ADVANCES IN IDENTIFICATION

The Parrot Fauna of the ABA Area:

A Current Look
by Bill Pranty and
Kimball L. Garrett

Avian Ecology Lab

Archbold Biological Station
123 Main Drive
Venus FL 33960
billpranty@hotmail.com

BP is a North American Birds regional

editor for Florida and the author of
A Birders Guide to Florida (ABA).

Natural History Museum

of Los Angeles County
Section of Birds
900 Exposition Boulevard
Los Angeles CA 90007
kgarrett@nhm.org

KLG is the Ornithology Collections Manager

at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
and a member of the ABA Checklist Committee.

248

he ABA Area is hardly synonymous with parrots, having harbored only one breeding species, the
long-extinct Carolina Parakeet
(Conuropsis carolinensis), with another, the Thick-billed Parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) that formerly
occurred marginally at our southwestern border with Mexico. Yet Florida,
once the stronghold of the nominate
subspecies of the Carolina Parakeet
(McKinley 1985), now is home to
what may be the greatest diversity of
exotic (non-native) parrots in the
world, and California (which never
had naturally-occurring parrots) currently has at least ten breeding
species. Throw in the three species
breeding in south Texas and populations of the Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) in at least seven additional states, and parrots are clearly,
for better or worse, a part of the avifauna of the ABA checklist area.
Awareness of the diversity and population sizes of parrots in the ABA
Area has been slow to surface. The
primary reason for this obliviousness
is that few observers have been willing
to conduct studies in urban areas, although results of several studies have
been published recently, and other
studies are underway. Difficulties of
field identification have largely been
alleviated with the publication of
three new or revised field guides to
North American birds in the past few
years. Because so many species of parrots have been seen at liberty in the
ABA Area over the past 30+ years, and
because most parrot populations are

so unstable, only those species with at

least fairly large extant populations
will be discussed. All of these species
are known to be breeding currently, or
they bred previously, still occur, and
presumably still are breeding.
Our goal, then, is to summarize the
basic status and distribution of parrots
in the continental United States, and to
provide field identification information
that goes beyond the brief text in standard field guides. We first consider the
three states that host the most naturalized parrot speciesFlorida, California,
and Texas; then, we provide some general pointers on parrot identification;
next, there follows a set of brief species
accounts and finally a review of parrot
treatments in the most popular North
American field guides. Throughout, we
touch on some of the special challenges
and difficulties of understanding
psittacid identification and biology in
the ABA Area (see Fig. 1). In a future
article, to appear in the journal North
American Birds, we shall treat in greater
detail the matter of psittacid status and
distribution in the continental U.S.

Florida
Since the early 1970s, 74 species of
exotic parrots have been reported outside of captivity in Florida (Robertson
and Woolfenden 1992, Stevenson and
Anderson 1994, Pranty 2001a). However, populations of most of these
species have been limited to no more
than a few individuals that persisted
briefly before they died out or were
recaptured. Based on current knowledge, 19 species are known or pre-

BIRDING JUNE 2003

sumed to be breeding in the state. All

by Garrett and Mabb (2002). The
ditional species occur in small numbut two of these are found in the
Red-crowned Parrot, the most numerbers. These are include Green Parasoutheastern region, amid the vast
ous parrot species in California, is the
keet, White-eyed Parakeet (Aratinga
metropolitan areas of Fort Lauderdale
only one that has been added to the
leucophthalmus), Blue-and-yellow
and Miami. Only three species among
state list by the California Bird
Macaw (Ara ararauna), White-fronted
Floridas varied parrot fauna are ABARecords Committee. Significant popuParrot (Amazona albifrons), Bluecountable in the state: the Budgerigar
lations (>100 individuals) of Rosefronted Parrot (Amazona aestiva), Yel(Melopsittacus undulatus),
the Monk Parakeet, and the
White-winged Parakeet
(Brotogeris versicolurus).
Breeding populations of
ABA-countable Green Parakeet (Aratinga holochlora)
and Red-crowned Parrot
(Amazona viridigenalis) also
are found, but these are
considered non-established
by the Florida Ornithological Society Records Committee (Bowman 2000).
(The ABA Checklist does
not specify in which states
countable exotics can be
counted; this information
must be gleaned from local
bird records committees
although criteria for determining establishment differ
greatly among committees).
Monk Parakeets number
in the thousands of individFig. 1. In this photograph from east-central Florida, a Red-masked Parakeet shares a perch in a native Seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera)
uals statewide, with many
with a Blue-crowned Parakeet. Both species are native to South America, but their natural ranges are hundreds of miles apart. However,
hundreds of Black-hooded
naturally allopatric parrot populations such as these co-existand in rare cases, interbreedin the foreign environments of southern
California and southern Florida. JETTY MARITIME PARK, FLORIDA; 2 DECEMBER 2001. CINDY RADAMAKER.
Parakeets statewide (Nandayus nenday) and several
hundred White-winged Parakeets,
ringed, Mitred, Red-masked, Blacklow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix),
hooded, and Yellow-chevroned ParaYellow-chevroned Parakeets (Broand Yellow-naped Parrot (Amazona
keets and Lilac-crowned Parrots
togeris chiriri), and Red-crowned Parauropalliata). All but the Yellow(Amazona finschi) also occur, along
rots at Fort Lauderdale and Miami.
headed Parrot are known to be breedwith nearly 100 Blue-crowned ParaBreeding or presumed-breeding popuing in the region at present. Without
keets. A small and declining populalations numbering in the dozens to
exception, parrots in Florida are retion of Yellow-headed Parrots occurs
low hundreds of individuals of eight
stricted to urban and suburban areas
in the greater Los Angeles area, and a
other species also occur: the Budgeriplanted largely with exotic vegetation;
few pairs of Red-lored Parrots (Amagar, Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula
native habitats are avoided. Effects of
zona autumnalis), Blue-fronted Parkrameri), Blue-crowned Parakeet
parrot foraging on commercial tropirots, and White-fronted Parrots also
(Aratinga acuticaudata), Mitred Paracal fruit groves in southeastern
breed. The White-winged Parakeet,
keet (Aratinga mitrata), Red-masked
Florida remain largely unstudied.
now greatly outnumbered by the YelParakeet (Aratinga erythrogenys),
low-chevroned, maintains small popDusky-headed Parakeet (Aratinga
The status and distribution of Califorulations in San Francisco and in
weddellii), Chestnut-fronted Macaw
nia parrot populations was summasouthern Los Angeles County (Gar(Ara severa), and Orange-winged Parrized by Garrett (1997) and updated
rett 1993, Pranty and Voren 2003).
rot (Amazona amazonica). Several ad-

