OPTICAL FIBER

NETWORK

Term paper submitted as the partial fulfillment for the requirement

Of the degree of
B-Tech-EEE (2011-2015)

Supervised By :-
Dr. Sanjeev Kumar Srivastava
Assistant Professor
Department of Physics,
Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,
Amity University,
Noida.

Submitted By :-
Utkarsh Poddar
A2324611041
B.Tech Electrical & Electronic
Engineering

July 2012
Amity School of Engineering and Technology
Amity University, Uttar Pradesh

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Its gives me immense pleasure in expressing my sincere regards and
gratitude to Dr. Sanjeev Kumar Srivastava, Department of Applied Science,
Amity University, Noida for his guidance and constant encouragement
throughout the preparation of this dissertation. His patience and valuable efforts
to instill, in me, the ability to read between and beyond words is of great value to
me. Without his cooperation this work would not have been possible.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my
parents who never doubted me for a moment and showered their blessing and
encouragement when I needed them the most.

Utkarsh Poddar
B.Tech - EEE

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Utkarsh Poddar student of B.Tech. in Electrical &
Electronics Engineering has carried out the work presented in the project of
the Term paper entitle " OPTICAL FIBER NETWORK as a part of First
year programmed of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering from Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity
University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh under my supervision.

Dr. Sanjeev Kumar Srivastava

Assistant Professor,
Department Of Physics,
Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,
Amity University
Noida.

CONTENTS
Sl.
No.
1 Abstract

Topic

Page
No.
5

Introduction

Objective & Standards

Historical Milestones

What is the need of Optical Networking

Principles and Operation

Optical Network Topologies

8-9

Optical Networking Tools

9-10

Types of Optical Networks

11

10

Optical Network Architecture

11

Optical Network V/s Other Technologies 13-14

12

Advantages

14

13

Disadvantages

15

14

Business Implications & Applications

16

15

Conclusion

16

16

Further Discussions

17

16

Reference

18

5-6

12-13

ABSTRACT
This paper will briefly discuss history of fiber optics, how it was born. It explains
the meaning of Optical Network and also states the Standards for it. Optical
network is a class of network where optical components are building blocks of
network, like Communication between telephones, computers and other
electronic devices using the light. It focuses on the types of optical networks,
which are being used, and gives a brief idea on the principle and operation of
optical networks. It throws light on the various Topologies of Optical
Networking. Tools of Optical Networking have been dealt with detail in this
paper. It covers the topic optical network architecture and gives a clear
comparison of optical networks with other networking technologies used. This
paper gives an idea about the topic Optical Fiber Networking. It also throws light
on applications of optical networks and its business implications. Further the
advantages and disadvantages of optical networking are also been focused in this
paper. Moreover it also mentions an article on this topic in the Wall Street
Journal India stating about the plans being made and the future scope of Optical
Fiber Networks.

INTRODUCTION
Today bandwidth, reliability, resiliency, performance, redundancy, cost efficiency
and security are some of demands placed on telecommunications. Since fiber
optics initial development, it fulfilled all the requirements over wireless and
copper based telecommunications solutions. Largest obstacle implementing fiber
optics by most businesses was cost. With advancements in fiber optics and ever
growing demand for bandwidth, cost of installation and maintenance of optical
fiber systems has been reduced dramatically with many advantages like cost
efficiency will continue to be increase of optical fiber systems replacing copper
based communications.
One of major issues in networking industry today is demand for more bandwidth.
Before the introduction of optical networks, reduced availability of the fibers
became a big problem for network providers. With the development of the
optical networks a new probably very crucial milestone is reached in network
evolution. Optical fiber is plastic or glass fiber designed to guide light. Optical
fiber is overlap of engineering and applied science concerned with application
and design of optical fibers. Optical fibers are used in communication that
permits transmission at higher rates and over long distances then other forms of

communication. Optical Fibers are used cause signals travel through them with
low loss and are immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used to
form sensors and other applications.

