CHAPTER 4

Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Chapter Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.

Assemble mass balances for treatment systems.

Recall derivation of the equations of motion.
Identify various energy forms and formulate energy balances.
Solve Bernoullis equation for treatment systems.

General Balances
An important concept in all branches of engineering is that of a balance. A balance is simply a proper accounting of an item of interest, such as energy, momentum, total mass, or mass of an individual species (such as a contaminant). More
precisely, a balance is a mathematical statement describing the change in quantity
of an item of interest within defined system boundaries by transport, reaction,
accumulation, etc.
A balance analogy with which we are all familiar is balancing our checkbook.
If we are not careful to account for the money deposited and withdrawn from our
checking account, we can have an overdrawn account or bounce a check. Some
of us know the problems with bouncing a check. Conversely, having a high accumulation of money in a checking account may not be a good idea, as a better interest rate (for those checking accounts that are paying an interest rate) can be found
in other types of accounts. So we all are probably aware of the need to carefully
account for the money coming into our accounts, the money leaving, and the form
in which the money exists (savings versus checking accounts). In engineering,
many times we will want to account for energy, mass, etc. The simple accounting
of mass and energy in a system is often the only way to understand the operation
or predict the performance of a treatment system. Moreover, an incorrect accounting of mass and energy in a treatment system can have very dire consequences.
This chapter discusses the general approach for conducting a balance, and then
focuses on mass, momentum, and energy balances for treatment systems.

53

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

54

dA
u
flow

system
control
volume
Figure 4-1. A system showing transport (flow) through a control volume.

A balance is written for a specific entity of interest over a system boundary, or

control volume, as shown in Fig. 4-1.
Balances can be conducted on extensive propertiesproperties that are dependent on the amount of material present. Energy, mass, and momentum are properties that are dependent on the amount of material present, and they are therefore extensive properties. Intensive properties are independent of the amount of
material. Density, viscosity, and pressure are intensive properties, and balances
cannot be made on them.
Many balances can be performed for treatment systems; these include the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

overall material or mass balances,

individual component material balances over various stages of the process,
momentum balances, and
energy balances.

Mass Balances
Mass balances are constructed based on the principle of conservation of mass.
That is, mass cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form. The amount
of mass in a closed system remains constant.
A mass balance is a mathematical statement describing the change in mass of a
constituent within defined system boundaries (the control volume) by transport
across boundaries and/or by reaction within system boundaries. It may be written as
input through generation output through



 accumulation (4-1)
system boundaries inside system system boundaries

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

55

The first and third terms account for the mass that is transported into and
out of the control volume, respectively. The second term accounts for generation
within the control volume. In hydraulics calculations for treatment systems, we can
usually assume that there is no material generation, so the second term is usually
unnecessary. It is left here to keep the balance in general terms. The fourth term
accounts for accumulation of mass within the control volume, which may increase
or decrease for transient processes. For processes that are steady state (defined as
occurring when the state of mass throughout the system, at every point in the
control volume, does not change with time) and steady flow (in which there is
constant mass flux through the system boundaries), accumulation in the control
volume is zero.
There are some general rules for constructing mass balances:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Draw a flow diagram of the process and choose a control volume.

Place all available data on the diagram.
Determine flow rates and material compositions (concentrations or densities).
Select a basis for calculations (such as pounds or grams). Make sure the units
used are consistent.
Mass balances can be accomplished on two spatial scales:

1. microscale, with a differential point form, or

2. macroscale, with a discretized form.

Microscale Mass Balance

If we consider a small element in space, such as shown in the Fig. 4-2, and write a
mass balance in three dimensions, we can get the point form of the mass balance
equation. The mass in a cube of dimensions x, y, and z and density  at time t is
t x y z

(4-2)

t t x y z

(4-3)

(t t x y z)  ( t x y z)

(4-4)

and at time t  t the mass is

So the accumulation over t is

The flow into the cube through face a is

a  Vxa  y  z  t
where Vxa is the velocity in the x direction through face a due to the flow.

(4-5)

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

fa
ce

56

face

face

z
y
face

ce

fa

face e
Figure 4-2. Fluid element for three-dimensional mass balance.

The flow out of the cube through face b is

b  Vxb  y  z  t

(4-6)

where Vxb is the velocity in the x direction through face b.

