Icelandic literature

Icelandic literature refers to literature written in Iceland or by Icelandic

people. It is best known for the sagas written in medieval times, starting in
the 13th century. As Icelandic and Old Norse are almost the same, and
because Icelandic works constitute most of Old Norse literature, Old Norse
literature is often wrongly considered a subset of Icelandic literature.
However, works by Norwegians are present in the standard reader Snisbk
slenzkra bkmennta til mirar tjndu aldar, compiled by Sigurur Nordal on
the grounds that the language was the same
Early Icelandic literature
The medieval Icelandic literature is usually divided into three parts:
1. Eddic poetry
The Poetic Edda is the modern attribution for an unnamed collection of Old
Norse poems, while several versions exist all consist primarily of text from
the Icelandic mediaeval manuscript known as the Codex Regius. The Codex
Regius is arguably the most important extant source on Norse mythology and
Germanic heroic legends, and from the early 19th century onwards has had a
powerful influence on later Scandinavian literatures, not merely through the
stories it contains but through the visionary force and dramatic quality of
many of the poems. It has also become an inspiring model for many later
innovations in poetic meter, particularly in the Nordic languages, offering
many varied examples of terse, stress-based metrical schemes working
without any final rhyme, and instead using alliterative devices and strongly
concentrated imagery. Poets who have acknowledged their debt to the Poetic
Edda include Vilhelm Ekelund, August Strindberg, J.R.R. Tolkien, Ezra Pound,
Jorge Luis Borges and Karin Boye.
Codex Regius was written in the 13th century but nothing is known of its
whereabouts until 1643 when it came into the possession of Brynjlfur
Sveinsson, then Bishop of Sklholt. At that time versions of the Prose Edda
were well known in Iceland but scholars speculated that there once was
another Eddaan Elder Eddawhich contained the pagan poems which
Snorri quotes in his Prose Edda. When Codex Regius was discovered, it
seemed that this speculation had proven correct. Brynjlfur attributed the
manuscript to Smundr the Learned, a larger-than-life 12th century
Icelandic priest. While this attribution is rejected by modern scholars, the
name Smundar Edda is still sometimes associated with "Poetic Edda."

Bishop Brynjlfur sent Codex Regius as a present to the Danish king, hence
the name. For centuries it was stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen but
in 1971 it was returned to Iceland.
Composition
The title page of Olive Bray's English translation of
the Poetic Edda depicting the tree Yggdrasil and a
number of its inhabitants (1908) by W. G.
Collingwood.
The Eddic poems are composed in alliterative
verse. Most are in fornyrislag, while mlahttr is a
common variation. The rest, about a quarter, are
composed in ljahttr. The language of the
poems is usually clear and relatively unadorned.
While kennings are often employed they do not rise to the frequency or
complexity found in skaldic poetry.
Authorship
Like most early poetry the Eddic poems were minstrel poems, passing orally
from singer to singer and from poet to poet for centuries. None of the poems
are attributed to a particular author though many of them show strong
individual characteristics and are likely to have been the work of individual
poets. Scholars sometimes speculate on hypothetical authors but firm and
accepted conclusions have never been reached.
Time
The dating of the poems has been a lively source of scholarly argument for a
long time. Firm conclusions are hard to reach. While lines from the Eddic
poems sometimes appear in poems by known poets such evidence is difficult
to evaluate. For example Eyvindr skldaspillir, composing in the latter half of
the 10th century, uses in his Hkonarml a couple of lines also found in
Hvaml. It is possible that he was quoting a known poem but it is also
possible that Hvaml, or at least the strophe in question, is the younger
derivative work.
The few demonstrably historical characters mentioned in the poems, like
Attila, provide a terminus post quem of sorts. The dating of the manuscripts
themselves provides a more useful terminus ante quem.