California

W W W. A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G

249

PA R R O T FA U N A O F T H E A B A A R E A

B
C

D
Fig. 2. Flight silhouettes of the major parrot groups likely to be encountered in the ABA Area. ADAPTED FROM WHITNEY (1996) AND WHITNEY ET AL.(2002); ILLUSTRATION KIMBALL L. GARRETT.
A (left). Aratinga (Nandayus and Myiopsitta are basically similar) is a genus of medium-small to medium-large parakeets (or conures) with long, pointed tails.Their bills are moderate to
large, giving a more front-heavylook than in Psittacula.They fly with rapid, continuous, and fairly shallow wingbeats, with the wings bowed slightly below the body plane; they rarely glide.
There is some side-to-side body-twisting in flight.Species differences involve overall size, the color and pattern of the head, the pattern of the underwings, and the amount of covert/flight
feather contrast on the wing.Macaws (Ara and related genera) are similar but larger, with wingbeats that are slower, deeper, and more measured (strikingly so in the largest species).
B (upper center). The Rose-ringed Parakeet, genus Psittacula, is a medium-large parakeet with a markedly long and slender tail (much longer than in any Aratinga, unless the tail
feathers are broken). It looks relatively small-headed, thus not appearing front-heavy.The wingbeats are deeper and more sweeping than those of Aratinga.The overall lime-green color
is distinctive, compared with our deeper-green Aratingas.
C (right). Parrots, or amazons, of the genus Amazona are medium-to-large psittacids that appear large-headed and markedly front-heavyin flight; the tail is squared and moderately
short.The flight is distinctive, with the wings bowed well downward, and with stiff, continuous, duck-like wingbeats; although the wingbeats are fast, overall flight speed is slower than
in Aratinga. Species differences lie mainly in overall size, relative tail length, and color; all are predominantly green, but note the presence, absence, and precise location of other colors on
the head, presence or absence of red/orange in the secondaries and primary coverts, and color at the base of the outer pairs of rectrices.
D (lower center). The small parakeets of the genus Brotogeris have moderately long, pointed tails.Their flight is quite distinctive vis a vis our other ABA-area parrots, with several rapid
beats, followed by a brief closure of the bowed wings.The flight is rapid but appears halting and undulating because of the wing closures and the side-to-side twisting of the body. In
flight, the White-winged is easily distinguished from the Yellow-chevroned by the conspicuous white in its inner primaries and outer secondaries; both species show a yellow patch on
the upper wing coverts, usually striking in flight.

Most parrots are found in urban

and suburban areas of Los Angeles,
Orange, and San Diego counties on
the southern coast, but the Bakersfield and San Francisco Bay areas also
host some parrot species. As in
Florida, parrot activity is centered in
developed habitats dominated by exotic flora.

Texas
The Texas Bird Records Committee
has accepted Red-crowned Parrot and
Green Parakeet to the state list (TBRC
2003), along with Monk Parakeet and
the extinct Carolina Parakeet. It is

250

possible that some birds in the Texas

populations of Red-crowned Parrots
and Green Parakeets have colonized
naturally from northeastern Mexico,
but this hypothesis is unproven. Both
AOU (1998) and ABA (2002) treat
these two species as exotics in Texas.
Populations of Red-crowned Parrots
and Green Parakeets are found in
most urban and suburban areas of the
Lower Rio Grande Valley, and they
number from the hundreds to the low
thousands of individuals (Dunn et al.
1999); other parrot species are sometimes noted in small numbers among
these flocks.

Identification
Current taxonomy accepts 352 extant
species of parrots in the world; 12
others are recently extinct (Clements
2000). At least 76 species have been
reported in the wild in the U.S., with
all but two of these being exotics.
Most of the exotics fall into one of six
primary parrot types. Three of these
types are rare and can be quickly
discussed. First are the cockatoos,
which are large, short-tailed, mostly
all-white or all-blackish parrots that
are native to Australia and tropical islands in the Pacific Ocean. Individuals of several species of white cocka-

BIRDING JUNE 2003

toos (Cacatua spp.) occasionally are

observed in the wild in the U.S., but
they die quickly or are recaptured.
Second are the lories and lorikeets
(primarily Eos, Trichoglossus, and Lorius spp.), which are small, longtailed, gaudy, red, blue, or green parrots also from the tropical Pacific. Individual lories or lorikeets also may
be seen occasionally, but they eventually disappear. Third, the lovebirds
(Agapornis spp.) are tiny African parrots with short tails; they often have
reddish bills. Very popular as cage
birds, lovebirds are seen rather often
outside of captivity, often as avicultural color morphs. Escaped lovebirds
in North America typically do not
survive long, although an as-yet noncountable population of Peach-faced
Lovebirds (A. roseicollis) is found in
the Phoenix, Arizona, area (Jones and
Rosenberg 2000, Kaufman 2000, AOU
2002), and a smaller population has
recently been reported south of San
Luis Obispo, California (T.A. Edell,
personal communication).
Two Australian parrots occurring in
the ABA Area do not fit neatly into
any of these categories. The Budgerigar is a very small, slender parakeet;
the wild type birds are green and
yellow with fine black barring. The
Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) is a
larger gray bird with a yellow face and
a wispy crest, orange cheek patch, and
white upperwing coverts; beware that

