International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6

ISSN: 2226-3624

The Analysis of Knowledge, Knowledge Management

and Knowledge Management Cycles: A Broad Review
Jawad Kayani
Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad Campus, Pakistan
Email: jwdkayani@gmail.com

M. Qamar Zia
Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad Campus, Pakistan
Email: Mqamarzia@yahoo.com
Abstract
Knowledge is a vital asset for any organization. There are two types of knowledge, tacit and
explicit knowledge. Knowledge management has become a serious topic in the last decade.
Knowledge management turned into an essential part of the organization due to high
importance. The common stages of the knowledge management process are storing, gathering,
structuring, sharing, controlling, generating, distributing, codifying, using and exploiting. The
main purpose of this study is to examine the knowledge, knowledge management and
knowledge management cycles and how they are playing vital role in managing the knowledge.
Knowledge is prestigious entity and organizations cannot survive without knowledge because
it's offering lots of benefits in the professional world.
Keywords: Knowledge, Knowledge Management, KM Cycles
Introduction
Knowledge
Knowledge is a conceptual viewpoint, and accurate estimation with an account (Plato, 347BC).
A dynamic human process of justifying personal belief toward the truth called knowledge
(Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). A fluid mix of framed experiences, values, contextual
information and expert insight called Knowledge (Prusak, 1998). A capacity that builds on
information extracted from data or the set of expectations that an observer hold with respect
to an event called Knowledge (Boisot, 1998). Knowledge is a vital asset (Chase, 2000). There
are three forms of knowledge, first form refers knowledge is prearranged in entities and
tangible structures. Second form refers knowledge refers to ideas and concepts. Third form
refers distribution of linguistic formulations, theories, and models (popper, 2000). Head of
countries and executives need the tacit knowledge (Goldberg, 2005). Research based
knowledge is unsuccessful in guiding policy and practice (Department of Trade and Industry,
2001). The interaction of vital people and their departments can play a key part in knowledge
creation/construction in the organization (Nonaka, 1996). Explicit knowledge encloses the
152

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

words/terminologies, diagrams like tables & graphs, or photographs/snaps (Collins, 2001).

Explicit knowledge is scientific or intellectual facts or information that is expressed in proper
language, like instruction manuals, arithmetical/statistical expressions/terminologies, copyright
and patents (Smith, 2001). Tacit knowledge is an individual type of knowledge, which acquire
from through experience (Augier, Shari and Vendelo, 2001). Tacit knowledge can be
competitive edge because it's tougher to specify, duplicate, and share (Meyer, 1997). There are
two categories of knowledge: tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi,
1995). Knowledge develops the mentality of freedom (Hegel, 1831). Knowledge is a key source
for s maintainable competitive edge (Grant, 1996b; Nonaka et al., 2001). Practical/useful
Information which based on experience called knowledge (Leonard-Barton, 1995; Leonard and
Sensiper, 1998). Organizational knowledge produced from associated people of the
organization (Zarraga and Saa, 2006). Knowledge turn into crucial for organizations to carry on
internal and external change in their surroundings (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Jarrar, 2002)
and to achieve the benefits (Lee, 2000). Knowledge is a real organizational resource (Drucker,
2002). Knowledge increment leads to production opportunities plus create the unique
opportunities for every single firm (Penrose, 1959).
Knowledge Management
Decision makers must consider the knowledge management because it is important for
organizational survival and competitiveness (Goodman and Chinowsky, 1997). Knowledge
management looks are a big motivation for organization (Carrillo, 2000). Managing knowledge
is an old issue (Roos et al., 1997). Knowledge management is the one of the modern areas of
research in the last decade (Kalpic and Bernus, 2006). KM has extensive significance because its
explain administrators/managers' concerns and builds attentiveness of knowledge as a costeffective plus point (Spender, 2002). Knowledge management process consists of four
processes including capturing, arranging, refining and shifting (Awad and Ghaziri, 2004). The
stages of knowledge transfer are parallel to the stages of the knowledge management process:
arranging, distribution, adapting, using, generating, defining, and gathering (Odell, Grayson
and Essaides, 2003). KM process contains phases: make/create, store/retrieve, shift and use
(Alavi and Leidner, 2001). Km conceptualizes through ideas, assumptions, perceptions and
models (Earl, 2001; Kakabadse et al., 2003). Companies in Japan achieved the success at the
international level due to organizational knowledge creation ability (Gupta and Govindarajan,
2000). Organizations must place, make, distribute and apply organizational knowledge to
maintain competitiveness (Zack, 1998). Knowledge cannot completely transfer during
conversation (Polanyi, 1958).
Knowledge Management Cycles
Knowledge making/building is an unstoppable process which has several elements including the
idea generation, grasping new models and mixing the theories/concepts for new processes
(Jashapara, 2004). There are several KM cycles exists: Meyer and Zack (1996), Bukowitz and
Williams (2000), McElroy (2003), and Wiig (1993).
153