Individual poems have individual clues to their age. For example Atlaml hin
groenlenzku is claimed by its title, and seems by some internal evidence, to
have been composed in Greenland. If so, it can be no earlier than about 985
since there were no Scandinavians in Greenland until that time.
In some cases old poems can have been interpolated with younger verses or
merged with other poems. For example stanzas 9-16 of Vlusp, the
"Dvergatal" or "Roster of Dwarfs", is considered by some scholars to be an
interpolation.
Location
The problem of dating the poems is linked with the problem of finding out
where they were composed. Since Iceland was not settled until about 870,
anything composed before that time would necessarily have been elsewhere,
most likely in Scandinavia. Any young poems, on the other hand, are likely
Icelandic in origin.
Scholars have attempted to localize individual poems by studying the
geography, flora and fauna which they refer to. This approach usually does
not yield firm results. While there are, for example, no wolves in Iceland we
can be sure that Icelandic poets were familiar with the species. Similarly the
apocalyptic descriptions of Vlusp have been taken as evidence that the
poet who composed it had seen a volcanic eruption in Iceland - but this is
hardly certain.
Editions and inclusions
The cover of Lee M. Hollander's English translation of the Poetic Edda.

Some poems similar to those found in Codex

Regius are normally also included in editions of
the Poetic Edda. Important manuscripts include
AM 748 I 4to, Hauksbk and Flateyjarbk. Many
of the poems are quoted in Snorri's Edda but
usually only in bits and pieces. What poems are
included in an edition of the Poetic Edda
depends on the editor. Those not in Codex
Regius are sometimes called Eddica minora from
their appearance in an edition with that title
edited by Andreas Heusler and Wilhelm Ranisch
in 1903.
English translators are not consistent on the
translations of the names of the Eddic poems or
on how the Old Norse forms should be rendered
in English. Up to three translations are given
below, taken from the translations of Bellows, Hollander, and Larrington with
proper names in the normalized English forms found in John Lindow's Norse
Mythology and in Andy Orchard's Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and
Legend.
2. Sagas
Sagas are stories mostly about ancient Nordic and Germanic history, about
early Viking voyages, the battles that took place during the voyages, about
migration to Iceland and of feuds between Icelandic families. They were
written in the Old Norse language, mainly in Iceland.[1]
The texts are tales in prose which share some similarities with the epic, often
with stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text, of
heroic deeds of days long gone, "tales of worthy men," who were often
Vikings, sometimes pagan, sometimes Christian. The tales are usually
realistic, except legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops and
translated or recomposed romances. They are sometimes romanticised and
fantastic, but always dealing with human beings one can understand.[2]
Background
Excerpt from Njls saga in the Mruvallabk (AM 132 folio 13r) circa 1350.

The term saga originates from the Norse saga

(pl. sgur), and refers to (1) "what is said,
statement" or (2) "story, tale, history". It is
cognate with the English word saw (as in old
saw), and the German Sage. Icelandic sagas are
based on oral traditions and much research has
focused on what is real and what is fiction within
each tale. The accuracy of the sagas is often
hotly disputed. Most of the manuscripts in which
the sagas are preserved were taken to Denmark
and Sweden in the 17th century, but later returned to Iceland. Classic sagas
were composed in the 1200s. Scholars once believed that these sagas were
transmitted orally from generation to generation until scribes wrote them
down in the 1200s. However, most scholars now believe the sagas were
conscious artistic creations, based on both oral and written tradition. A study
focusing on the description of the items of clothing mentioned in the sagas
concludes that the authors attempted to create a historic "feel" to the story,
by dressing the characters in what was at the time thought to be "old
fashioned clothing". However, these clothing are not contemporary with the
events of the saga as they are a closer match to the clothing worn in the
12th century.[3]
There are plenty of tales of kings (e.g. Heimskringla), everyday people (e.g.
Bandamanna saga) and larger than life characters (e. g. Egils saga). The
sagas describe a part of the history of some of the Nordic countries (e.g. the
last chapter of Hervarar saga). The British Isles, northern France and North
America are also mentioned. It was only recently (start of 20th century) that
the tales of the voyages to North America (modern day Canada) were
authenticated.[4]
Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 9301030, which is called
sguld (Age of the Sagas) in Icelandic history. The sagas of kings, bishops,
contemporary sagas have their own time frame. Most were written down
between 1190 to 1320, sometimes existing as oral traditions long before,
others are pure fiction, and for some we do know the sources: the author of
King Sverrir's saga had met the king and used him as a source.[5]