flying cockatiels can bear an uncanny

resemblance to White-winged Doves
(Zenaida asiatica). Both of these parrots are bred extensively by aviculturists, and numerous artificial color
morphs exist.
Our only other well-established Old
World parrot is the Rose-ringed Parakeet. It superficially resembles the
New World Aratinga parakeets, but it
is more slender, finer-billed, and
longer-tailed. Like others in its genus,
the Rose-ringed has a red bill.
Discussion of the three other primary types of parrots will take up
the remainder of this article. Field
identification of parrots should start
with establishing the type (generally,
the genus) to which the bird belongs
(Fig. 2). General shape, size, flight
style, and vocalizations are important
characters to use in identifying a parrot to genus; indispensable for generic
identification
of New World
parrots are the
paper by Whitney (1996)
and the booklet accompanying the Voices
of New World
Parrots CD
set (Whitney
et al. 2002).
Additional information rele-

Species Accounts

lands in the
ever, establish local
arid interior of
populations.
Australia.
Identification:
Fig. 3. The familiar Australian Budgerigar (the
U.S. Range:
Budgerigars are
Budgieof aviculture) is well-known to all birders, but
ABA-countable
small parakeets
a bewildering array of domestic color morphs exists and
may escape almost anywhere at any time.This individin west-central
that have been bred
ual represents the wildphenotype, which is easily
Florida, now
in captivity for over
distinguished from other parrots in the ABA Area by its
restricted to
150 years. Their
small size, tiny bill, and barred back and wing coverts.
coastal areas in HERNANDO BEACH, FLORIDA; 5 APRIL 2000. PETER S.WEBER.
natural plumage
Hernando and
consists of yellowPasco counties (Hernando Beach
ish-green underparts and yellow upsouth to Holiday; Pranty 2001b). Freperparts with black scalloping; the
quent escapees are noted throughout
face, throat, and chin are yellow. The
North America, but these rarely, if
tail is blue, and a pale wing stripe is

In the species accounts below, we

present information only for the continental U.S., i.e., the parrot fauna of
Hawaii is not discussed. For species
not listed by AOU (1998, 2000,
2002), we use Clements (2000) for
nomenclature. ABA-countable species
are marked with a dagger ().
Budgerigar
(Melopsittacus undulatus)
Native Range: Woodlands and farm-

W W W. A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G

vant to field identification is found

(albeit erratically) in the parrot
monographs by Juniper and Parr
(1998) and Forshaw (1977), as well
as in some North American field
guides (see below).
These three groups are native to the
New World, from Mexico through
southern South America. First, we
have the parakeets (Aratinga, Brotogeris, Myiopsitta, and Nandayus
spp.), which are medium-sized parrots with long, pointed tails and
mostly green plumages. They often
have red markings on the head,
breast, and shoulders. Those in the
genus Aratinga (called conures in
the pet trade) have conspicuous white
or pale orbital rings. Second are the
macaws (Ara spp.), which usually are
somewhat larger to greatly larger than
parakeets. They are similar in appearance, but they have large patches of
bare skin on the
face. Large macaws
have body colors of
blue, yellow, or red,
while the smaller
macaws are mostly
green. Third are the
parrots (Amazona
spp.; amazons in
the pet trade),
which are large,
bulky psittacids
with short,
rounded tails.

251

PA R R O T FA U N A O F T H E A B A A R E A

Fig. 4. This adult male Rose-ringed Parakeet clearly shows the black chin and pink-and-lilac-tinged collar; females
and young males are similar but lack these head markings. Rose-ringeds are slender parrots with long, thin tails.The
red orbital ring and pale eye are unlike those of any of our Aratinga parakeets.The Blue-crowned Parakeet, whose pinkish-red upper mandible and black lower mandible suggests Rose-ringed, differs in having an obvious pale bare orbital
ring, and it always lacks a collar. BAKERSFIELD, CALIFORNIA; MARCH 2002. BOB STEELE.

visible in flight. Avicultural varieties

may be white, blue, yellow, or a combination of these colors. The voice is
a series of pleasant chirps.
Notes: The Florida population may
have exceeded 20,000 individuals by
the late 1970s, but it declined by
about 99% by the mid-1990s. About
150200 Budgerigars remained in
Florida at the end of 2000 (Pranty
2001b), and numbers may be continuing to decline (K. Tracey, personal
communication).

Rose-ringed Parakeet

Fig. 5 The Monk Parakeets pale gray-foreparts (lightly

barred on the breast) and pinkish bill easily tell it from
other ABA-area parrots.In flight, the dark, blue-tinged primaries and secondaries contrast with the bright green wing
coverts and body. HOUSTON,TEXAS; JUNE 1999. ALAN MURPHY.

252

(Psittacula krameri)
Native Range: Moist lowland forests
and savannas in two widely separate
regions: central Africa and southern
Asia.
U.S. Range: Included in the main
list of the AOU Check-list (AOU
1998) based on Florida occurrences,
but considered non-established in the
state by the Florida Ornithological
Society Records Committee (Bowman