WHAT IS OPTICAL NETWORKING ?

As name suggests optical network is a class of network where optical components
are building blocks of network, like Communication between telephones,
computers and other electronic devices using the light. When compared to
metallic cables fiber optics offer lower attenuation, greater bandwidth, and no
interference or crosstalk. These advantages led to dramatic growth of optical fiber
systems worldwide. Nearly all long haul communications today depend on use of
optical networks for their robust performance and large capacity. Fiber Optical
network is far more greater potential transmission and reliable than networking in
electrical domain.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this research paper is to briefly explain Optical Fiber
Networking and throw light on its various details.

STANDARDS
American National Standard Institute (ANSI) and International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) have developed standards for optical fiber
cable and other fiber components over last 20 years. Standards are initially
developed in North America under Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
and lately by ITU using the name Synchronous Digital Hierarchy.

HISTORICAL MILESTONES
In 1870, John Tyndall demonstrated that light follows the curve of a stream of
water pouring from a container; it was this simple principle that led to the study
and development of applications for this phenomenon. John Logie Baird
patented a method of transmitting light in a glass rod for use in an early colour
TV, but the optical losses inherent in the materials at the time made it impractical

to use.
In the 1950's more research and development into the transmission of visible
images through optical fibers led to some success in the medical world, as they
began using them in remote illumination and viewing instruments.
In 1966 Charles Kao and George Hockham proposed the transmission of
information over glass fibers, and they also realized that to make it a practical
proposition, much lower losses in the cables were essential. This was the driving
force behind the developments to improve the optical losses in fiber
manufacturing, and today optical losses are significantly lower than the original
target set out by Charles Kao and George Hockham.
1958: Discovery of laser
Mid 1960's: Demonstration of wave optics
1970: The production of low loss fibers that made long distance transmission
through fiber possible.
1970's 1980s: Use of fiber in Telephony
Mid 1980's: LAN/MAN broadcast and select architecture
Late 1980's: Development of optical amplifier
Mid/late 1990's: DWDM systems explode
Late 1990's: Intelligent optical network

WHY OPTICAL
NETWORKING
Traditional Network consists of collection of electronic switches, which are
interconnected by point-to-point fiber optic links that can span metropolitan,
local or wide area networks. For accommodating continually increasing demand
for flexibility and bandwidth, that type of networks are enhanced by adding more
switches and fibers and increasing bit rate per fiber and upgrading the size of the
switches functionality and throughput. Such type of enhancements leads to very
complex and large networks that are expensive and difficult to construct, maintain

and operate. Recent and emerging advances in technology promise all optical
networks capable of providing improved flexibility, economy and robustness
while still using large existing fiber base.

PRINCIPLES AND
OPERATIONS
An Optical fiber is cylindrical waveguide made up of two transparent materials
with different index of refraction. Two materials are arranged concentrically to
form inner core and outer cladding. Different entry angles of light source result in
multi modes of wave propagation. It can be restricted to single mode by smaller
diameter core. The light source can be laser or light emitting diode.

OPTICAL NETWORK
TOPOLOGIES
All networks involve same basic principle i.e. information can be shared with,
send to, bypassed, passed on within number of the computer stations and master
computer. The network applications include LANs, WANs, MANs, and SANs,
interbuiding and intrabuilding communications, intelligent transportation systems,
broadcast distribution, and tele-communications. In addition to so many
advantages like bandwidth, durability, immunity the optical fiber better
accommodate today's complex network architectures than the copper alternatives.
Picture below explains interconnection between networks.
Networks are configured in number of topologies, which includes bus network
with or without backbone, ring network, which is redundant, or self-healing, star
network or combination of all these networks. In these each topology has
strengths and weaknesses. Some networks works better for some applications and
some works better for other. Local, wide area or metropolitan networks normally
use mesh technology or combination.