Classification
Snorri Sturluson, portrait by Christian Krohg:
Illustration for Heimskringla 1899-Edition
Norse sagas are generally classified as: the
Kings' sagas (Konungasgur), sagas of
Icelanders (slendinga sgur), Short tales of
Icelanders (slendingattir), Contemporary
sagas (Samtarsgur or Samtmasgur),
Legendary sagas (Fornaldarsgur), Chivalric
sagas (Riddarasgur) and Saga of the
Greenlanders (Grnlendingasgur), Saints'
sagas (Heilagra manna sgur) and bishops' sagas (Biskupa sgur).[6]
Dronning Ragnhilds drm (Queen Ragnhild's
dream) from Snorre Sturlassons Kongesagaer by
Erik Werenskiold, circa 1899
Kings' sagas are of the lives of Scandinavian
kings. They were composed in the 12th to 14th
centuries. The Icelanders' sagas (slendinga
sgur) are heroic prose narratives written in the
12th to 14th centuries of the great families of
Iceland from 930 to 1030. These are the highest
form of the classical Icelandic saga writing.
Some well-known examples include Njls saga,
Laxdla saga and Grettis saga. The material of
the Short tales of Icelanders sagas is similar to
slendinga sgur, in shorter form. The narratives
of the Contemporary Sagas are set in 12th- and 13th-century Iceland, and
were written soon after the events they describe. Most are preserved in the
compilation Sturlunga saga, though some, such as Arons saga Hjrleifssonar
are preserved separately. Legendary Sagas blend remote history with myth
or legend. The aim is on a lively narrative and entertainment. Scandinavia's
pagan past was a proud and heroic history for the Icelanders. Chivalric sagas
are translations of Latin pseudo-historical works and French chansons de
geste as well as native creations in the same style.[7]
While sagas are generally anonymous, a distinctive literary movement in the
fourteenth century involves sagas, mostly on religious topics, with
identifiable authors and a distinctive Latinate style. Associated with Iceland's

northern diocese of Hlar, this movement is known as the North Icelandic

Benedictine School (Norlenski Benediktsklinn).[8]
Contemporary Usage
"Saga" is a word originating from Old Norse or Icelandic language ("Saga" is
also the modern Icelandic and Swedish word for "story"). Saga is a cognate
of the English word say: its various meanings in Icelandic are approximately
equivalent to "something said" or "a narrative in prose", somewhat along the
lines of a "story", a "tale", or a "history". Through the centuries, the word
saga has gained a broader meaning in Nordic languages. In contemporary
Swedish and Danish it describes a non-realistic or epic work of fiction.
Folksaga means folk tale; a fairy tale by an unknown author, in Swedish and
Danish. Konstsaga is the Swedish term for a fairy tale by a known author,
such as Hans Christian Andersen or Astrid Lindgren, while the Danish and
Norwegian term is eventyr ("adventure").[9][10]
Saga can also be a work of fantasy fiction. J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the
Rings series was translated into Swedish by ke Ohlmarks with the title
Sagan om ringen: "The Saga of the Ring". The 2004 translation was titled
Ringarnas herre, a literal translation from the original. Icelandic journalist
orsteinn Thorarensen (19262006) translated the work into Hringadrttins
saga meaning "Saga of the Lord of the Rings".[11]
In Swedish history, the term sagokung, "saga king" is intended to be
ambiguous, as it describes the semi-legendary kings of Sweden, who are
known only from unreliable, probably fictional, sources.[12]
In Faroese, the word underwent U-umlaut becoming Sga,[13] and adopted a
wider meaning. In addition to saga, it also covers terms such as history, tale,
story.
3. Skaldic poetry
The term skald (or skld) meaning poet, is generally used for poets who
composed at the courts of Scandinavian and Icelandic leaders during the
Viking Age and Middle Ages. Skaldic poetry forms one of two main groupings
of Old Norse poetry, the other being the anonymous Eddic poetry.
The most prevalent metre of skaldic poetry is drttkvtt. The subject is
usually historical and encomiastic, detailing the deeds of the skald's patron.
There is no evidence that the skalds employed musical instruments, though

