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Overview
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied
science of the mechanical behaviour of rock and
rock masses. Rock mechanics deals with the
mechanical properties of rock and the related
methodologies required for engineering design.
Nature of Rock
A common assumption when dealing with the
mechanical behaviour of solids is that they
are:
homogeneous
continuous
isotropic
However, rocks are much more complex
than this and their physical and mechanical
properties vary according to scale. As a
solid material, rock is often:
heterogeneous
discontinuous
anisotropic
x
Nature of Rock
Homogeneous
Continuous
strength
equal in
all directions
sandstone
Heterogeneous
Discontinuous
fault
shale
sandstone
Isotropic
joints
Anisotropic
strength
varies with
direction
high
low
layered intact
highly fractured
high stiffness
high strength
very brittle
medium stiffness
medium strength
medium brittleness
low stiffness
low stiffness
low strength
low strength
brittle
ductile
Mode 1
(tensile)
x
Mode 2
(in-plane shear)
Mode 3
(out-of-plane shear)
stylolitic discontinuity
with high shear
resistance.
slickensided fault
surface with low shear
resistance.
Influence of
Structure &
In Situ Rock
Stress Together
Intact Rock
typical record from a uniaxial compression test. Note that the force
and displacement have been scaled respectively to stress (by dividing by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen) and to strain (by
dividing by the original length).
x
ucs
peak
strength
cd
ci
later a l
cc
Contraction
a x i al
Dilation
V/V
T o t al
Measured
V/V
Calculated
Crack Volumetric
Strain
Crack
Crack
Closure
Growth
a x i al
Elastic Constants
Focussing on the interval of near linear behaviour, we can draw analogies
to the ideal elastic rock represented by our elastic compliance matrix.
Remembering that the Youngs modulus, E, is defined as the ratio of
stress to strain (i.e. 1/S11), it can be determined in two ways:
Tangent Youngs modulus, ET taken
as the slope of the axial - curve at
some fixed percentage, generally
50%, of the peak strength.
Secant Youngs modulus, ES taken as
the slope of the line joining the origin
of the axial - curve to a point on
the curve at some fixed percentage
of the peak strength.
Elastic Constants
Elastic Constants
typical values of
Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio for
various rock types
Compressive Strength
Another important parameter in the uniaxial compression test is the
maximum stress that the test sample can sustain. Under uniaxial loading
conditions, the peak stress is referred to as the uniaxial compressive
strength, c.
It is important to realize
that the compressive
strength is not an intrinsic
property. Intrinsic material
properties do not depend on
the specimen geometry or
the loading conditions used in
the test: the uniaxial
compressive strength does.
x
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength is probably the most widely used and
quoted rock engineering parameter and therefore it is crucial to
understand its nature. In other forms of engineering, if the
applied stress reaches c, there can be catastrophic consequences.
This is not always the case in rock engineering as rock often
retains some load bearing capacity in the post peak region of the
- curve.
Whether failure beyond c is to be avoided at all costs, or to be
encouraged, is a function of the engineering objective, the form of
the complete stress-strain curve for the rock (or rock mass), and
the characteristics of the loading conditions. These features are
crucial in the design and analysis of underground excavations.
these different
strengths may be tested
either directly (e.g.
uniaxial tension test,
direct shear test, etc.)
or indirectly (e.g.
Brazilian tensile test,
triaxial compression test,
etc.).
as pore pressure P increases the effective normal stresses are reduced and
the Mohr circles are displaced towards failure.
x
Time-Dependent Effects
We have indicated that during the complete - curve, microcracking
occurs from the very early stages of loading. Through these processes,
four primary time-dependent effects can be resolved:
Strain-rate - the - curve is a
function of the applied strain rate.
Creep strain continues when the
applied stress is held constant.
Temperature Effects
Only a limited amount information is available indicating the effect of
temperature on the complete - curve and other mechanical properties
of intact rock.
Failure Criterion
Rock fails through an extremely complex process of microcrack initiation
and propagation that is not subject to convenient characterization
through simplified models. Building on the history of material testing, it
was natural to express the strength of a material in terms of the stress
present in the test specimen at failure (i.e. phenomenological approach).