BUS NETWORK :
Bus network topology or daisy chain topology, which has each computer,
connected directly on main communication line. The one end has controller
other end has terminator. Computer that wants to talk to main computer has wait
till its turn for accessing transmission line. In straight network only one computer
can be able to communicate at time. When computer uses network, information
is sent to controller, which in turn sends information to line of computers until
reaches terminating computer. Each computer receives same information.
A bus network with backbone operates same fashion but every computer is
separately connected to network. This offers great reliability than simple bus
topology.

RING NETWORK:
In the configuration the computers in ring link to main communication line.
Network receives information via token consists of information requested by
computers in the network. The token passed around ring until requesting
computer-received data. Token uses packet of information that serves as address
for computer that requested information. Computer than empties token and
token continues to travel until another computer requests information to put in
token.
Advanced version of ring network use two communication cables sending that
sends information in both directions which is known as counter rotating ring
which creates fault tolerant network that redirects transmission in other direction,
should node on network detect disruption. IN this one controlling unit is set in
master mode along several nodes that are remote units. First remote transceiver
receives transmission from master unit and then retransmits to next remote unit
and at the same time transmitting it back to master unit. Interruption in signal line
on first ring bypassed via second ring allowing network to maintain integrity.

STAR NETWORK:
The star network incorporates the multi port star coupler to achieve topology.
Main controlling computer interconnects with all computers in network. Failure
of one computer doesn't cause failure in network. Picture below illustrates star
network. Both star and bus networks use central computer that controls system
inputs and output.

OPTICAL NETWORKING
TOOLS
There are many tools, which are used for optical networking. Tools we use for
Optical Networking are as below:

(1) FIBER OPTIC SPLICERS:

Fiber optic spice is permanent fiber joint to establish optical connection between
two fibers. System design requires fiber connections have particular optical
property such as low loss that are met with only by fiber spicing. Optic splicers
also permit repair of fibers damaged during accident, installation or stress.
Generally fiber splicing is used whenever disconnection or repeated connection is
not necessary.
Mechanical and fusion splicing are techniques in fiber splicing. Mechanical splice
is used where materials and mechanical fixtures perform fiber connection and
alignment. Fusion spice is used where localized fuse melts or fuses 2 fibers
together. Each technique seeks to optimize performance, reduce splice loss.

(2) FIBER OPTIC CONNECTORS:

Connector is demateable device, which permits coupling of the optical power
between two fibers or 2 groups of fibers. Optic connectors must maintain optic
alignment and will provide repeatable losses measurement during numerous
numbers of connections. Connectors are easy to assemble and cost effective and
reliable. Connectors are insensitive to environment conditions like temperature,
moisture, and dusts. Butt jointed connectors and the expanded beam connectors
are 2 types of connectors. Butt jointed connectors bring and align two fiber ends
to close contact. End faces some times touch others do not. Expanded beam
connectors use two lenses to expand and refocus the light from transmitting fiber
to the receiving fiber. Connector consists of 2 plugs and adopter as coupling
device.

(3) FIBER OPTIC COUPLERS:

Some optic data links need more than simple point-to-point connection. Optic
coupler is a device that distribute signal from one fiber to two or more. It also
combines two or more signal into single. Optical couplers attenuate signal much
more than splice or connector cause input signal divided among output ports.
Optic couplers can be active or passive devices. Passive coupler redistribute
optical signal not using optical to electrical conversion. The active couplers

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combine or split signal electrically and use detectors and sources for input and
output.

(4) FIBER OPTIC TRANSMITTERS:

Transmitter is hybrid optic electrical device; converts electrical signal to optic
signals and launches them into optical fiber. Transmitter consists an interface
circuit, optical source and source drive circuit. Interface circuit accepts incoming
signal and process it to make compatible with source drive circuit, it in turn
modulate optical source by varying current through it.