some speculate they may have accompanied their verses with the harp or
lyre.[1]
The technical demands of the skaldic form were equal to the complicated
verse forms mastered by the Welsh bards and Gaelic (in both Scotland and
Ireland) ollaves, and like those poets, much of skaldic verse consisted of
panegyrics to kings and aristocrats, or memorials and testimonials to their
battles.
Etymology
The word skald is perhaps ultimately related to Proto-Germanic *skalliz
"sound, voice, shout" (OHG skal "sound"). OHG has skalsang "song of praise,
psalm". skellan means "ring, clang, resound". The OHG variant stem skeltan
etymologically identical to the skald- stem (Proto-Germanic *skeldan) means
"to scold, blame, accuse, insult". The person doing the insulting is a skelto or
skeltri.
This bears striking similarities to the Dutch verb "schelden" and the southern
German "schelten", which mean "shouting abuse" or "calling names."
The West Germanic counterpart of the skald is the scop. Not unlike the scop,
which is related to Modern English scoff, the name skald is continued in
English scold, reflecting the central position of mocking taunts in Germanic
poetry.
An early modern depiction of Thors fight
with the World Serpent, the subject of early
skaldic verses by Bragi Boddason and Ulfr
Uggason.
History[edit]
Skaldic poetry can be traced to the earlier
9th century with Bragi Boddason and his
Ragnarsdrpa, considered the oldest
surviving Norse poem. Bragi is considered
the oldest and original Skald. However,
many Skalds came after him, like Egill
Skallagrmsson and Thorbjorn hornklofi, who
gained much fame in the 10th century for
the poems composed for the kings they
served and of their own exploits. At this
time, the Icelanders and Nordic people were still pagan, and their work

reflected that, having many references to supernatural and ancient beliefs,

such as gods like Thor and Odin, along with faith in seers and runes.[2] The
poetry from this time also can be noted for its portrayal of a "heroic age" for
the Vikings, and "praise poetry, designed to commemorate kings and other
prominent people, often in the form of quite long poems."[2]
As time went on, Skalds became the main source of Icelandic and Norse
history and culture, as it was the Skalds who learned and shared the largely
oral history.[3]
This lead to a shift in the role of the Skald, allowing them to gain more
prominent positions. Every king and chieftain needed a Skald to record their
feats and ensure their legacy lived on, as well as becoming the main
historians of their society. The written artifacts of that time come from
Skalds, as they were the first from the time and place to record on paper.
Some Skalds became clerical workers, recording laws and happenings of the
government, some even being elected to the Thing and Althing, while others
worked with churches to record the lives and miracles of Saints, along with
passing on the ideals of Christianity. This last point is a very important point,
as Skalds were the main agents of culture, when the Skalds began glorifying
and passing on Christianity over the old pagan beliefs, the Viking culture
shifted towards Christianity, as well.
As the years passed, the Skald profession was threatened with extinction,
until Snorri Sturluson compiled the Prose Edda as a manual with the aim to
preserve an appreciative understanding of their art.[4] Snorri, born in Iceland
during the 12th century is the most famous Skald. In addition to being a
great poet, he was leader of the Althing for part of his life, leading the
government of Iceland. His Prose Edda did preserve and pass on the
traditions and methods of the Skalds, adding a much needed stimulus to the
profession, and providing much of the information which is known today
about Skalds and how they worked. For example, the Prose Edda broke down
and explained all the kennings used in Skaldic poetry, allowing many of them
to be understood today. Beyond writing the Prose Edda, Snorri had many
great poems, ranging from re-telling old Norse legends, to tales on exploits of
kings, that gave him much fame, which make his reputation live on beyond
his death.[5]

Skaldic poetry
Most Nordic verse of the Viking Age came in one of two forms: eddic or
skaldic. Eddic verse was usually simple, in terms of content, style and metre,
dealing largely with mythological or heroic content. Skaldic verse,
conversely, was complex, and usually composed as a tribute or homage to a
particular Jarl or king. There is debate over the performance of skaldic
poetry, although there is a general scholalry consensus that it was spoken
rather than sung.[6]
Unlike many other literary forms of the time, much skaldic poetry is
attributable to an author (called a skald), and these attributions may be
relied on with a reasonable degree of confidence. Many skalds were men of
influence and power, and were thus biographically noted. The meter is
ornate, usually drttkvtt or a variation thereof. The syntax is complex, with
sentences commonly interwoven, with kennings and heiti being used
frequently and gratuitously.
Skaldic poetry was written in variants and dialects of Old Norse languages.
Technically, their verse was usually a form of alliterative verse, and almost
always using the drttkvtt stanza (also known as the Court or Lordly
Metre). Drttkvtt is effectively an eight line form, where each pair of lines is
an original single long line which is conventionally written as two lines.
Forms of skaldic poetry
Forms of skaldic poetry are:

Drpa, a long series of stanzas (usually drttkvtt), with a refrain

(stef) at intervals.

