06/03/2014

Biological Psychology
DNA, Genetics & Evolution

Is this what makes you human?

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Chromosomes
Each chromosome is a
double stranded
molecule of
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA).

The structure of the

molecule was described
in 1953 by James Watson
and Francis Crick.

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DNA

The two strands are held together by nucleotide bases which

are attracted to each other.
So that:
Adenine links to Thymine
Guanine links to Cytosine

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So what are genes?

Genes are sequences of nucleotide bases.
Imagine a simple alphabet made up of only 4 letters
A, T, C, G
Genes are words made up of sequences of these bases

Interesting Facts
It has been estimated that the human genome (the
total complement of all 23 pairs of chromosomes)
contains over 3,000 million base pairs (A-T, C-G).
To enable over 3,000 million base pairs to exist, each
cell in the body contains about 6 feet of DNA crammed
into a nucleus that is 0.005mm in diameter.
It is estimated that our 23 pairs of chromosomes
contain around 30,000 genes.
This is the amount of information required to build a
human being from a single egg and to maintain it
through life.

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The Importance of DNA

Genes provide a code to make amino
acids.
Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins.
Our genes can only make 20 different
amino acids.
All our proteins are made from these 20
amino acids

DNA and Proteins

So:
The instructions for making
proteins are stored on
chromosomes locked away in the
cells nucleus.
However, protein manufacture
does not take place in the
nucleus, but in the surrounding
cytoplasm. How?

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The Answer
Thanks to another nucleic acid ribonucleic
acid (RNA).
Similar to DNA, but it exists as a single strand,
enabling it to move in and out of the nucleus.
Has the base URACIL instead of thymine.

The Process
MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) transports the DNAs instructions
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
The genes are translated into amino acids.
Each amino acid is added to a lengthening strand.
When the length of the mRNA is finally translated, the
completed protein is released.

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Why are proteins important?

They are vital constituents of all living things.
A typical mammalian cell may have as many
as 10,000 different proteins, each with its
own unique role.
One of the most important roles of proteins
is as enzymes

Where do we get our DNA from?

DNA is passed on from parent to child.
But you do not get all your parents DNA, you
get half from you mother and half from your
father.
This allows you to have different combinations
of genes than your siblings.
This allow for variation between and within
species.

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Human Reproduction
Humans have 23 matched pairs of chromosomes in the
nucleus of all cells with one exception
The Egg and Sperm Cells
DIPLOID CELLS
46 chromosomes (most cells in the body)
HAPLOID CELLS
23 chromosomes (the egg in the female, sperm in the
male)

Human Reproduction
Diploid cells replicate by a process called MITOSIS
Mitosis generates a complete copy of the cells genetic
information
All new cells contain copies of all 23 matched pairs of
chromosomes.

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Human Reproduction
Haploid cells (sperm and egg) are created by a process celled
MEIOSIS
Only half the number of chromosomes
1 of each rather than 2 are assigned to each cell
The chromosome are randomly assigned to each
gamete

Human Reproduction
When the sperm fertilises an egg,
chromosomes from the mother pair up with
the relevant partner chromosome from the
father.
Therefore the resulting offspring inherits half
its genetic information from its mother and
half from its father.

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Human Reproduction
Why is this important?

VARIATION
New gene combinations are constantly produced.
No two individuals are the same.
Is this always true?

Genes and Chromosomes

Genes are located on CHROMOSOMES, which are
present in the nucleus of every cell.
Chromosomes occur in matched pairs.
The 2 genes (alleles) that control each trait are situated
at the same locus on each chromosome of a particular
pair.
Each species has a characteristic number of pairs of
chromosomes in each of its body cells.
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?

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A bit more variation

Variation is further
promoted by the
phenomenon of crossing
over.
This occurs during
meiosis.

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Mendel 1822-1884
Published his work in 1866.
In his revolutionary work, he did not
deal with variation, but rather
consistent traits.
He showed that traits can be passed
from Grandparent to offspring,
bypassing the parental
generation.
He showed that traits were carried
through something other than
blood as had been assumed.
We will consider the work of Mendel
in the seminar

Charles Darwin
Not a natural Biologist.
Not a natural academic.
But now known as the
founder of modern day
biology.