The flow through the other faces can be written similarly and substituted into
the mass balance equation

output through
input through
system boundaries  generation inside system  system boundaries  accumulation
to yield
[( aVxa y z t)  ( cVyc x z t)  ( eVze xy t)]  0
 [( bVxb y z t)  ( d Vyd x z t)  ( f Vz f xy t)]

(4-7)

 [( t  t   t ) xy z]
Rearranging yields


( t  t   t )
t

xy z  [( bVxb y z)  ( dVyd x z)  ( f Vz f xy)]

 [( aVxa y z)  ( cVyc x z)  ( eVze xy)]

(4-8)

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

57

Simplifying, we have

( t  t   t )
t

 V   V  V   V  f Vz   eVz
b xb
a xa
d yd
c yc
f
e





y
z
x

(4-9)

Taking the limits t 0, x 0, y 0, and z 0 then yields

 (Vx ) (Vy ) (Vz )




t
x
y
z

(4-10)

This is the three-dimensional continuity equation at a point in the Cartesian

coordinate system.

Macroscale Mass Balance

Consider a nonreacting incompressible flow through the steady-state and steadyflow system shown in Fig. 4-3 with a varying cross section. Mass flows into the system at boundary 1. So the net input to the system through the system boundary is
1  A1  V1  t

(4-11)

where A1 is the area at boundary 1 and V1 is the fluid velocity at boundary 1. The
output of mass from the system through boundary 2 is
2  A2  V2  t

(4-12)

where A2 is the area at boundary 2 and V2 is the fluid velocity at boundary 2.

boundary
1

boundary
2

system
Figure 4-3. Flow through two boundaries in a system.

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

58

In this system there is no generation or accumulation of the fluid. So the mass

balance becomes
1A1V1 t  0  2A2V2 t  0

(4-13)

The time increment, t, cancels, yielding

1A1V1  2A2V2

(4-14)

The quantity AV is the mass flow rate, m:

m  AV

(4-15)

Units for mass flow rate include kilograms per second and pounds-mass per
second.
For constant density, Eq. 4-14 simplifies to
A1V1  A2V2

(4-16)

The quantity AV is the volumetric flow rate, Q:

Q  AV

(4-17)

Units for Q include cubic meters per second, cubic feet per second, and gallons per minute (gpm).
Then, for this system, which is assumed to be incompressible, with no mass
accumulation or generation, we have
Q1  Q 2

(4-18)

For a system with multiple inflows and outflows and an incompressible fluid,
a more general equation is

Qin  Qout

(4-19)

For the more general scenario where the system may not be operating at steady
state or steady flow (i.e., accumulation or depletion may occur in the system) and
the fluid may not be incompressible, the mass input to the system is (min  t), and
the output is (mout  t):
(min  t)  0  (mout  t)  m

(4-20)

where m is the change in mass within the system.

Summary of Mass Balances

Mass balances are developed by accounting for mass input, output, accumulation,
and generation (where needed) in a system of interest. The principle of conservation of mass is an important concept applied in all branches of engineering,
including hydraulics and treatment systems. The resulting mass balance applied

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

59

to a system is also called the continuity equation, and one often refers to this as
just continuity.

Example
Equalization tanks are frequently used in treatment systems to provide a more uniform flow rate to following treatment processes, to dampen flow variations to a
certain extent. In this example, wastewater is flowing into an equalization tank at
the head of a treatment system. See Fig. 4-4. The wastewater flows at 16,000 gpm
for 6 hr, and the system treats 14,000 gpm maximum. If the equalization tank
starts with 100,000 gallons in it, what volume of the wastewater is in the tank at the
end of 6 hr?

Solution
From Eq. 4-20, we have
(min  t)  (mout  t)  m
The fluid density can be assumed to be constant, so we divide by  to get
m& in
m
m& out
  t    t  

which simplifies to
v  (Qin  Qout) ( t)
Substituting numerical values then gives
60 miin

gal
gal
v  16, 000
14, 000
(6 hr)

min
min

1 hr
720, 000 gal

equalization tank
influent

variable water volume

for further treatment
in wastewater treatment
system

Figure 4-4. Equalization tank example.

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

60

So the total volume of wastewater in the equilibration tank at the end of 6 hr

is 720,000 gal (the net inflow) plus the initial 100,000 gal, or 820,000 gal total.