Flokkr, vsur or drplingr, a shorter series of such stanzas without

refrain.

Lausavsa, a single stanza of drttkvtt said to have been improvised

impromptu for the occasion it marks.

Skalds also composed insult (nvsur) and very occasionally, erotic verse
(mansngr).
Kennings
The verses of the skalds contain a great profusion of kennings, the fixed
metaphors found in most northern European poetry of the time. Kennings are

devices ready to supply a standard image to form an alliterating half-line to

fit the requirements of drttkvtt; but the substantially greater technical
demands of skaldic verse required that these devices be multiplied and
compounded in order to meet its demands for skill and wordplay. These
images can therefore become somewhat hermetic, at least to those who fail
to grasp the allusions that lie at the root of many of them.

Middle Icelandic literature

Important compositions of the time from the 15th century to the 19th include
sacred verse, most famously the Passuslmar of Hallgrmur Ptursson;
rmur, rhymed epic poems with alliterative verse that consist of two to four
verses per stanza, popular until the end of the 19th century; and
autobiographical prose writings such as the Pslarsaga of Jn Magnsson. A
full translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. The most
prominent poet of the 18th century was Eggert lafsson (17261768), while
Jn orlksson Bgis (is) (17441819) undertook several major
translations, including the Paradsarmissir, a translation of John Milton's
Paradise Lost.
Modern Icelandic literature
Literary revival
In the beginning of the 19th century, there was a linguistic and literary
revival. Romanticism arrived in Iceland and was dominant especially during
the 1830s, in the work of poets like Bjarni Thorarensen (17861841) and
Jnas Hallgrmsson (180745). Jnas Hallgrmsson, also the first writer of
modern Icelandic short stories, influenced Jn Thoroddsen (181868), who, in
1850, published the first Icelandic novel, and so he is considered the father
of modern Icelandic novel.
This classic Icelandic style from the 19th and early 20th centuries was
continued chiefly by Grmur Thomsen (182096), who wrote many heroic
poems and Matthas Jochumsson (18351920), who wrote many plays that
are considered the beginning of modern Icelandic drama, among many
others. In short, this period was a great revival of Icelandic literature.
Realism and naturalism followed romanticism. Notable Realistic writers
include the short-story writer Gestur Plsson (is) (185291), known for his
satires, and the Icelandic-Canadian poet Stephan G. Stephansson (1853

1927), noted for his sensitive way to deal with the language and for his ironic
vein. Einar Benediktsson must be mentioned here as an early proponent of
Neo-romanticism. He is in many ways a lone in Icelandic poetry, but is
generally acknowledged to be one of the great figures of the "Golden Age" in
poetry.[3]
In the early 20th century several Icelandic writers started writing in Danish,
among them Jhann Sigurjnsson, and Gunnar Gunnarsson (18891975).
Writer Halldr Laxness (190298), won the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature,
and was the author of many articles, essays, poems, short stories and
novels. Widely-translated works include the expressionist novels Independent
People (193435) and Iceland's Bell (194346).
After World War I, there was a revival of the classic style, mainly in poetry,
with authors such as Dav Stefnsson and Tmas Gumundsson, who later
became the representer of traditional poetry in Iceland in the 20th century.
Modern authors, from the end of World War II, tend to merge the classical
style with a modernist style.
More recently, crime novelist Arnaldur Indriason's (b. 1961) works have met
with success outside of Iceland.
Icelandic Literary Prize
The Icelandic Literary Prize (Icelandic: slensku bkmenntaverlaunin), or
Icelandic Literary Award, is an award which is given to two books each year
by the Icelandic Publishers Association. The prize was founded on the
association's centennial in 1989. One award is for fiction or poetry and the
other for academic and non-fiction works. Five books are nominated in each
category, and the year's nominations are publicized in the beginning of
December, but the prize itself is not awarded until January. Because the
year's nominations come in the middle of the Christmas book flood, these
books receive a great deal of marketing. Once the books have been
nominated, the Icelandic Publishers Association appoints a selection
committee which chooses the winners.
List of winners of the Icelandic Literary Prize for fiction
Yea
Winner
r