(5) FIBER OPTIC RECEIVERS:

In fiber optics the signals that reach optic receivers are attenuated and distorted.
Receiver must convert input and amplify resulting electrical signal with out
distorting it to point where other circuitry cannot use it.

TYPES OF OPTICAL
NETWORKS
Fiber optic networks may classify into several types. Opaque optical network
include the optical electronic optical conversion. All optical networks each
connection is transparent except end nodes.
Optical networks are single wavelength or multi wavelengths. Use of SONET with
single carrier is typical example of single wavelength, opaque optical network.

(1)PASSIVE OPTICAL NETWORKING:

Type of networking where only single strand of optical fibers can take part
and build connection between multiple computer networking clients from
the different areas called as passive optical networking. Some times
customers complain lower rate of the Internet connection with this type of
networking.

(2)SYNCHRONOUS OPTICAL NETWORKING:

This type optical networking deals with data transmission. Optical
networks monitor all data related to information can pass smoothly from
through network from one pace to the other. It is more effective to
physical networking, also observes type of data. Type of data should be in
one form and be relayed properly.

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(3)STAR NETWORKING:
Networking carried out with help of star networks called as star
networking. It deals with connection between main computer systems to
other computers in the network. They are able to enhance performance of
connection san network.

OPTICAL NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
There are 2 standard fiber optic architectures they are ring and linear. Both
provide restoration and network protection services. SONET rings are most
widely deployed architecture. They are thought as linear network folded back for
creating ring or loop. Unlike linear architecture rings were designed to guarantee
the automatic restoration of the services when cables fail by using loops around
failed component. Because of this protection against failures those rings are selfhealing. Here there are several SONET (synchronous optical networking) ring
architectures that depend on number of fibers level of protecting in switching and
transmission direction.
SONET originally developed in US; SONET standard is adopted by ITU but
renamed as SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy). The standards provide
complete set of the specifications to allow the national and international in
connections at various levels. Optical fiber interfaces are defined to provide
universal fiber interface and to permit mid span interconnection of the different
vendor equipment. Standardized signal structure existing hierarchical rates to be
accommodated. The overhead with in SONET signals facilitate synchronization,
electronic switching, add and drop multiplexing, network management and
performance monitoring of composite and tributary signals. SONET hierarchy
built on synchronous multiplexing of basic SONET rate 51.84 Mb/sec. Higher
SONET rates are N*51.84Mb/sec. Basic signal structure providing sufficient
flexibility in carrying variety of lower rate with in 51.84Mb/sec.

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OPTICAL NETWORKING
V/S OTHER
TECHNOLOGIES
(1)SIZE & WEIGHT:
Individual optical fibers are 125 m in diameter, multiple fiber cables
made smaller than corresponding metallic cables.

(2)BANDWIDTH:
Optical fiber cables have bandwidths that are order of magnitude greater
to metallic cables. The low data rate system can easily be updated to
higher data rates with out need of replacing fibers. Changing LED to laser
can do the upgrade, improving receiver, improving modulation techniques
or using wavelength division multiplex (WDM).

(3)ELECTRICAL ISOLATION:
Optical fiber cable is non-conducting electrically, which eliminates all the
electrical problems that are in metallic cable. Optical fiber systems are
immune to lightning induced currents, power surges, short circuits and
ground loops. Optical fibers are non susceptible to the electro-magnetic
interference from radio signals, adjacent cable systems, power lines or
other electromagnetic source.

(4)REPEATER SPACING:
With low loss optical fiber cables distance btw repeaters be significantly
greater than metallic cable systems. Losses in fiber optics are independent
of the bandwidth. But with twisted or coaxial pair the losses increase with
bandwidth. Thus advantage in the repeater spacing increases with system
bandwidth.

(5)CROSSTALK:
As there is no optical fiber coupling from another fiber within the cable;
optical fiber systems are free from the crosstalk. In the metallic cable
systems crosstalk is the common problem and often the limiting factor in
the performance.