Equations of Motion
Newtons second law of motion states
mass  acceleration 

forces

(4-21)

For fluids, the mass of a fluid element in motion possesses momentum. Momentum per unit volume (similar to mass per unit volume or ), or momentum density, is defined as
momentum density    velocity

(4-22)

Dividing each term in Newtons second law by volume v yields

mass
forces
 acceleration 
v
v

(4-23)

v
  acceleration  f

(4-24)

or

where f represents the forces per unit volume (a vector) exerted on the fluid eleu
ment body or fluid element surfaces, and f is the net force per unit volume.
For a fluid element moving along a streamline of fluid flow, the velocity of the
fluid element is a function of time and location. The acceleration of the fluid element can be found by using the chain rule of differentiation:
acceleration 

v
v
v
v
V V dx V dy V dz



t x dt
y dt
z dt

(4-25)

Since dx/dt  Vx, dy/dt  Vy, and dz/dt  Vx, we can write
v
v
v
v
V V
V
V
acceleration 
 Vx
 Vy
 Vz
t x
y
z

(4-26)

Note that acceleration can also be written as the material or substantial derivative of
velocity, where the material derivative is
v
D

  (V  )
Dt t

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

61

The vector differential operator

(del or nabla) in rectangular coordinates is
 i
i

xi

where xi are variables associated with the axes and i are the unit vectors. So
Newtons second law becomes


v
v
DV
 f
Dt

Inserting the term for acceleration defined by Eq. 4-26 into Eq. 4-24 for acceleration gives the general momentum balance:
v
v
v
v
v
V (V )
(V )
(V )

 Vx
 Vy
 Vz
 f

x
y
z
t

(4-27)
u

Note that Vx, Vy, and Vz are the components of local fluid velocity, V (a vector).
So, starting with our general balance approach, we constructed a momentum
balance. But the general balance must be modified by accounting for forces exerted
on the fluid element. So the word definition of the momentum balance becomes
net rate of flow of

accumulation

sum of forces on

momentum through  fluid boundaries  (rate of change of

system bo
momentum in system)
oundaries

(4-28)

Rearranging this we get

net rate of flow of

accumulation

sum of forces on
(rate of change of  momentum through  fluid boundaries
momentum in syystem) system boundaries

(4-29)

This word definition of the conservation of momentum matches the equation

defining the momentum balance, Eq. 4-27, where
v
V
accumulation 
t

v
v
v
(V )
(V )
(V )
net rate of momentum through system boundaries   Vx
 Vy
 Vz
z
x
y

v
sum of forces on fluid boundaries  f

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

62

A fluid element may be affected by both body forces (distributed throughout

the fluid element) and surface forces. The force of gravity on the fluid in the element is a body force. Normal () and shear stresses () are due to surface forces.
Incorporating these forces, we can write the momentum equation in the x, y, and
z directions to form the equations of motion in Cartesian coordinates (see Table 4-1).
Table 4-1. Equations of motions and the NavierStokes equations.
Equations of Motion ( for Cartesian coordinate system)
x direction:

Vx

(Vx )

(Vy )

(Vz )

 Vx

 Vy

(Vx )
y

 Vz

 xx  yx  zx


g




x
y
z
z
x

(Vx )

y direction:

Vy

 Vx

 Vy

(Vy )
y

 Vz

(Vy )

 xy  yy  zy



 g y 
y
z
z
x

z direction:

Vz

 Vx

 Vy

(Vz )
y

 Vz

 xz  yz  zz


g




z
y
z
z
x

(Vz )

NavierStokes Equations
x direction:

Vx

(Vx )

 Vx

 Vy

(Vx )
y

 Vz

(Vx )

2Vx 2Vx 2Vx

P




g

 2  2

x
2
x
z
y
z
x

y direction:

Vy

(Vy )

 Vx

 Vy

(Vy )
y

 Vz

(Vy )

2 Vy 2 Vy 2 Vy
P
  g y   2  2  2
z
y
y
z
x

z direction:

Vz

(Vz )

 Vx

 Vy

(Vz )
y

 Vz

(Vz )

2Vz 2Vz 2Vz

P




g

 2  2

z
2
z
z
y
z
x

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

For incompressible Newtonian fluids, by substituting in terms for  and  (terms

defined in pressure, viscosity, and rates of deformation) under laminar flow conditions, the NavierStokes equations can be derived from the momentum equation
(see Table 4-1). The NavierStokes equations completely describe incompressible
laminar Newtonian fluid flow. See Munson et al. (2002) for a derivation of the
NavierStokes equations.