Title (English)

Title (Icelandic)

Not
es

19
89

Stefn Hrur
Grmsson

Yfir heian morgun: lj

'87-'89

19
90

Fra .
Sigurardttir

Through the Night

Mean nttin lur

19
91

Gubergur
Bergsson

The Swan

Svanurinn

19
92

orsteinn fr
Hamri

The Sleeping Sailor Sfarinn sofandi

19
93

Hannes
Ptursson

Eldhylur

19
94

Vigds
Grmsdttir

Grandavegur 7

19
95

Steinunn
Sigurardttir

Heart Place

Hjartastaur

19
96

Bvar
Gumundsson

Tree of Life

Lfsins tr

19
97

Gubergur
Bergsson

Fair og mir og
dulmagn bernskunnar:
skldvisaga

19
98

Thor
Vilhjlmsson

Morgunula strum

19
99

Andri Snr
Magnason

20
00

Gyrir Elasson

The Story of the

Blue Planet

Sagan af bla hnettinum

Gula hsi

20
01

Hallgrmur
Helgason

The Author of
Iceland

20
02

Ingibjrg
Haraldsdttir

Hvar sem g ver

20
03

lafur
Gunnarsson

xin og jrin

20
04

Auur
Jnsdttir

The People in the

Basement

Flki kjallaranum

20
05

Jn Kalman
Stefnsson

Summer Light and

Then Comes the
Night

Sumarljs og svo kemur

nttin

20
06

lafur Jhann
lafsson

Aldingarurinn

20
07

Sigurur
Plsson

Minnisbk

20
08

Einar Krason

Ofsi

20
09

Gumundur
skarsson

Bankster

20
10

Gerdur Kristn

20
11

Gurn Eva
Mnervudttir

20
12

Eirkur rn
Nordahl

Bloodhoof

Evil

Hfundur slands

Bldhfnir

[1]

Allt me kossi vekur

[2]

Illska

List of winners of the Icelandic Literary Prize for academic works

Yea
Winner
r

Title (English)

Title (Icelandic)

Jn G. Frijnsson

Mergur mlsins :
slensk oratiltki:
uppruni, saga og
notkun

19
94

Silja Aalsteinsdttir

Skldi sem slin

kyssti : visaga
Gumundar
Bvarssonar

19
95

r Whitehead

Milli vonar og tta

19
96

orsteinn Gylfason

19
97

Gujn Fririksson

Einar Benediktsson

19
98

Hrur gstsson

slensk
byggingararfleif I:
grip af
hsagerarsgu
1750-1940

19
99

Pll Valsson

Jnas Hallgrmsson

20
00

Gumundur Pll lafsson

Hlendi nttru
slands

20

Sigrur Dna

Bjrg

19
93

Thinking in
Icelandic

A hugsa slensku

Not
es

01

Kristmundsdttir

20
02

Pll Hersteinsson, Ptur

M. Jnasson

ingvallavatn

20
03

Gujn Fririksson

Jn Sigursson,
visaga II

20
04

Halldr Gumundsson

Halldr Laxness
visaga

20
05

Kristn B. Gunadttir,
Gylfi Gslason, Arthur
Danto, Matthas
Johannessen, Silja
Aalsteinsdttir

Kjarval

20
06

Andri Snr Magnason

Dreamland: A
Self-Help
Manual for a
Frightened
Nation

Draumalandi sjlfshjlparbk
handa hrddri j

20
07

orsteinn orsteinsson

Ljhs. ttir um
skldskap Sigfsar
Daasonar

20
08

orvaldur Kristinsson

Lrus Plsson leikari

20
09

Helgi Bjrnsson

Jklar slandi

20
10

Helgi Hallgrmsson

20
11

Pll Bjrnsson

The Mushroom
Book

Sveppabkin
Jn forseti allur?
Tknmynd jhetju

[1]

fr andlti til
samtar