2000) and by ABA (2002). The only

known Florida populations of any
size are at Fort Myers and Naples. At
least 227 parakeets were believed to
be present at Naples in November
2001 (B. Pranty, personal observation), while 30 were found at Fort
Myers in December 2002 (CBC data).
A breeding population at Miami
(Owre 1973) apparently died out
more than ten years ago. In California, a population of up to 900 individuals occurs in the Central Valley
city of Bakersfield (Garrett and Mabb
2002; A. Sheehey, personal communication), and at least two populations,
each with 2040 birds, occur in the
greater Los Angeles area.
Identification: A large parakeet with
an extremely long, slender, tail. The
plumage is almost wholly light-green.
Adult males have a black chin and
throat that forms a collar; this mark is
lacking in females and young males.
On the nape, the collar is pink, suffused with lilac. The bill is mostly
rose. The voice is rather unparrotlike,
consisting of high, shrill notes, including a flicker-like kew. Rose-ringed
Parakeets observed at Miami in the
1970s were of the Indian subspecies
manillensis (Owre 1973), and individuals in California are either manillensis or borealisanother Indian subspecies (Garrett 1997).
Monk Parakeet
(Myiopsitta monachus)
Native Range: Dry open or wooded
habitats in southern South America.
U.S. Range: ABA-countable in at
least eight states, with escapees seen
in many others. The ABA Checklist
Committee (ABA 2002) expressed a
lack of enthusiasm for accepting
small populations [of exotic birds]
that may depend on visits to feeders
under severe conditions for survival,
a situation that describes the Monk
Parakeet in many northern states. On
the 20012002 CBCs, 4,253 Monk
Parakeets were seen on 41 CBCs in
the U.S. Of these, 3,015 individuals
BIRDING JUNE 2003

were found in Florida, 908 in Connecticut, and the remainder in Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Oregon,
and Texas (CBC data).
Identification: Monk Parakeets are
among the easiest of psittacids to
identify. They are medium-sized parakeets with pale greenish upperparts,
including the tail; the primaries are
blue. The forepart of the head is pale
gray, and the upper breast is pale gray
with darker scalloping. The lower
breast is pale yellow, and the belly
and undertail coverts are pale green.
The bill is flesh-colored. The common
flight call is a grating, slightly rising
graaaa or chape.
Notes: The Monk Parakeet is the
only psittacid that builds large stick
nests (used year-round for roosting)
in palms, other trees, and manmade
structures. North American populations of Monk Parakeets are increasing rapidly (Van Bael and Pruett-Jones
1996, Pranty 2002). The subspecific
identity or identities of the Monk
Parakeets in the U.S. have not been
well studied.

Black-hooded Parakeet
(Nandayus nenday)
Native Range: Lowland savannas,
palm groves, and ranchlands from
southwestern Brazil to northern Argentina.
U.S. Range: Currently non-countable but seemingly established in
Florida, where it is the second-most
numerous and widespread psittacid.
About 900 individuals occur in the
state, with two-thirds of these along
the central Gulf coast and the remainder at Fort Lauderdale, Fort Myers,
Miami, and elsewhere (Pranty and
Lovell in review). Numbers on
Florida CBCs have increased significantly since the early 1980s (Pranty
2002). The California population is
estimated at about 200 birds (Garrett
and Mabb 2002), with the largest
group found along the Los Angeles
County coast from Pacific Palisades to
Malibu.
W W W. A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G

Identification: Easy to identify. The

frontal portion of the head is sootyblack, as is the bill. The upper breast
is washed with azure, and feathering on the legs is bright red. The
dark-blue remiges contrast in flight
with the bright green wing coverts.
Calls are grating screeches, lacking
any nasal quality.
Notes: One of the most common
parrots captured for the pet trade;
over 200,000 were imported into
the U.S. between 1968 and 1990
(Garrett 1997, Juniper and Parr
1998). Most common in Florida at
St. Petersburg; 355 were found
within that CBC circle in December 2000. In California, this is one
of the few parrots to nest (at least
occasionally) in native sycamore
woodlands.
Green Parakeet
(Aratinga holochlora)
Native Range: Mexico (from
Tamaulipas, southern Nuevo Leon,
and southwestern Chihuahua
south to Chiapas), with three related taxa (accorded species status

by Howell and Webb 1995, del Hoyo

et al. 1997, Clements 2000) occurring
elsewhere in Central America.

Fig. 6. The Black-hooded Parakeet, a close relative of the

Aratinga parakeets, is our only parrot with a black face and bill.
The light-blue breast and red thighs(just visible here and
most prominent on adults) are additional unique characters.In
flight, Black-hooded Parakeets (or Nanday Conures) show
strong contrast between the blue-black flight feathers and the
green coverts. KENDALL, FLORIDA; AUGUST 2002. LARRY MANFREDI.

Fig. 7. The Green Parakeet is a medium-to-small Aratinga with few distinctive plumage features. ABA-area birds
appear to be from the northeastern nominate subspecies, which is entirely green but which may show a few scattered
orange-red feathers on the head and breast. Unlike the Mitred and Red-masked Parakeets, they lack any patches of
red on the forehead and crown; they show no red on the underwing coverts.The orbital ring may be grayish, whitish,
or flushed with vinaceous-red. FORT LAUDERDALE, FLORIDA; 21 JANUARY 2001. BILL PRANTY.

253

PA R R O T FA U N A O F T H E A B A A R E A

Fig. 9. The Mitred Parakeet is a large, heavy-billed Aratinga, with a bold whitish orbital ring, a dull darkred forehead, and varying amounts of red on the crown and face; most postjuvenal birds also show some red
flecking on the sides of the neck (as seen here) and occasionally on the breast and the bend of the wing.On
this individual, note the small spot of red where the wing meets the body; this mark should not be confused
with the more extensive and continuous red on the bend of the wing and underwing coverts that typifies
the similar Red-masked Parakeet (Fig.10). MIAMI-DADE COUNTY, FLORIDA; SPRING 2001. LARRY MANFREDI.

ers on the head and breast.