Thermodynamics
Although many contributed to the early knowledge of energy and its transformations (e.g., Carnot, Joule, Kelvin, and Helmholtz), the body of knowledge now
known as thermodynamics is attributed in large part to the work of J. Willard
Gibbs and Jacobus vant Hoff (Lewis and Randall 1923; Sposito 1981). Lewis and
Randall (1923) stated that
The fascination of a growing science lies in the work of the pioneers at the
very borderland of the unknown, but to reach this frontier one must pass
over well traveled roads; of these one of the safest and surest is the broad
highway of thermodynamics.
This quote illustrates the importance and utility of thermodynamics in solving
complex and unresolved problems. Thermodynamics is the science addressing the
relationship among mechanical energy, work, and heat, and the conversions among
them. It had its origins in steam engine design many years ago, but the subject now
covers energy transfer and transformations of all kinds. A thermodynamic approach
can be very useful for solving hydraulics problems in treatment systems. For our
discussion of thermodynamics some definitions are in order:
Systemcontrol volume or element of space for study.
Surroundingseverything external to the system.
Boundarythe surface, either real or imaginary, that surrounds the system
and may be either rigid or movable.
Boundary impermeable to mass flowclosed system.
Flow of at least one componentopen system.
Extensive propertydependent on amount of material present (e.g., mass).
Intensive propertyindependent of the amount of material present (e.g., pressure or temperature).
There are four fundamental thermodynamic laws: the zeroth, first, second,
and third laws of thermodynamics. Although all of the thermodynamic postulates
are of fundamental importance, the first law of thermodynamics (also known as
conservation of energy) is of particular utility for understanding hydraulic systems
and will be discussed in detail later. It is the basis for Bernoullis equation, one of
the most useful equations for predicting the behavior of fluids.

63

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

64

As discussed earlier in the chapter, general balances can be made on extensive properties, such as mass. Balances can also be performed on energy, which is
another extensive property. The fact that energy is conserved in all processes
and systems and that an energy balance can be made is explained by the first
law of thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only converted in form.
The various energy forms with which we are concerned in treatment systems are
discussed in the following section.
Typical units for energy in the SI system of units include joules [J],
newtonmeters [Nm], or kgm2 s2. In U.S. Customary units, one uses ftlbf
or lbmftlbf1 s2. Other units used are the calorie and the British thermal
unit [BTU].

Energy Forms
Internal Energy
A substance is composed of molecules that are in constant motion. Internal energy
is the kinetic energy of translation and rotation of the molecules that makes up
the substance. Therefore it is internal to the substance, and not a function of the
substances movement or location (as a whole). The translational and rotational
motion of the molecules depends on temperature. A higher temperature produces
greater motion of the molecules, and therefore the substance has an inherently
greater internal energy.
Internal energy is a state function. That is, its value does not depend on the
process taking place, just the present conditions (such as temperature and pressure). Absolute values of internal energy are not known; internal energy can only
be quantified in comparison to a reference state. Absolute values of internal energy
are not normally of concern; the changes in internal energy when going from one
set of conditions to another are what matters.
The symbol U is used to denote internal energy and has energy units, whereas
u is used for specific internal energy, or internal energy per unit mass.
Kinetic Energy
When a force is applied to a body, or an element of a substance, to accelerate it
over a distance, work is done and can be quantified with
dW  F  dx

(4-30)

where F is the force causing a displacement dx of the body or element.

Applying Newtons second law, F  ma, gives
dW  ma  dx

(4-31)

By substituting the derivative of the velocity with time, dV/dt, for a, Eq. 4-29
becomes
dW  m

dV
 dx
dt

(4-32)

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

65

where V is the velocity of the body or element. Rearranging gives

dx
 dV
dt

(4-33)

dW  mV  dV

(4-34)

dW  m
and since dx/dt  velocity, we have

Integrating from V1 to V2 results in

V2
V2 V2 1
1
W  m VdV  m 2  1  mV22  mV12
2 2
2
2
V1

(4-35)

This equation shows that the work done on a body or element in accelerating it
is equal to the change in the bodys kinetic energy. The quantity 12 mV 2 is the kinetic
energy that a body or element possesses owing to its motion at a given velocity V:
KE 