Since uniaxial and triaxial testing of rock are by far the most common
laboratory procedures, the most obvious means of expressing a failure
criterion is:
Strength = (1, 2, 3)
Or with the advent of stiff and servo-controlled testing machines:
Strength = ( 1, 2, 3)
x
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion expresses the relationship
between the shear stress and the normal stress at failure along a
hypothetical failure plane. In two-dimensions, this is expressed as:
peak = c + n tan
Where:
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
This can be presented graphically using a Mohr circle diagram:
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is most suitable at high confining pressures when
rock generally fails through the development of shear planes. However, some
limitations are :
- it implies that a major shear fracture exists at peak strength, at a
specific angle, which does not always agree with experimental observations;
- it predicts a shear failure in uniaxial tension (at 45-/2 with 3) whereas
for rock this failure plane is perpendicular to 3. A tension cutoff has been
introduced to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion to predict the proper orientation
of the failure plane in tension.
- experimental peak strength envelopes are generally non-linear. They can be
considered linear only over limited ranges of confining pressures.
Despite these difficulties, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion remains one of
the most commonly applied failure criterion, and is especially significant and valid
for discontinuities and discontinuous rock masses.
x
1 = 3 + (m c 3+ sc2)0.5
where c is the intact compressive strength, s
is a rock mass constant (s=1 for intact rock,
s<1 for broken rock), and m is a constant
(characteristic of the rock type where values
range from 25, for coarse grained igneous and
metamorphic rocks to 7 for carbonate rocks).
x
Discontinuities
It is the existence of discontinuities in a rock
mass that makes rock mechanics a unique subject.
The word discontinuity denotes any separation in
the rock continuum having effectively zero tensile
strength and is used without any generic
connotation (e.g. joints and faults are types of
discontinuities formed in different ways).
Discontinuities
In fact, all rock masses are fractured, and it is a very rare case
where the spacings between discontinuities are appreciably greater
than the dimensions of the rock engineering project. Very often major
discontinuities delineate blocks within the rock mass, and within these
blocks there is a further suite of discontinuities.
Thus, we might expect that a
relation of the form:
should exist.
x
A natural clustering of
discontinuities occurs through
the genetic process of
superimposed fracture phases,
each of which could have a
different spacing distribution.
An important feature for
engineering is the overall quality
of the rock mass cut by these
superimposed fracture systems.
For this reason, the concept of
the RQD was developed.
x
Discontinuity Orientation
If we assume that a discontinuity is a
planar feature, then its orientation can
be uniquely defined by two parameters:
dip direction and dip angle. It is often
useful to present this data in a graphical
form to aid visualization and engineering
analysis.
It must be remembered though,
that it may be difficult to
distinguish which set a particular
discontinuity belongs to or that in
some cases a single discontinuity
may be the controlling factor as
opposed to a set of
discontinuities.
x
Discontinuity Persistence
Persistence refers to the lateral extent of a discontinuity plane, either
the overall dimensions of the plane, or in terms of whether it contains
rock bridges. In practice, the persistence is almost always measured by
the one dimensional extent of the trace lengths as exposed on rock
faces. This obviously introduces a degree of sampling bias that must be
accounted for in the interpretation of results.
Discontinuity Roughness
The word roughness is used to denote
deviation of a discontinuity surface from
perfect planarity, which can rapidly become a
complex mathematical procedure utilizing 3-D
surface characterization techniques (e.g.
polynomials, Fourier series, fractals).
From the practical point of view, only one
technique has received some degree of
universality the Joint Roughness Coefficient
(JRC). This method involves comparing
discontinuity surface profiles to standard
roughness curves assigned numerical values.
The geometrical roughness is naturally related
to various mechanical and hydraulic properties
of discontinuities.
x
Discontinuity Aperture
The aperture is the distance between adjacent walls of a
discontinuity. This parameter has mechanical and hydraulic
importance, and a distribution of apertures for any given
discontinuity and for different discontinuities within the same rock
mass is expected.
Rock Masses
Building on our examination of first intact rock behaviour and then
discontinuity behaviour, we can now concentrate on extending these ideas
to provide a predictive model for the deformability and strength of rock
masses.
Substituted into
|| = cw + ntanw gives:
Rock Mass
Strength
Hoek-Brown
representation and
summary of rock
mass conditions,
testing methods and
theoretical
considerations.
x
Rock Mass
Strength
Hoek-Brown
Hoek-Brown m
values for different
rock types.
x
Rock Mass
Strength HoekBrown