Orbital ring color apparently
varies from white or beige to
reddish. Calls are harsh and
squeaky. Individuals from the
Central American population
(Red-throated Parakeet, A.
[h]. rubritorquis) have redFig. 8. The mostly bluish head, bold whitish orbital ring, and pinkish
dish or orangish throat
upper mandible combine to identify the Blue-crowned Parakeet, but
immatures (and adults in poor light) can show little blue and thus more
patches; one was phoclosely resemble the smaller Green Parakeet and other Aratinga paratographed at Fort Lauderdale
keets.Another diagnostic character is the red tinge to the outer tail
in 2001 (Pranty and Epps
feathers; since this is normally visible only from below, it cannot be
2002).
seen here.However, this mark is clearly shown on the right-hand bird in
Notes: The Green ParaFig.1.The apparent collar on the lower bird is simply a shadow caused
by raised feathers, and it should not be confused with the neck ring of a
keets status in Texas is comRose-ringed Parakeet. ST.PETERSBURG, FLORIDA; SPRING 1999. LEE F.SNYDER.
plicated by the possibility of
naturally occurring strays
U.S. Range: Southernmost Texas,
from nearby Tamaulipas and Nuevo
where several hundred to over a thouLeon. It is not known at present
sand occur in most urban areas and
whether any of the Texas birds are of
even in smaller towns in the Lower
natural origin.
Rio Grande Valley (Dunn et al. 1999).
The species has been accepted to the
Blue-crowned Parakeet
Texas list (TBRC 2003). Small popu(Aratinga acuticaudata)
lations also occur in Florida at Fort
Native Range: Lowland forests,
Lauderdale and Miami (Pranty and
deserts, palm groves, and pampas in
Epps 2002; S. Epps, personal commuthree widely separated regions of
nication; CBC data).
South America.
Identification: All green, but often
U.S. Range: Apparently most nuwith a few scattered orange-red feathmerous at Fort Lauderdale, where

254

perhaps 100 individuals are found

(Pranty and Epps 2002). Smaller
flocks are found in Brevard, Manatee,
and Pinellas Counties (B. Pranty, personal observation; H. Bechtel, L. Snyder, and D. Goodwin, personal communications). Up to 40 were found in
the Upper Keys in the early 1990s
(CBC data), but there have been no
recent reports. In California, small
groups in urban San Francisco and in
Los Angeles, Orange, and San Diego
Counties total about 95 birds (Garrett
and Mabb 2002).
Identification: Plumage entirely pale
green except for the head, which is
nearly wholly bluish, with a bold
white orbital ring. The under surface
of the tail is red at the base. Calls are
often doubled: cheeah, cheeah (Juniper
and Parr 1998). In the nominate subspecies, which is found in California
(Garrett 1997) and Florida (Pranty
and Epps 2002), the frontal portion of
the head is extensively bluish, and the
lower mandible is dark.
Notes: Captured in large numbers
for the pet trade, with 94,000 imported from Argentina from 1985 to
1990 (Juniper and Parr 1998).

BIRDING JUNE 2003

Mitred Parakeet
(Aratinga mitrata)
Native Range: Dry forests and savannas above 1,000 meters, from
southern Peru to northwestern Argentina.
U.S. Range: California populations,
concentrated in Los Angeles and Orange Counties, exceed 1,000 birds
(Garrett and Mabb 2002). In Florida,
a population of more than 300 occurs
at Fort Lauderdale and Miami (Pranty
and Epps 2002; B. Pranty, unpublished data). AOU (2002) recognizes
the existence of these populations,
but the species is not on the ABA
Checklist or any state list.
Identification: The identification of
this species is discussed by Pranty
and Garrett (2002). Distinguished
from the smaller Red-masked Parakeet by the reduced amount of red on

the head, as well as by

the lack of red on the
lesser underwing
coverts. Additionally,
the color on the forehead is very dark, approaching maroon.
Based on the large
amount of red on their
heads, the Mitred
Parakeets in California
(Garrett 1997) and
Florida (Pranty and
Epps 2002) represent
the nominate subspecies. Calls are
rather harsh and nasal.
Notes: This species
has been captured in
huge numbers for the
pet trade. From 1981
to 1984, Bolivia exported 35,100 to the
U.S., and at least
108,033 birds were
taken from Argentina
from 1985 to 1990
(del Hoyo et al. 1997).

Red-masked
Parakeet

Fig. 11. This Dusky-headed Parakeet recalls the

larger Blue-crowned Parakeet (Fig. 8), but the Duskyheadeds all-black bill, dull and somewhat scaly and
dusky-gray (not bluish) head, and lack of red on the
rectrices are good distinguishing marks.The Duskyheaded might also be confused with the Black-hooded
Parakeet, especially in flight, but it never has black on
the face, blue on the breast, or red on the thighs.
MIAMI SPRINGS, FLORIDA; SEPTEMBER 2002. JOHN H.BOYD.

W W W. A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G

Fig. 10. The Red-masked Parakeet (or Cherry-headed Conure) is quite

similar to the larger and heavier-billed Mitred Parakeet (Fig. 9), but it has a
bright-red forehead, a more solid-red face, and extensive red on the marginal
and lesser underwing coverts (normally seen easily in a profile view or in
this ventral view). FORT LAUDERDALE, FLORIDA; SPRING 2002. DART HUMESTON.

(Aratinga erythrogenys)
Native Range: Lowland deserts, forests,
and farmlands in Ecuador and Peru;
considered near-threatened (Juniper
and Parr 1998).
U.S. Range: With over 300 individuals, California populations are concentrated in the San Gabriel Valley of Los
Angeles County, San Diego, and San
Francisco (Garrett and Mabb 2002).
In Florida, there are perhaps 100 birds
at Fort Lauderdale and Miami, with a
few others at Cape Canaveral and
elsewhere (Pranty and Epps 2002; B.
Pranty, personal observation).
Identification: Red on the head is
uniformly bright and extends solidly
to behind the eyes. The amount of red
is variable (probably due to age and
sexual differences), with some birds
showing a completely red hood, down

to the base of the lower mandible (see

Fig. 1, p. 249). The head has a bold
white orbital ring, and the bend of the
wing and lesser underwing coverts are
bright red. The combination of extensive red on the head and shoulders
rules out all other Aratinga species.
Calls are like Mitred Parakeets but are
higher pitched and even more nasal.
Notes: Captured in large numbers
for the pet trade, with 26,375 individuals exported to the U.S. from 1985
to 1990 (del Hoyo et al. 1997).