1 mV 2
2 gc

(4-36)

Note that as discussed in Chapter 3, Newtons law proportionality factor, gc, must
be included in the calculation for kinetic energy when using U.S. Customary units
and not when using the SI system of units. It is included for completeness.
The specific kinetic energy, or kinetic energy per unit mass, is
ke 

1 V2
2 gc

(4-37)

The specific kinetic energy may also be written as

ke 

V2
2

(4-38)

which has units of m2/s2 or ft2/s2. Note that lowercase ke denotes specific kinetic
energy versus uppercase for kinetic energy.
Potential Energy
Work is done when a force F is applied to a body or a packet or element of mass
to raise it in elevation dz from a reference level:
dW  F  dz

(4-39)

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

66

The minimum force required to raise the body in elevation against gravity
(opposite in direction from the direction of gravitational acceleration g) is
F m

g
gc

(4-40)

Substituting Eq. 4-40 into Eq. 4-39 for F yields

dW  m

g
 dz
gc

(4-41)

g
 dz
gc

(4-42)

mgz
gc

(4-43)

Integrating from z1 to z2 gives

z2

W  m
z1

or
W 

The work done on a body or element in raising it in elevation is equal to the

change in the bodys potential energy. The quantity mgz/gc is the potential energy
that a body or element possesses because of its elevation:
PE 

mgz
gc

(4-44)

Potential energy is the energy that a body has as a result of its location. Location can be, and usually is, its position in a gravitational field, but it can also be
its location in another influencing field (i.e., a compressed spring or centrifugal
force).
The specific potential energy, or potential energy per unit mass, is
pe 

gz
gc

(4-45)

Sometimes the specific potential energy is written as

pe  gz

(4-46)

with typical units of m2/s2 or ft2/s2. Note that lowercase pe denotes specific potential
energy versus uppercase for potential energy.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

67

Other Forms of Energy

Other forms of energy include electrostatic energy, magnetic energy, interfacial or
surface energy, and nuclear energy. These other forms can be accounted for in
energy balances by inclusion of additional terms if needed. For fluid systems, they
are not normally needed but are mentioned in this discussion to be comprehensive. It is possible that new technologies will be developed in the future where
these other forms of energies will need to be accounted for.

Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred by the flow of heat from one element to another or from
a system to its surroundings. Heat flows from one element to another, or from one
packet of mass to another, through conduction or radiation, as well as convection, all of which are functions of temperature. It is the temperature difference
that is the driving force for heat transfer from conduction and radiation.
Energy can also be transferred by work. This is work done on one body or element by another. Work (W) is a function of the magnitude of the force F exerted
and the distance that the force operates:
W

 F  dx

(4-47)

This equation is for linear displacement. But a rotating shaft also does work
(such as in a pump). The torque exerted by a rotating shaft is quantified by
TFL

(4-48)

where F is the linear force applied at a distance L (the lever or moment arm) that
produces torque T carried by a rotating shaft. Rearranging gives
F

T
L

(4-49)

The distance that the shaft moves as the torque is applied is

dx  L  d

(4-50)

where d is the differential angular displacement.

So the work done by a rotating shaft is quantified with
T
dW  F  dx  (L  d)
L

(4-51)

dW  T  d

(4-52)

which simplifies to

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

68

The power P transferred by or to a rotating shaft is then

P

dW
dt

(4-53)

Substituting Eq. 4-52 into Eq. 4-53 for dW gives

P

(T  d)
d
 T  T
dt
dt

(4-54)

where  is the rotational velocity, which is 2 multiplied by the number of revolutions per unit time. Equation 4-53 can be rearranged to
dW  P  dt

(4-55)

and Eq. 4-54 can be substituted into Eq. 4-55 for P to yield
dW  (T  )  dt

(4-56)

Electrical work can be done also. A force on a charge in an electric field E can
cause displacement of the charge. The force required to move a charge is
F 

dE
dx

(4-57)

where  is the charge and dE/dx is the potential (voltage) gradient. The work done
in displacing a charge by dx is
dE
W  F  dx   dx
dx

(4-58)

W    E

(4-59)

which can be integrated to

Equation 4-59 can be differentiated with E held constant to obtain

dW  E  d

(4-60)

The power expended in displacing the charge dx is

P

dW (E  d) d


E
dt
dt
dt

(4-61)

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

69

The term d/dt is equal to electrical current I. So Eq. 4-61 becomes

P  I  E

(4-62)

Substituting P from Eq. 4-62 into dW  P  dt yields

dW  (I  E)  dt

(4-63)

Of course, energy may be transferred from one location to another, or from a control volume (system) to its surroundings, by mass transport. Energy is inherent in
mass in the form of internal energy and is transported when the mass is transported.
These mechanisms of energy transfer must be accounted for in energy balances.