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Meyer and Zack KM Cycle (1996)

This cycle has been derived from the design and development of information products. Meyer
and Zack (1996) tied the vital stages of knowledge repository with own KM Cycle Stages. There
are five stages of Meyer and Zack KM Cycle.
Repository of
Research Results

Acquire

Sources

Refine

All Stages

Store

Distribute

Reports
Newsletters
Bulletins

Present

Users

Figure. 1
Acquire
Get the raw data from various sources. Keep the following things in mind when trying to obtain
the data: intensity, precision, scope, cost, significance, management and suitability.

154

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Refinement
Refinement means insert value, reorganization, relabeling and indexing both. Refinement can
be physical or logical.
Storage/Retrieval
A vital stage of this KM cycle because it creates a connection between the first two stages.
Storage of information can be physical (hard notes, files) or digital (soft files, database).
Distribution
Distribution means providing information to users through various mediums (emails,
telephone, fax, letters).
Use
Use the obtained information in the daily operations of group and organization for better
future output.

155

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

The Wiig KM Cycle (1993)

Build

Learn from personal experience

Formal education and training
Intelligence sources
Media, books, peers

Hold

In people
In tangible forms (e.g. books)

Pool

KM systems (intranet, database)

Groups of people brainstorm

Use

In work context
Embedded in work processes

All Stages

Figure. 2
Build
Acquire, analyze, recreate, synthesize, codify, model, organize the new or/and existing
knowledge.
Hold
Remember, accumulate, implant, record in repositories of knowledge for future use.

156

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Pool
Coordinate, accumulate, renovate, generate, access, retrieve the knowledge.
Use
Complete tasks, survey, describe, select, scrutinize, create, evaluate, decide, execute the
knowledge.
The McElroy KM Cycle (2003)

Knowledge
Production

Organizational
Knowledge

Knowledge
Integration

Distributed
Organizational
Knowledge
Base

Business-Processing
Environment

Figure. 3
Knowledge Production
Solution of problem about existing knowledge tries to find out through the formulation,
codification and evaluation.
Knowledge Integration
Solution of problem or/and new knowledge introduced in organizational settings through the
following ways: transmit, search, educate, share.

157

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

The Bukowitz and Williams Cycle (2000)

Get

Assess

Use

Knowledge

Build / Sustain

Learn

Contribute

Divest

Figure. 4
Get
Obtain the information which is required for decisions and problem solving.
Use
Apply the new obtained information in everyday work to improve the organizational operations
and output.
Learn
The Process to gain knowledge from several experiences to construct the organizational
competitive edge/value.

158

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Contribute
Learned knowledge shared by employees/staff across the whole organization to improve the
operations.
Assess
Assessment phase deals with individuals, groups and organization level. Assessment means the
review of intellectual or corporeal assets (e.g. Information, knowledge) against the future needs
of individuals, groups and organizations.
Build/Sustain
Build the new intellectual or corporeal assets if current intellectual assets will not fulfill the
future needs and if current intellectual assets will fulfill the future needs then sustain them.
Divest
Get rid of worthless intellectual or corporeal assets.
JQ Incorporated KM Cycle

Discover/
Determine
Obtain/Get

Filter/Refine

Share/Supply

Utilize/Apply

Storage/Stock

Delete/Remove

Figure. 5

159

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Discover/Determine
Find out the desired information from available sources and determine the target. Source of
information can be primary or secondary.
Obtain/Get
When desired information discovered then get the target information from predetermined
sources of information.
Filter/Refine
Analyze, reshape, reform and relabel the new obtained information.
Share/Supply
Provide the filtered information to individual, groups and entire organization.
Utilize/Apply
Implement the shared information in work activities in organizational settings to improve the
operations and overall output.
Storage/Stock
Save the information in different mediums (databases, files, notes) for future needs.
Delete/Remove
Divest the worthless/useless information from records, databases.
Benefits and Detriments Of Knowledge Management
Benefits of Knowledge Management

160

Enhances the effectiveness business processes.

