Some Reflections on Learning

Information Processing Theory

These theories give more emphasis to the
internal processes that occur when training
content is learned and retained.
This information can come from another person
or the learners own observation of the results
of his action.
If the evaluation of the response is positive, this
provides reinforcement that the behavior is
desirable to be stored in long-term memory for
use in similar situations.
4 - 15

The Learning Process

This material asks three questions:
What are the physical and mental processes
involved in learning?
How does learning occur?
Do trainees have different learning styles?

4 - 19

Analogy

Sociology of Education and

Religion

Lecture on Religion and Education 2%

of overall Grade

Case Study: Religion in Public Schools

Parents have the primary responsibility of caring for their
children, and they often share religious worship with their
children. But by common belief, failing to educate a child to fully
participate in society constitutes harm, so the government
requires children to attend school. What happens when the
government attempts to teach lessons that parents or students
object to on religious grounds? The First Amendment clearly
states that the government will not create a state religion, but
court judges are in charge of the interpretation in specific cases.
Court cases have resulted in the banning of voluntary prayer
times.

Quick Glance

The Sociology of Education

Education consists of the norms and roles involved in
transmitting knowledge, values, and patterns of behavior
from one generation to the next.

Sociologists have gained insight into education by studying it

from functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives.

The Sociology of Education

Main Idea
Sociologists use differing analytical perspectives to understand the nature
and functions of education.

Reading Focus
How does society define education?
What is the functionalist perspective on education?
How do sociologists view education through the conflict perspective?
How do interactionist sociologists look at education?

In Class Activity
How do we learn what
it means to be
Pakistani?

What classroom values do we have?

Defining Education
A societys future largely depends on the successful socialization of
new members.

To accomplish this goal, every society has developed a system of

education consisting of the roles and norms that ensure the
transmission of knowledge, values, and patterns of behavior from
one generation to the next.
In some preindustrial societies, education is largely informal and
occurs mainly within the family.
Schooling is formal education, which involves instruction by specially
trained teachers who follow officially recognized policies.

Defining Education
Functionalist view: Studies the ways in which education aids
society
Conflict view: Studies the ways in which education maintains
the imbalance of power in society
Interactionist view: Studies the face-to-face interaction of the
classroom.

What is the purpose of education?

To transmit the knowledge, skills, behavior patterns,

and values necessary for people to become functioning
members of society

The Functionalist Perspective on Education

Teaching Knowledge and Skills

Transmission of Culture

Children must learn the knowledge

and skills they will need as adults.

For societies to survive, they must

pass on core values of their culture.

Education generates new knowledge,

which is useful in adapting to changing
conditions.

Societies use education to support

their communities social and political
system.

Social Integration

Occupational Placement

Education serves to produce a society

of individuals who share a common
national identity.

Education screens and selects the

members of society for the work they
will do as adults.

Schools foster social integration and

national unity by teaching a core set of
skills and values.

Schools in industrialized countries

identify students who show special
talents and abilities at an early age.

Identify Supporting Details

What facts about schools seem to be explained by the functionalist perspective?

Education screens and selects new members of society

for the work they will do as adults.

The Conflict Perspective on Education

Education serves to sort students into
social ranks and to limit the potential
of certain individuals and groups to
gain power and social rewards.
Students achievement or failure tend
to reflect existing inequalities.

Tracking
Tracking: Involves the assignment of
students to different types of
educational programs
Classroom instructions used in the
different tracks serve to reproduce the
status quo.

Social Control
Schools produce unquestioning
citizens who accept the basic
inequalities of the social system.
Hidden curriculum: Schools
transmission of cultural goals that are
not openly acknowledged.

Education and Socioeconomic

Status
Opportunities for educational success
are distributed unequally.
Higher-status college students
outnumber lower-status college
students.

The Interactionist Perspective on Education

Student-Teacher Interaction

Interactions among Students

Students labeled fast learners or slow

learners without any data eventually
took on the characteristics of the label.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a
prediction that leads to behavior that
makes the prediction come true.

The Coleman Report found that the

socioeconomic status of fellow
students was the most significant
factor in explaining student success.
Peer pressure may be a factor in this
dynamic.

When teachers treat students as if

they are bright and capable, the
students begin to think of themselves
in this way, and vice versa.

Why are interactionist sociologists

interested in the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Because they think that face-to-face learning is the

most important, so a teachers view of a student is one
of the most influential things a student learns

How do schools
contribute to social
justice?

Violence in the Schools

A 2006 survey showed that only 75 percent of parents believed their public
schools were very or somewhat safe.