Dusky-headed Parakeet
(Aratinga weddellii)
Native Range: Swamps and lowland
riparian forests in the western Amazon Basin.

255

PA R R O T FA U N A O F T H E A B A A R E A

Fig. 12. Although relatively small for a macaw, the Chestnut-fronted Macaw still dwarfs our other well-established parrots in total length.The extensive bare facial skin is characteristic of macaws and distinguishes this bird
from any Aratinga parakeet. Note the heavy black bill, the dark-chestnut forehead, and the red areas on the bend of
the wing and on the tail. MIAMI SHORES, FLORIDA; 15 MARCH 2002. DART HUMESTON.

U.S. Range: Florida only; apparently

fewer than 50 present at Miami, but
more numerous formerly.
Identification: A small Aratinga with
a blackish bill. The head is dull purplish-gray with a bold white orbital
ring. The breast is dingy green, and
the remaining underparts are yellowish-green. The blue-black flight feathers contrasting with green wing
coverts are reminiscent of Blackhooded Parakeet. Calls are grating, recalling Black-hooded Parakeet.

dish. The chestnut forehead gives the

bird its English name. Calls are loud,
harsh screeches.
White-winged Parakeet
(Brotogeris versicolurus)
Native Range: Savannas and moist
lowland forests along the Amazon
River. Apparently allopatric with Yellow-chevroned Parakeet, which is
found farther south.
U.S. Range: In Florida, 200 or more

are found, mainly at Fort Lauderdale

and sparingly at Miami (Pranty and
Epps 2002, Pranty and Voren 2003).
California populations are limited to
1020 in southern Los Angeles
County and up to 40 at San Francisco
(Garrett and Mabb 2002).
Identification: A small parakeet,
about the size of a Budgerigar. The
plumage is mostly green. Both Brotogeris parakeets discussed here were
considered conspecific until recently,
and were known collectively as the
Canary-winged Parakeet (AOU
1997, AOU 1998, Brightsmith 1999).
Both species have yellow greater secondary coverts, but White-wingeds
also have white inner primaries and
white secondaries tinged with yellow.
The outer primaries are dark bluishblack. The White-winged Parakeet has
a rather wide, gray orbital ring that
merges with gray, unfeathered lores.
The gray lores probably are the most
useful field mark on perched birds,
which typically show only the yellow
secondary coverts. On a perched bird,
a few of the innermost primaries will
occasionally be visible as a small
white patch on the folded wing (see
Fig. 13). Flight call is chree or chreechree, richer and slightly lowerpitched than the similar call of Yellow-

Chestnut-fronted Macaw
(Ara severa)
Native Range: Savannas, palm
groves, and forests from Panama
south to the western Amazon Basin.
U.S. Range: Florida only, at Fort
Lauderdale and Miami. Probably
fewer than 100 individuals occur.
Identification: The largest parrot,
and the only macaw, likely to be encountered in the U.S., although several other macaws have been seen
(and Blue-and-yellow Macaw has
bred). Mostly green above with an entirely white, largely unfeathered face
bordered narrowly by chestnut. The
primaries are blue, and the underwing linings and undertail are red-

256

Fig. 13. The White-winged Parakeet (shown here) and the Yellow-chevroned Parakeet (Fig.14) were formerly considered conspecific, being combined as the Canary-winged Parakeet. Identification of flying birds is simple, with the White-winged showing
white inner primaries and outer secondaries, and the Yellow-chevroned being all green on these flight feathers.Perched birds are
more problematic, as the white in the flight feathers of White-winged can be virtually obscured; a bit of white is just visible on this
White-winged.Other characters that distinguish this species from the Yellow-chevroned are the duller green body color, the more
extensively gray orbital ring and gray feathering in the lores, and a slightly paler bill. KENDALL, FLORIDA; JULY 2001. LARRY MANFREDI.

BIRDING JUNE 2003

Fig. 14. This perched Yellow-chevroned Parakeet is told from the

closely related White-winged Parakeet (Fig. 13) by its brighter grassgreen body plumage, narrower whitish orbital ring, green lores, and
slightly darker bill.Yellow-chevroned Parakeets never show white in the
primaries and secondaries, but, as noted above, the white shown in those
areas by White-winged is often barely visible on the folded wing. MIAMI
SHORES, FLORIDA; 6 AUGUST 2002. DART HUMESTON.

chevroned; perched and interacting

birds give various chattering calls.
Forshaw (1977) correctly describes
the different plumage and loral coloration between the two species of Canary-winged Parakeet, although the illustration of the White-winged Parakeet shows green, feathered lores. The
illustrations in Juniper and Parr (1998,
p. 179) for both species are problematic. The body colors of the perched
adults and the primary patterns of the
flying birds are transposed. Furthermore, the bolder orbital ring and unfeathered, gray lores of the Whitewinged Parakeet are not shown. The
illustration in Sibley (2000) of the Yellow-chevroned Parakeet shows bluish,
rather than green, flight feathers, while
W W W. A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G

Kaufman (2000) does not

clearly show the grayish lores
and wide orbital ring of the
White-winged Parakeet. The
illustrations in NGS (2002)
show correct plumages for
both species.
Notes: Previously abundant
at Miami; a single roost contained 700 birds in 1972
(Owre 1973). Populations
peaked in the early 1970s,
corresponding with the
height of importation, and
declined severely as importation waned (Brightsmith
1999). A similar decline in
California occurred by the
late 1970s (Garrett 1997).
In Florida, it formerly occurred north to West Palm
Beach, but populations
now are limited to Fort
Lauderdale and Miami.
These two Brotogeris
species may be interbreeding at Fort Lauderdale and
San Francisco (Pranty and
Voren 2003).

cussed by Pranty and Garrett (2002).