(6)ENVIRONMENT:
Proper designed optical fiber systems are relatively not affected by the
adverse temperature, moisture conditions therefore have application to the

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under water cable. For metallic cable moisture is the problem particularly
in under ground applications resulting in attenuation, short circuits,
increased crosstalk and corrosion.

(7)RELIABILITY:
Reliability of the optical drivers, optical receivers and optical fibers has
reached point where limiting factor is usually associated electronic
circuitry.

(8)COST:
Numerous advantages that are listed here for optical fiber systems resulted
in dramatic growth of application with reductions in cost due to the
technological improvements and the sales volume.

(9)FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS:
Metallic and fiber cable systems do not require frequency allocations from
already crowded spectrum. Cable systems do not have multipath fading,
interference problems and terrain clearance common to radio systems.

ADVANTAGES
Fiber optic systems have many attractive features that are superior to
electrical systems. These include improved system performance, immunity to
electrical noise, signal security, and improved safety and electrical isolation.
1. Extremely high bandwidth No other cable-based data transmission
medium offers the bandwidth that fiber does.
2. Easy to accommodate increasing bandwidth Using many of the
recent generations of fiber optic cabling, new equipment can be added to the
inert fiber cable that can provide vastly expanded capacity over the originally laid
fiber. DWDM, or Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, lends fiber optic
cabling the ability to turn various wavelengths of light traveling down the fiber on
and off at will. These two characteristics of fiber cable enable dynamic network
bandwidth provisioning to provide for data traffic spikes and lulls.
3. Resistance to electromagnetic interference Fiber has a very low rate
of bit error (10 EXP-13), as a result of fiber being so resistant to electromagnetic
interference. Fiber-optic transmission are virtually noise free.

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4. Early detection of cable damage and secure transmissions Fiber

provides an extremely secure transmission medium, as there is no way to detect
the data being transmitted by listening in to the electromagnetic energy
leaking through the cable, as is possible with traditional, electron-based
transmissions. By constantly monitoring an optical network and by carefully
measuring the time it takes light to reflect down the fiber, splices in the cable can
be easily detected.
5. Data Security
Magnetic fields and current induction work in two ways. They don't just generate
noise in signal carrying conductors; they also let the information on the conductor
to be leaked out. Fluctuations in the induced magnetic field outside a conductor
carry the same information as the current passing through the conductor.
Shielding the wire, as in coaxial cables can reduce the problem.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Installation costs, while dropping, are still high Despite the fact
that fiber installation costs are dropping by as much as 60% a year, installing fiber
optic cabling is still relatively costly. As installation costs decrease, fiber is
expanding beyond its original realm and major application in the carrier
backbone and is moving into the local loop, and through technologies such as
FTTx (Fiber To The Home, Premises, etc.) and PONs (Passive Optical
networks), enabling subscriber and end user broadband access.
2. Special test equipment is often required The test equipment
typically and traditionally used for conventional electron-based networking is of
no use in a fiber optic network. Equipment such as an OTDR (Optical Time
Domain Reflectometer)
is required, and expensive, specialized optical test equipment such as optical
probes are needed at most fiber endpoints and connection nexuses in order to
properly provide testing of optical fiber.
3. Susceptibility to physical damage Fiber is a small and compact cable,
and it is highly susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during installation or
construction activities. Because railroads often provide rights-of-way for fiber
optic installation, railroad car derailments pose a significant cable damage threat,
and these events can disrupt service to large groups of people, as fiber optic
cables can provide tremendous data transmission capabilities. Because of this,
when fiber optic cabling is chosen as the transmission medium, it is necessary to
address restoration, backup and survivability.