Brings consistency in all activities and operations.
Improves the communication internally and externally.
Can be a source of competitive advantage.
Opens new markets.
Provides the solution of the problem(s).
Saves the cost and time.
Improves the profitability of the organization.
www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Detriments of Knowledge Management

Resistance to new KM systems and related technologies in organizational settings.

Hard to keep up with pace of knowledge change.
Inability to meet the expectations of the organization.
Expensive KM systems and technologies are required to manage knowledge.
Specialized training and education is needed to manage KM systems and technologies.

Conclusion
Knowledge and management of knowledge became a vital concern for organizations in the last
couple of years because it offers lot of vital benefits including competitive edge, improvement
in the business processes, increase in the communication, saves money and time of
organization which enhances the overall productivity. Today without knowledge management
organization cannot survive in the market. The common stages of the knowledge management
process are such as storing, gathering, structuring, sharing, controlling, generating, distributing,
codifying, using and exploiting. The knowledge management cycle is a continuous process
where information is identified, obtained, refined, shared, used, stored and divested. The
above KM cycles highlight that how knowledge is managed in the organizational environment.
KM offers several key benefits to organizations.
References
Dalkir, K (2005). Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice. McGill University: Elsevier
ButterworthHeinemann, 2 - 326.
Bukowitz, W., & Williams, R. (2000). The knowledge management Fieldbook. London: Prentice
Hall.
Martensson, M. (2000). A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool,
Journal of Knowledge Management, 4 (3), 204 - 216.
McElroy, M. (1999). The knowledge life cycle. In Proceedings of the ICM Conference on KM.
Miami, FL.
Campos, B. d. F. L. (2008). Analysis of The New Knowledge Management: Guidelines to Evaluate
KM Frameworks, VINE, 38 (1), 30 - 41.
Kalpic, B., & Bernus, P. (2006). Business Process Modeling Through the Knowledge
Management Perspective, Journal of Knowledge Management, 10 (3), 40 - 56.
Gera, R. (2012). Bridging the Gap in Knowledge Transfer Between Academia and Practitioners,
International Journal of Educational Management, 26 (3), 252 - 273.
161

www.hrmars.com

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences

November 2012, Vol. 1, No. 6
ISSN: 2226-3624

Sagsan, M. (2006). A New Life Cycle Model for Processing of Knowledge Management.
Proceedings of International Conference on Business, Management and Economics in zmir,
Turkey, 1 - 9.
Gooijer, d. J. (2000). Designing a Knowledge Management Performance Framework, Journal of
Knowledge Management, 4 (4), 303 - 310.
Moteleb, AA., & Mark Woodman, M. (2007). Notions of Knowledge Management Systems: a
Gap Analysis, The Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 5 (1), 55 - 62.
Fard, D. H., & Selseleh, M. (2010). Measuring Knowledge Management Cycle: Evidence from
Iran, European Journal of Scientific Research, 41 (2), 297 - 309.
Abzari, M., Shaemi, A., Talebi, H., Freyedon, A., & Abdolmanafi, S. (2010). A Study of Amount of
Paying Attention to Knowledge Management and Providing Solutions (Case study: Automobile
Industry of Iran), European Journal of Social Sciences, 15 (4), 599 - 610.
Pun, F. K., & Nathai-Balkissoon, M. (2011). Integrating knowledge management into
organizational learning: A Review of Concepts and Models, The Learning Organization, 18 (3),
203 - 223.
Craig Standing, C., & Benson, S. (2000). Irradiating Intranet Knowledge: The Role of the
Interface, Journal of Knowledge Management, 4 (3), 244 - 251.
Kim, K-S., & Silvana Trimi, S. (2007). IT for KM in the Management Consulting Industry, Journal
of Knowledge Management, 11 (3), 145 - 155.
Gao, F., Li, M., & Clarke, S. (2008). Knowledge, management, and knowledge management in
business operations, Journal of Knowledge Management, 12 (2), 3 - 17.
Meyer, M., & Zack, M. (1996). The design and implementation of information products. Sloan
Management Review, 37 (3), 43-59.
Wiig, K. (1993). Knowledge management foundations. Arlington, TX: Schema Press.
McElroy, M. W. (2003). The new knowledge management: complexity, learning, and sustainable
innovation. KMCI Press.

162

www.hrmars.com