It is similar overall to White-winged
Parakeet, but the plumage is lighter
green, including the fully-feathered
lores. The orbital ring is white, not
gray, and it is narrower than in
White-winged Parakeet. The primaries and secondaries are green. Calls
are similar to those of White-winged,
but higher and scratchier.
Notes: See White-winged Parakeet.
Red-crowned Parrot
(Amazona viridigenalis)
Native Range: Lowland forests and
farmlands in northeastern Mexico. It

Yellow-chevroned

Parakeet

(Brotogeris chiriri)
Native Range: Savannas
and moist lowland forests south of
the Amazon Basin in central South
America.
U.S. Range: Common in the Los
Angeles area, with over 600 birds
in the Los Angeles basin and adjacent valleys (Garrett and Mabb
2002); a few also occur with
White-winged Parakeets at San
Francisco (Garrett and Mabb 2002;
Pranty and Voren 2003). Over 400
birds are found at Miami (L. Manfredi, personal communication),
with small numbers at Fort Lauderdale (Pranty and Epps 2002),
where the presence of potential hybrids (Pranty and Voren 2003)
complicates field identification.
Identification: This species is dis-

Fig. 15. The Red-crowned Parrot (variously called Greencheeked Amazonor Mexican Red-headby aviculturists) is the
most-well-established parrot in California.It also maintains
significant populations in southern Texas (possibly augmented
by naturally-occurring birds from northeastern Mexico) and in
southern Florida.The three Red-crowneds shown here (a juvenile flanked by two adults) are told from other amazonsby
the combination of a bright-red forehead and forecrown (often
extending to above the eye), a bluish post-ocular region (which
may extend onto the crown), a lack of yellow anywhere on the
head, and a pale ivory-brown bill and cere.The red patch on the
outer secondaries, just visible in these perched birds, is shared
with several other Amazona parrots occurring in the ABA Area.
FORT LAUDERDALE, FLORIDA; JULY 2001. LARRY MANFREDI.

257

PA R R O T FA U N A O F T H E A B A A R E A

Fig. 16. This Lilac-crowned Parrot is best told from the similar Red-crowned
Parrot by its darker-red forehead (not extending as far back as the eye), by the
extensive suffusion of pale lavender-blue on the crown, and by the darker cere.
Shape characters are useful as well, with the Lilac-crowned having a flatter
crown and a longer tail (the latter often quite noticeable in flight).
EL GOLFO DE SANTA CLARA, SONORA; 18 NOVEMBER 2002. KIMBALL L.GARRETT.

is endangered, with a total population

numbering 3,0006,500 individuals
(Juniper and Parr 1998).
U.S. Range: Over 2,600 occur in
southern California, and this species
has been accepted to the state list by
the California Bird Records Committee (Rogers and Jaramillo 2002). In
Florida, several hundred occur from
Palm Beach to Miami (Pranty and
Epps 2002; B. Pranty, unpublished
data). In Texas, naturalized populations are established in Brownsville,
Harlingen, McAllen, Mission, San Antonio, and San Marcos (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997). The species
has been accepted to the Texas state
list (TBRC 2003).
Identification: This parrot is the
third species discussed by Pranty and
Garrett (2002). Among the Amazona

258

Fig. 17. This Orange-winged Parakeet shows the typical chunky shape of Amazona parrots.The
small yellow patch on the crown (barely visible here) and the more extensive yellow on the face are
separated by a blue line that extends through and just above the eye.The patch of color on the secondaries recalls that of Lilac-crowned and Red-crowned Parrots, but it is smaller and more orange in tone.
The orange-red visible here on the tail feathers is more extensive than the limited amount sometimes
shown by Lilac-crowned and Red-crowned Parrots. MIAMI SPRINGS, FLORIDA; JULY 2001. LARRY MANFREDI.

parrots likely to be encountered in the U.S.,

only two have red on
the crowns and red patches on the
outer secondaries: Red-crowned and
Lilac-crowned Parrots. On the adult
Red-crowned Parrot, the red forehead extends backward to at least
the fore-crown, the hind-crown is
pale blue, and the remainder of the
head is green. On the Lilac-crowned
Parrot, the forehead is darker red
and the crown is lavender-blue, and
this color curves downward behind
the auriculars to the base of the
head. The Red-lored Parrot breeds in
very small numbers in the San
Gabriel Valley of California, and it
has occurred in Florida and Texas; it
is similar but has red at the base of
the outer rectrices, blackish on the
bill, and a yellow stripe or patch below the eyes. The Red-crowned gives
various grating and cawing calls, as

well as a distinctive rolling, downward-inflected whistle.

Notes: Translocations from the populations in California, Florida, and
Texas could be used to supplement
the endangered native population in
Mexico. A potential complication,
though, is the possibility that the U.S.
populations are hybridizing with
Lilac-crowned (and maybe other
Amazona) Parrots (Garrett 1997).

Lilac-crowned Parrot
(Amazona finschi)
Native Range: Lowland and foothill
forests of western Mexico from southern Sonora to Oaxaca.
U.S. Range: More than 500 occur in
southern California, mainly around
Los Angeles and San Diego (Garrett
and Mabb 2002). Escapees have been
seen in Florida (Pranty 2001a).
Identification: Similar to Redcrowned Parrot in being mainly
BIRDING JUNE 2003

green with red on the forehead and

secondaries, but noticeably longertailed; the flatter crown and limited
dark-red forehead patch result in a
very different countenance. The entire crown is washed with lilac, unlike the more limited blue of Redcrowned. The cere is noticeably
darker than the bill (the cere and
bill are usually concolor in Redcrowned). Many calls are identical to
those of Red-crowned Parrot, but the
Lilac-crowned also gives, especially

in flight, a distinctive, squeaky rising

whistle, ker-leek?