Energy Balances
The first law of thermodynamics is also known as the conservation of energy. It is
a quantitative balancean accounting of the various energy forms in the system
and the means by which the energy is transferred. Simply stated, the first law of
thermodynamics is as follows:
The total energy of a system and its surroundings is always conserved.
Although energy assumes many forms, the total quantity of energy is constant,
and when energy disappears in one form it appears simultaneously in other forms
(Smith and Van Ness 1987). Note that the first law of thermodynamics is for the
system of interest and its surroundings:
(energy of the system)  (energy of the surroundings)  0

(4-64)

An energy balance can be performed on a system in a similar fashion to how balances are created in general, by accounting for all energy storage, transformation,
and transfer. The following word equation describes the general energy balance:
accumulation  flow in  flow out  creation  destruction

(4-65)

Since energy cannot be created nor destroyed, the energy balance reduces to
energy accumulation  energy flow in  energy flow out

(4-66)

For the general system shown in Fig. 4-5, we can determine the quantity of
energy accumulating in the system and the amount of energy flowing in and flowing out. Energy accumulation within the system is in the form of internal, potential,
and kinetic energy:
d[m(u  pe  ke)]sys

(4-67)

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

70

dW

dv

flow of
mass in

flow of
mass out

insulated system
boundary
dQ

Figure 4-5. General system for energy balance showing energy transfers.

where m is the mass within the control volume, or system. The energy flowing into
the system is
(u  pe  ke)in dmin

(4-68)

and the energy flowing out of the system is

(u  pe  ke)out dmout

(4-69)

Energy can also be transformed into heat and mechanical work:

dQ  the net heat transferred to the system and
dW  the net work done by the system.
Note the sign conventions: Positive dQ is net energy transferred to the system, and
positive dW is net work done by the system.
Substituting these terms into the energy balance in Eq. 4-66 gives
d[m(u  pe  ke)]sys  (u  pe  ke)in dmin
 (u  pe  ke)out dmout  dQ  dW

(4-70)

The signs on dQ and dW, denoting the directions of energy flow for dQ and dW
(heat transferred to and work done by) are by convention. The directions of energy
flow for dQ and dW can be reversed (i.e., heat transferred from and work done to),
in which case the signs for dQ and dW would be reversed in the energy balance.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

71

There are several assumptions made in the derivation of this equation that
must now be explicitly stated:
1. The properties within the system are homogeneous and uniform.
2. The properties in the inflow and outflow streams are homogeneous and uniform.
3. Gravitational acceleration is constant.
Although dW is usually considered to be for mechanical work, such as shaft
work, or electrical work, the term can also be used for other forms of work from
energy transfer (e.g., interfacial energy or magnetic energy).
Substituting the definitions of potential and kinetic energies into Eq. 4-70
gives an energy balance of the form

V2
V2
d m u  gz   u  gz  dmin
2
2 inn

sys

V2
 u  gz  dmout  dQ  dW
2 out

(4-71)

For an open system where mass flows into and out of the system, work is done
against pressure P:
dW  Fdx  (PA)dx  Pd v

(4-72)

The value of d v is a function of the specific volume, , of the substance:

dv    dm

(4-73)

For mass flowing into a system, from Eq. 4-72 and Eq. 4-73, we have
dW  Pindvin  Pin in dmin

(4-74)

Similarly for mass flow out of a system, we have

dW  Poutdvout  Pout out dmout

(4-75)

This work is known as injection work, flow work, or flow energy. It is the work
that must be expended to inject a mass packet of dm across system boundaries.
Adding this additional work term to our energy balance we obtain

V2
V2
d m u  gz   u  P  gz  dmin
2
2 in

sys

V2
 u  P  gz  dmout  dQ  dW
2 out

(4-76)

