical

properties of water:
Transpiration: Evaporation of water from the leaf cells through the stomates
initiates the pull of the TRANSPIRATON STREAM. Water is then drawn up the
xylem tubes to replace this loss. The low concentration of water at the roots
allows diffusion of water in.
Cohesion: Water molecules tend to bind together, forming a continuous
column in the xylem, which replaces any loss
Adhesion: Water molecules stick to the sides of the xylem tubes (cellulose
walls), pulling the water up the tubes.

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- The movement of water through narrow tubes is called CAPILLARITY

- It is caused by the two forces of COHESION and ADHESION
PHLOEM:

- Movement of organic molecules, e.g sugars, in the phloem is called translocation

- Materials are transported both up and down the stem to the growing points &
reproductive structures

- Flow of materials in the phloem is an active process that requires energy

- It is thought to occur by a mechanism called the source-path-sink THEORY:
- Plants have sources of nutrients, e.g. leaf cells are sources of glucose. As glucose
builds up, cells transport glucose by active transport into phloem tubes, 2 ways:
SYMPLASTIC LOADING: Sugars and nutrients move in the cytoplasm from
the mesophyll cells to the sieve elements through plasmodesmata joining
adjacent cells
APOPLASTIC LOADING: Sugar and nutrients move along the cell walls to
the sieve tube. Then they cross the cell membrane by active transport.

- As sugars enter the phloem the concentration of phloem sap increases.

- This causes the entry of water by osmosis from the surrounding cells.
- This resulting pressure causes water and dissolved solutes to flow towards a SINK.
A sink is a region of plant where sugars and other nutrients are actively removed
from the phloem. As sugars move out of the phloem, water flows out with them.
This reduces the pressure in the sieve cells at the sink region.

Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a

narrow range for optimal function

- Water makes up around 70-90% of living things; it is essential for life.

- Essential that the concentration of water in cells is kept constant as even small
increases or decreases can lead to death.
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- Water > solvent of all metabolic reactions in living cells, and sometimes directly
takes part in it (eg. Respiration).

- It is a solvent in which all metabolic reactions take place.

- It is a transport medium for sugars, salts, hormones, wastes.
- The concentration must be kept within a narrow range as the amount of water
affects the concentration of solutes, which affects ability to diffuse in & out of cells.

- Lack of water causes dehydration.

- Blood pressure falls and circulation fails.
- It can absorb and release large amounts of heat and requires a large amount of heat
to vaporize, and therefore plays an important role in regulating temperature.

- It maintains the shape of the cell membrane too much water can cause a cell to
burst and it cushions and protects body organs

- The osmotic pressure of living tissue can also affect the pH in cells - e.g little water
leads to increase in concentration of solutes e.g C02. This lowers pH. Both osmotic
pressure and pH must be maintained within a narrow range so that enzymes can
function under optimal conditions, to allow effective metabolism.
RECALL:

- Isotonic: Concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as inside the cell. No
overall movement of water.

- Hypertonic: Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside. Water
tends to move out of the cell.

- Hypotonic: Concentration of solutes is greater inside the cell than out. Water tends
to move inside the cell.

Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity

- Any accumulation of wastes may be toxic to cells and so metabolic wastes must be
removed from the body to maintain homeostasis.

- If wastes not continuously removed, levels in body will increase & alter conditions in
internal environment. This inhibits enzyme function & prevents cells from normal
metabolic activity.

- Examples are:
The build-up of nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia, which causes an increase
in pH in cells, resulting in them becoming more alkaline, affecting enzyme activity
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Carbon dioxide accumulation, which lowers pH, resulting in internal env.

becoming more acidic. These changes to acidity or alkalinity of cells slow down
or inhibit enzyme functioning in metabolism. Accumulation of wastes that dont
alter pH may cause other problemsincreased solute conc. interfere with
reaction rates & an osmotic imbalance adversely affects membrane functioning.

- Urea > not as toxic as ammonia but can soon build up to toxic levels in the blood,
poisoning the cells and retarding metabolism

Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals

- Primary role of kidney: osmoregulation (regulation of salt & water levels in the body)
- Fish excrete nitrogenous wastes through gills. Urine contains excess water & salts
- Mammals urine contains urea as well as water and salts. The kidneys ensure that the
concentration of blood and interstitial fluid is constant

Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes inn some organisms

- Diffusion/Osmosis are e.g of passive transport, rely on random movement of

molecules.

- Diffusion: too slow for normal functioning of body and isnt able to selectively
reabsorb useful solutes.

- Osmosis: only deals with movement of water and thus would only allow water to
move out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes

- In the kidney, some useful products are reabsorbed into the body, which would not
be possible with diffusion because active transport needed

- Osmosis, without active reabsorption of water, would result in excess water loss
- The kidney functions by excreting all the blood substances in the nephron outside
the body and then selectively (actively) reabsorbing useful materials.

- Solution: Active transport which requires energy, quicker & more effective moves
wastes as ions are moved against a concentration gradient

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Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney

- Active transport uses energy to transport substances across a membrane. It would

not be able to cross due to a diffusion gradient or its own properties

- Passive transport: movement of substances across membrane without energy (this is

diffusion and osmosis).

- Kidney: made up of a million nephrons. Within nephrons, processes of filtration,

reabsorption & secretion occur.