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Pre-Darwinian Thought

19th

Century Britain

Creationism was accepted unchallenged by the general

public
However, much of the evidence Darwin used to develop his
theory was known
Geologists and Palaeontologists had evidence that life had
existed on Earth for a long time AND that it had changed
over time.

Members of a species look similar to each other

when compared to another species.
BUT when compared to each other, there are
differences between members of a species.

Theory of Inheritance of Acquired

Traits
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (17441829)
Suggested that the giraffes
neck grow because the
muscles in the parent stretch
as it reached for food and that
this trait was passed on to the
offspring.
This is now disregarded as we
know that only sperm and egg
cells can pass on information.

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Charles Darwin (1809 1882)

Darwin returned from his world trip on the Beagle in 1837
By 1838 he had developed his theory of Evolution
Alfred Russell Wallace independently developed the same
theory
In 1859 Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Known As Origins of
the Species

Darwins Theory
Evolution decent with modification
Evolution has occurred by branching so that different
species share common ancestral species.

Natural Selection
The main mechanism of evolution. This is where
random changes to an individual occur. Those
which are beneficial will be passed on to the next
generation.

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Natural Selection
Members of a species vary greatly in their structure,
physiology and behaviour, traits that are associated
with survival are more likely to be passed onto the
next generation. Therefore natural selection leads to
the evolution of species which are better able to
surviving and reproducing in their particular
environment.

The Reaction

Caricature in Hornet taken from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dar
win

Is evolution universally accepted

now?

Do YOU accept the theory of

evolution?

Have you examined the evidence

for evolution?

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7612152.
stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7619670.
stm

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1. Darwins Evidence
He documented the
evolution of fossil
records through
progressive geological
layers

2. Darwins Evidence
Taken from Carlson (2001) Physiology of Behaviour

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3. Darwins Evidence
Darwin argued that if
dogs and horses could be
bred to produce offspring
with desirable
characteristics, then why
could this not happen
naturally.
NATURAL SELECTION

Further Evidence
Science has moved on since Darwin. Can you
think of any other ways of testing the theory
of evolution?
Remember Darwin did not know about how
information was passed on from parents to
offspring. He had not seen the work of
Mendel.

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Example of Natural Selection

The Case of the disappearing (white) English Peppered
Moth
KEY FACTS
The English Peppered Moth (Biston Betularia) is whitish with
black speckles on its wings.
They are camouflaged on speckled lichen on trees.
A genetic mutation can cause some moths to be all black,
these are said to be melanistic.
Melanistic moths not camouflaged on lichen.
1800s Industrial Revolution.
Lichens sensitive to air pollution and die.
Black soot turns trees black

Example of Natural Selection

And the White Moths Disappeared.
What has caused this mysterious disappearance?
The white moths, no longer have an advantage and are being eaten.
The Black moths have an advantage and are not been eaten, so are able to
reproduce and pass on the mutation.
There were however white moths in the countryside.

In the 20th Century The Clean Air acts, changed the

environment again.
The white moths re-appear

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Survival of the Fittest

The individual best suited to their
environment will survive to pass on these
genes to the next generation.
This is a phrase coined by Herbert Spencer
and was used to justify Social Darwinism.

Human Evolution: A big brain?

Adult human brain weighs between 1200g and

1400g
Adult elephant brain weighs between 5,000g and
8,000g
Brain Body Ratio
Humans 2.33%
Elephant 0.2%
Shrew 3.33%

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Human Evolution

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Animal
Chordate
Mammal
Primate
Hominid
Homo
Sapiens

The Ape who Evolved to be Human

What key factors separate humans and apes?

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Human Evolution

From Kenyon http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/

Evolutionary Psychology
Explains human behaviour in terms of
evolution.
Darwin himself believed that human
behaviour could be explained in terms of
evolution.

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Whose Genes?

From Kenyon http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/

Evolution Facts

Evolution is not a straight line

Evolution does not progress to preordained perfection

Humans are the last surviving species of a family that has existed for a
very short time

Evolution can be rapid

Fewer than 1% of known species are in existence

Not all existing behaviours or structures are adaptive

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Conclusion
Darwin developed his theory of evolution to explain
the diversity that he saw around him
DNA was identified by Watson and Crick in the
1950s
Traits are passed from one generation to the next by
genes located on chromosomes
We now understand that many human traits involve
many genes (Polygenic)
And genes often provide just a predisposition to a
condition or trait.

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