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

72

The two terms u and P can be combined into one term called enthalpy. The
specific enthalpy h, or enthalpy per unit mass, is defined as
h  u  P

(4-77)

By substituting this definition into Eq. 4-76, the energy balance becomes

V2
V2
d m u  gz   h  gz  dmin
2
2 inn

sys

V2
 h  gz  dmout  dQ  dW
2 out

(4-78)

This equation can be simplified for an open system at steady flow to

V 2 dQ dW
dh  gdz  d 

dm
2 dm

(4-79)

To make our energy balance more general to account for more than one flow
of mass into and out of the system, we can use a summation for the inflow and outflow terms:

V2
V2
d m u  gz   h  gz  dmin
2
2 inn
in

sys

V2
 h  gz  dmout  dQ  dW
2 out

out

(4-80)

Summations can also be used for dQ and dW in the event that there is more
than one path by which heat or work is transferred to or from the system.

Bernoullis Equation
The energy balance derived in Eq. 4-78 accounts for all possible energy transformations and transfers in any system. However, this energy balance may be
simplified for application to hydraulic systems. When the state of mass does not
change with time (i.e., conditions and properties remain temporally constant), the
system is considered to be steady state. For steady state and steady flow with only
one mass inflow and one mass outflow, the energy balance may be condensed to

V2
V2
dW dQ

u  P  gz   u  P  gz  
2
2
dm
dm

in
out

(4-81)

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

73

where dm  dmin  dmout. This may be further simplified to

dQ
V 2 dW
P  gz  
 u 
dm
2
dm

(4-82)

The inverse of the specific volume, , is density, , so

P
dQ
V 2 dW
 gz  
 u 
dm
2
dm

(4-83)

Friction heating per unit mass can be defined as

  u 

dQ
dm

(4-84)

This term accounts for friction loss or the destruction of energy within the
system. Note that energy is not lost or destroyed because of friction, but it is converted
to heat. The energy balance then becomes
P
V 2 dW
 gz 

dm
2


(4-85)

This is Bernoullis equation, an extremely important equation used for understanding hydraulic systems and all types of fluid flow. Because heat, dQ, and internal
energy, u, are not explicitly contained in Bernoullis equation, it is considered a
mechanical energy balance. However, the heat and internal energy terms are
grouped into the friction loss term, although it may not be apparent. Note that
Bernoullis equation assumes incompressible steady flow and is written from point
to point along a fluid streamline.
A convenient form of Bernoullis equation is the head form, obtained by dividing Eq. 4-85 by g:
P
V 2 dW 
 z 

gdm
g
2g
g

(4-86)

Each term in the head form of Bernoullis equation has units of length. The
pressure form of Bernoullis equation is

V 2 dW
P  gz 
 

dm
2

(4-87)

Each term in the pressure form of Bernoullis equation has units of pressure.

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

74

Example (Adapted from Wilkes 1999)

A water storage tank (tank b), previously empty, is being filled from another tank
(tank a) through a 4-in. inner diameter pipe as shown in Fig. 4-6. The water
height in the full tank remains constant at htank a. The water height in the tank that
is being filled (tank b) is h, and it increases until it is filled to its maximum height,
htank b, which is the same height as tank a. Tank b is 25-ft wide by 25-ft long by 25-ft
deep. Both tanks are open to the atmosphere. How long will it take for tank b to
fill? Neglect friction.

Solution
Bernoullis equation is
P
V 2 dW 
 z 

gdm
g
2g
g
Writing Bernoullis equation from point 1 to point 2, we have
P
P
V2
V2
 z   z 0
2g
2g
g
g
2
1
The pressure at point 1 is zero (atmospheric), and the velocity of the fluid at
point 1 is zero. The static height, z, at point 2 is zero, and the pressure at point 2
is due to the head of water above it (h). The velocity of the water through the pipe
is V. So Bernoullis equation simplifies to

V2
htank a  h   0
2g

htank b

htank a
z

4 in. inner diameter pipe

Figure 4-6. Tank filling example.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

75

Solving for the velocity in the pipe, V, we get

V  2 g(htank a  h)
Performing a mass balance on tank b with Eq. 4-20 gives
(m& in  t)  0  (m& out  t)  m
There is no flow out, and the mass flow rate in is V Apipe, so
VApipe 

m
t

The change in mass, m, in tank b is Atank b  h, where Atank b is the crosssectional area (length  width) of the tank, so
h
t