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4. Wildlife damage to fiber optic cables Many birds, for example, find
the Kevlar reinforcing material of fiber cable jackets particularly appealing as
nesting material, so they peck at the fiber cable jackets to utilize bits of that
material. Beavers and other rodents use exposed fiber cable to sharpen their
teeth and insects such as ants desire the plastic shielding in their diet, so they can
often be found nibbling at the fiber optic cabling. Sharks have also been known to
damage fiber optic cabling by chomping on it when laid underwater, especially at
the repeating points. There is a plant called the Christmas tree plant that treats
fiber optic cable as a tree root and wraps itself around the cable so tightly that the
light impulses traveling down the fiber are choked off.

BUSINESS IMPLICATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
Today optical fibers are much more cost effective than the metallic cable, radio
for long haul, high bit rate and satellite applications. Optical fibers also expected
to eventually overtake metallic cables in the short haul applications including local
networks and metro facilities. The one final cost factor of optical fibers is choice
of material such as silicon, is of course one of earths most abundant elements
compared to copper which someday be in short supply. The other material i.e.,
radio spectrum is already in short supply.

CONCLUSION
As the demands on modern networks rise, security, reliability and speed become
more of a necessity as opposed to a feature. Fiber optical networks can help
deliver those requirements in harsher environments with additional benefits.
Modern fiber cables can contain up to thousand fibers in single cable, the
performance of the optical networks easily accommodates even the today's
demands for the bandwidth on point-to-point basis. However, the unused pointto-point potential bandwidths does not translate to the operating profits, and is
estimated that no more than 1% of the optical fiber buried in the recent years is
actually lit.
The applications of the fiber optics field are still emerging and developing so
rapidly that, it is impossible to keep track each and every innovations and
inventions. All the above compilations gives idea about the tremendous potential

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associated with this field. The future is not so distant when scientists and
researchers will come up with more and more futuristic products and applications
using optical fibers.
As a conclusion, fiber optic technology is a revolutionary technological departure
from the traditional copper wires twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable. As we more
forward in the Information Technology age, the responsibility of moving extreme
amounts of data must fall on the shoulders of this new technology. There is no
doubt as to the vast opportunities that fiber optic technology can give and it
should be continuously researched and expanded to cater for future demands.

FURTHUR DISSCUSSIONS
An article has been stated by Mr. Prashant Sahu and Mr. R. Jai Krishna in The
Wallstreet Journal, India. It has been mentioned as below :
India's Department of Telecommunications has proposed setting up of a
national optical fiber network at a cost of about 200 billion rupees ($4.5 billion),
Telecom Minister Kapil Sibal said Friday.
The Telecom Commission, the highest decision-making body within the
department, has also said that the network can be financed through the
Universal Service Obligation, or USO, fund, Mr. Sibal told reporters.
The USO fund was created by the telecom department to give grants for
connecting rural areas and also for commercially inviable telecom networks.
State-owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. has been asked to work on forming a
special purpose vehicle for building the optical fiber network to be owned
jointly by the federal government and the USO fund, Sibal said.
Creation of the network and sharing it with other telecom operators will help
lower the connectivity costs of companies. This network will help the
government to achieve its target of broadband penetration. India's telecom
regulator had in December set a target of 75 million broadband connections
over two years and 160 million by 2014.
Mr. Sibal also said the telecom department is mulling an exit policy for
companies which have licenses but haven't rolled out their services. The
government is working to implement the policy this year, he said.
Indian telecom companies, specially the new players, have been hurt due to

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falling tariffs fueled by intense competition, and analysts expect that consolidation
is inevitable. India has as many as 14 operators in some of the country's 22
service areas.

REFERENCES
1. http://hubtechinsider.wordpress.com
2. http://www.webopedia.com
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
4. e-Book on Optical Networks by Ramawsami and Sivarajan
5. http://searchtelecom.techtarget.com/
6. http://optical-fibres.tripod.com/
7. http://library.thinkquest.org
8. http://www.fiber-optics.info/
9. http://www.howstuffworks.com/fiber-optic1.html
10. http://www.capybara.org/~dfraser/gaul/CS457/howworks.html
11. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240531119035549045764
61594190880776.html

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