- The STRUCTURE of a nephron:

- A nephron is a long twisted tubule made up of sections: a Bowmans capsule,
connected to (1) a proximal tubule, leading to the (2) loop of Henle, which connects
to (3) the distal tubule. This all joins to the collecting duct which leads to the bladder.

- The nephrons are densely surrounded by capillaries (this is to provide a large surface
area for excretion).
Three processes occur in the nephrons (kidneys):
Filtration: Most water & solutes are forcefully filtered out of blood into Bowmans
Capsule as blood pressure is high. Blood cells & large proteins remain in blood.
Reabsorption: Materials required by body, such as glucose, are reabsorbed into
the blood. Water and salts also selectively reabsorbed to restore water balance.
Secretion: body actively transports substances from blood into nephron. Toxins,
e.g urea, tend to diffuse back into blood, so must be secreted back into nephron.
Secretion regulates salt and water levels again & removes additional toxins.

Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian

nephron regulate body fluid composition

- Nephron: regulatory unit & absorbs or secretes substances in order to maintain

homeostasis. This regulation maintains the constant composition of body fluids.
Salts & water are adjusted to maintain fluid concentration
Different ions also adjusted to maintain pH.

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These different processes happen in the different sections of the nephron:

Proximal Tubule:

- Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed into the capillaries into the blood from the nephron,
hydrogen ions are secreted out which maintains the pH of the blood.

- Drugs, such as aspirin, are secreted out of the blood

- Regulation of salts occurs here - Sodium ions & potassium ions are actively
reabsorbed and chlorine ions follow passively.
The Loop of Henle: (has a descending & ascending limb)

- In the descending limb, it is permeable to water, not salt.

- Water passes out of the nephron and into the capillaries by osmosis
- In the ascending limb, the walls are permeable to salt, but not water
Ascending limb is thin-walled at the bottom, and thick-walled at the top.

- Salt passively passes out into the capillaries at the bottom, thin-walled section, but is
actively passed out in the top, thick-walled section.

The Distal Tubule:

- Selective reabsorption of sodium ions and potassium ions occurs here to regulate the
pH of the blood & concentration of salts.

The Collecting Duct:

- This is the end of the nephron, and connects to the ureters.

- The walls are permeable to water only & water is transported out accordingly to the
needs of the body. Urine is the final filtrate

- Hormones: chemically controlled substances secreted by endocrine glands directly

in bloodstream

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Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) in the
regulation of water and salt levels in blood
ALDOSTERONE:

- Produced and released by the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys
- Controls amount of salt in blood by regulating the reabsorption of salt in the nephrons

High Salt Levels:

- High blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing in.
- Levels of aldosterone decreased
- Less salt reabsorbed, less water diffusing in
- Salt level decreased, blood volume and pressure decreases
Low Salt Levels:

- Low blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing out.
- Levels of aldosterone increased
- More salt reabsorbed, more water diffusing in
- Salt levels increase, blood volume and pressure increase

ADH (ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE)

- Controls the reabsorption of water by adjusting the permeability of the collecting

ducts and the distal tubules.

- It is made in the hypothalamus in the brain, but stored in the pituitary gland
- ADH doesnt control salt levels in blood. It controls salt conc. through water retention.
- Receptors in hypothalamus monitor the concentration of the blood:
High Salt Levels:

- ADH levels increased

- Collecting ducts and distal tubules become more permeable to water

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HSC Biology

Nov 2014

- More water reabsorbed & concentration returns to normal. (Concentrated urine)

Low Salt Levels:

- ADH levels reduced

- Collecting ducts and distal tubules less permeable
- Less water absorbed & concentration returns to stable state. (Dilute urine)
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions
in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations

- An estuary is where a river meets the sea & freshwater mixes with saltwater
- Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment

- In such an environment, the salinity levels are always changing dramatically.

- From low tide to high tide, water can flow in from either the salty ocean, or from
freshwater rivers (This causes great variation in the levels of salt in the water.)

- Organisms living in such an environment need to have a mechanism to cope with

such changes in order to survive, called enantiostasis

- Animals (fish) can move to avoid changes. Plants must have mechanisms to help
them cope with these changing environmental conditions.

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising

water loss

- Xerophytes are plants living in arid conditions & possess adaptations that allow them
to achieve balance between evaporative cooling & prevention from dehydration.

- Saltbush has waxy leaves with a thick cuticle which protects them from excessive
sunlight by insulation yet also reduces small amounts of evaporation

- Eucalyptus leaves hang vertically which reduces the surface area exposed to the sun

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HSC Biology

Nov 2014

- Hakeas have reduced leaves, meaning each leaf is divided into pinna or leaflets thus
there is fewer stomata, ensuring less water loss.

- Hakeas have sunken stomata (stomata lower than main surface of leaf) which allows
moist air to be trapped in pit. This reduces difference in water potential outside stoma

- Banksias have hairy/shiny leaves which reduce the transpiration by trapping water
- Hummock grass involves leaf curling whereby leaves roll up to form cylinder. This
reduces surface area & traps humid layer of air reducing water loss.

- Succulents have water storage whereby water is stored in trunk, leaves or roots.
Plants survive by using the moisture from the water during dry periods

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