VApipe   Atank b

Taking the limits t 0, h 0 yields the differential equation

VApipe  Atank b

dh
dt

Substituting V  2 g(htank a  h) for V gives

 Apipe 2 g(htank a  h)  Atank b

dh
dt

This equation can be rearranged to get

Apipe
dh
2 g(htank a  h)

dt
Atank b
Performing a separation of variables, we have
Apipe
Atank b

htank b

dt 

dh
2 g(htank a  h)

Integration then yields

t

t
0

Atank b
Apipe

htank b

2 g(htank a  h)

g
0

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

76

Noting that htank a  htank b we can solve this equation for time, obtaining
t

Atank b 2(htank a )

Apipe
g

Substituting in numerical values then gives

25 ft 25 ft 2(25 ft)

t
8925 s or 149 min
2
 4 32.2 ft
ft
s2
d 12

Symbol List
a
A
E
u
f
F

g
gc
h
I
ke
KE
L
m
m
P
pe
PE
Q
t
T
u
U

V
v
W

acceleration
cross-sectional area
potential, voltage
force per unit volume
force
frictional loss
acceleration due to gravity
Newtons law proportionality factor, 32.174 ft lbm/lbf s2 for the
U.S. Customary System of units
specific enthalpy
current
specific kinetic energy
kinetic energy
length
mass
mass flow rate
power, pressure
specific potential energy
potential energy
volumetric flow rate, heat transfer
time
torque
specific internal energy
internal energy
specific volume
velocity
volume
work

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW








77

absolute viscosity
angular displacement
fluid density
shear stress
rotational velocity
electrical charge

Problems
1. A municipal wastewater treatment system can treat a maximum of 950 m3 per
day of wastewater. During a rain event, 2,000 m3 of untreated wastewater had to
be stored to avoid exceeding the maximum system flow rate. Now that the rain
event is over, this stored wastewater must be added to the current existing system
influent, which is flowing at a constant 660 m3 per day. Assume a constant influent flow rate and that the stored wastewater is pumped at a constant flow rate.
How many hours must the stored wastewater be bled into the influent stream?
2. A drinking water supply tank is supplied at 500 gpm through a pipe from a
reservoir (see Fig. 4-7). The reservoir water surface is 200 ft higher than the surface of the water in the water tank. A turbine is installed in the pipe as shown in
the Fig. 4-7. The frictional head loss in the pipe is 2.0 ft and the temperature is
15 C. What power is produced by the turbine?
3. A small tank is being filled with water through an 8-cm-diameter pipe from
a large pressurized storage tank with the system shown in Fig. 4-8. Assume
that the frictional head loss is 1.0 m and that the volume of water in the large
storage tank does not fluctuate. The large storage tank is pressurized with an

hs = 200 ft
hf = 2.0 ft

Figure 4-7. System in Problem 2.

TREATMENT SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

78

10 m

Figure 4-8. System in Problem 3.

external (pressurized) air supply. What air pressure must be in the large storage tank to supply a flow rate of 3.6 m3/hr through the pipe?
4. The distribution arms on a trickling filter distribute wastewater to media to
allow biological activity to treat the waste (see Fig. 4-9). It is important that the

Figure 4-9. Trickling filter showing wastewater distribution arms (Problem 4).

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

wastewater be uniformly loaded over the surface of the trickling filter. This is
usually done by varying orifice sizes for each port. Because the outer ports on
the distribution arm must cover a greater surface area of the trickling filter
per revolution than the inner ports, the outer ports must deliver greater flow
rate. For a 20-ft-diameter trickling filter with 14-in.-diameter discharge ports
on the distribution arms, determine how much additional frictional loss the
innermost port (located 1.5 ft from the centerline of the trickling filter, which
is the pivot point of the distribution arm) must have in relation to the outermost port (located 9.5 ft from the centerline). Assume that each port distributes wastewater on a 1-ft-wide band on the surface of the filter and the flow
rate through the innermost port is 2 gpm.

References
Lewis, G. N., and Randall, M. (1923). Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., and Okiishi, T. H. (2002). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
Wiley, New York.
Smith, J. M., and Van Ness, H. C. (1987). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Sposito, G. (1981). The Thermodynamics of Soil Solutions, Oxford University Press, New York.
Wilkes, J. O. (1999). Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ.

79