Comparisons of Field Guides

cludes the Yellow-lored Parrot (Amazona xantholora) because of the potential for sightings of escapes in
Florida (D. Sibley, personal communication); however, there are no known
reports for the state (Pranty 2001a).
National Geographic Society (NGS
2002) includes 15 exotic parrots; it is
the only guide that fully depicts the
Orange-winged Parrot (Sibley includes a head-only illustration). All
the species shown in this guide occur
at the present time, and the only frequently-seen species that is excluded
is the Chestnut-fronted Macaw.
Sibleys is the only North American
guide that shows dorsal and ventral
views of parakeets in flight. Not even
Forshaw (1977) or Juniper and Parr
(1998) do this. Unfortunately, these
views are available in Sibley only for a
few Amazona parrots, for the Chestnut-fronted Macaw, and for the parakeets. Furthermore, most Amazona
parrot illustrations show only the upperside of the tail, whereas observers
in the field, looking up at a parrot
perched on a powerline or in a palm
or other tree, see only the underside
of the tail. The lack of ventral views
of parrot tails is a recurring shortcoming of all current illustrated guides.
One drawback of North American
field guidesand even of the parrot
books by Forshaw (1977) and Juniper
and Parr (1998)is that illustrations
of pre-adult plumages are lacking or

Here we discuss psittacid treatment in

the Big Three North American field
guides: Kaufman (2000), Sibley (2000),
and NGS (2002). We do not consider
Peterson (2002), because the treatment
of parrots was not updated from the
preceding edition (Peterson 1980) and
now is quite outdated. Other field
guides to North America contain few or
no parrot species. All three of the
guides treated here include the Thickbilled Parrot, which has not occurred in
the U.S. (Arizona) since the 1930s; a
reintroduction attempt in the 1980s
was not successful.
Kaufman (2000) includes photographs of 15 frequently seen exotic
parrots, and all occur at the present
time. Chestnut-fronted Macaw,
Dusky-headed Parakeet, and Orangewinged Parrot are the only additional
species that perhaps should have
been included.
Sibley (2000) illustrates 27 exotic
species (8 of these as heads-andshoulders only) and briefly mentions
several others. Sibleys guide provides
the most comprehensive treatment of
exotic parrots available in any of the
U.S. field guides, and the guide even
includes many non-established
species seen infrequently. Two species
with very small breeding populations
in southeastern Florida (the Blue-andyellow Macaw and White-eyed Parakeet) are not mentioned. Sibley in-

W W W. A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G

Orange-winged Parrot
(Amazona amazonica)
Native Range: Savannas, farmlands,
and forests in much of northern and
central South America.
U.S. Range: Florida only, with
perhaps 100 individuals at Fort
Lauderdale and Miami combined
(Pranty and Epps 2002; CBC data).
Identification: An Amazona with a

yellow face and crown divided by an

azure stripe above and through the
eyes. The remainder of the plumage
is green except for a small orange
patch on the outer secondaries. The
tail is green with a yellowish tip, with
orange in the outer rectrices. The bill
is horn-colored. Its highly varied vocal repertoire includes harsh
screeches, screams, and squawks,
as well as melodious trilling, bubbling, and whistling sounds (Juniper
and Parr 1998).

incomplete. Some of the larger parrots, such as the Amazona, attain sexual maturity in their third or fourth
year. Adult plumages are acquired
gradually, and some sub-adult
plumages differ markedly from those
of adults. Also problematic are allgreen juvenile Aratinga parakeets. Aviculturists must hold a wealth of data
on plumage maturation in parrots, but
little of this information has infiltrated
the ornithological literature.

Future Directions
Once birders begin to master the field
identification of naturalized parrots in
North America, a host of ecological issues awaits to be illuminated. In particular, resource use and the extent to
which parrots occupy natural habitats
and affect native species need active
study. In Florida, Black-hooded Parakeets, native to central South America,
widely nest in palms endemic to Mexico. Monk Parakeets nest in a variety
of artificial structures, as well as in
palms and other trees from all over
the world. Amazona parrots, from separate ranges in Central or South
America, roost together in trees native
to Australia. In California, Yellowchevroned Parakeets forage on seeds
of silk-floss trees (Chorisia speciosa,
native to South America like the parakeets), but they are also quick to take
a sugar fix from the blossoms of various Australian eucalypts.

259

PA R R O T FA U N A O F T H E A B A A R E A

Table 1. Comparison of exotic parrots included in the Big Three North American field
guides. Boldfaced species represent those discussed in our species accounts, pp. 251259, and depicted in Figs. 317. Overall, 27 species of exotic parrots are illustrated in the three guides listed, and
Sibley includes all of them. Sibley illustrates some parrots as head-and-shoulder images, whereas
NGS and Kaufman include only full-body views.
SPECIES

KAUFMAN (2000)

Sulphur-crested Cockatoo

NGS (2002)

Cockatiel

Budgerigar

Peach-faced Lovebird

Rose-ringed Parakeet

Monk Parakeet

Black-hooded Parakeet

Blue-crowned Parakeet

Red-masked Parakeet

Green Parakeet

Mitred Parakeet

Dusky-headed Parakeet

Chestnut-fronted Macaw

White-winged Parakeet

Yellow-chevroned Parakeet

White-fronted Parrot

Red-crowned Parrot

Lilac-crowned Parrot

Acknowledgments
Karen Mabb, Alison Sheehey, and numerous others have greatly enhanced
our knowledge of parrot populations
in California, and we thank them for
their hard work. In Florida, comments by Herman Bechtel, John Boyd,
Susan Epps, David Goodwin, Larry
Manfredi, Lee Snyder, and Howard
Voren are greatly appreciated. Pranty
thanks Holly Lovell for support, as
well as Terry Doyle and Kathy
OReilly-Doyle for other assistance.

Blue-fronted Parrot

Red-lored Parrot

Yellow-lored Parrot

Literature Cited

Hispaniolan Parrot

Orange-winged Parrot

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[AOU]. 1998. Check-list of North

Yellow-headed Parrot

Yellow-naped Parrot

Yellow-crowned Parrot

Mealy Parrot

SPECIES ILLUSTRATED

260

SIBLEY (2000)

Many of the same speciesand even

the same subspeciesof parrots are
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15

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