Such fears are generated by violent incidents such as the Columbine High
School shootings.
In 2005 about 10 percent of boys and 3 percent of girls were threatened or
injured by a weapon at school.
Schools seem to be safer for students than being off campus.
Zero tolerance policies involve set punishmentsoften expulsionand no
leniency for serious offenses such as carrying a weapon, committing a
violent act, or possessing drugs or alcohol.
Some educators believe that the best way to curb school violence is to
teach young people how to resolve disputes peacefully.

Pakistan Education
Sector Reforms Efforts

Government of Pakistan
Ministry of Education

Present Environment of Education

a. Literacy Rate in Pakistan by Gender
Census 1998 (in %)

PSLM 2004-05 (in %)

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

44

55

32

53

65

40

46.6

57.2

35.1

55

65

45

Urban

63.7

69.8

56.7

72

80

62

Rural

25.7

37.9

12.2

38

56

18

Total

45.3

54.5

34.8

56

68

41

NWFP

35.4

51.4

18.8

45

64

26

Balochistan

24.8

34.0

14.1

37

52

19

Pakistan
Punjab
Sindh

Sources:

Population Census, 1998 and Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement (PSLM) Survey 2004-05
46

b. Number of Institutions, Enrolment and

Teaching Staff
Area

Educational
Institutions

NonEnrolment
Functional

Teaching
Staff

Pakistan

227,791

12,737

33,379,578

1,356,802

Punjab

110,459

2,742

18,298,608

716,768

Sindh

51,006

7,442

6,552,795

290,749

NWFP

37,761

1,781

5,206,932

198,893

Balochistan

10,986

306

1,110,162

50,893

ICT

1,189

23

390,888

19,387

FATA

5,145

123

605,437

22,079

Northern
Area

3,977

128

354,962

15,196

AJK

7,268

192

859,794

42,837
47

Source: National Education Census (NEC), 2006

c. Public Institutions: Missing Facilities

Province

Without
Boundary
Wall
2000

2005

Without
Drinking
Water
2000

2005

Without
Electricity
2000

2005

without
Washrooms
2000

2005

Without
Building
2000

2005

Pakistan 72865 53,481 56,094 46,766 99,597 81,633 78,655 57,216 21,126 9,776
Punjab

29,850 18,339 12,918 13,690 43,110 32,189 36,652 22,206

6,946 3,433

Sindh

18,689 14,838 17,910 11,586 25,005 22,149 18,815 12,842

9,834 4,001

NWFP

12,093 9,014 12,740

9,774

17,359 13,716 11,138 10,392

2,201

1,214

Balochistan

7,656

5,447

9,010

5,621

2,152

6,950

8,738

6,137

1,481

585

63

51

54

32

41

20

56

39

06

FATA

1,839

1,275

1,852

2,013

1,797

2,045

1,839

2,079

110

292

FANA

910

748

492

1,085

903

1,033

1,126

738

104

36

1,765

3,769

1,118

2,965

1,614

3,531

1,774

2,783

444

215

ICT

AJK

48

Source: National Education Census (NEC), 2006

d. Educational Institutions by Medium of

Instruction
Type
Total
Boys
Girls
Mixed
Public
Boys
Girls
Mixed

Private
Boys
Girls
Mixed

# of
Institutions
227791
57868
48475
121448
151,744
50,265
41878
59,601
76,047
6,597
7,602
61,847

* It includes Pushto, Balochi, Arabic

Source: National Education Census (NEC), 2006

Medium of Instruction (in %)

Urdu English Sindhi
Others*
64.6
10.4
15.5
9.5
77.3
2.9
6.7
13.2
78.3
2.6
9.3
9.8
53.1
17.1
22.2
7.6
68.3
1.4
22.4
7.9
82.2
1.2
7.5
9.1
80.6
1.4
6.7
11.3
48.0
1.6
43.4
7.0
57.2
28.4
1.8
12.7
63.7
10.7
2.6
23.0
44.4
1.4
1.3
52.9
58.0
32.1
1.7
7.7
49

Budgetary Allocation for Education

(Rs. In Billion)

Ministry of Education
Higher Education Commission
Other Federal Ministries
Punjab
Sindh
NWFP
Balochistan
AJK
FATA
FANA
Total (Public Sector)
Total (Private Sector)
Grand Total
GDP(mp) (Economic survey 2005-06) on
current factor cost.
Education Budget as % of GDP
*Estimated

2000-01
5.08
2.90
31.39
16.16
11.35
4.73
2.25
1.49
0.49
75.88
12.00
87.88

2005-06
6.8
22.20
7.40
60.75
28.90
18.23
8.86
3.75
2.10
0.98
160.00
35.91
195.91

2006-07
9.55
27.58
7.59
83.97
39.92
23.68
9.63
4.63
3.78
1.39
211.77
40.69*
252.46

3,863

7,713

2.27%

2.53%

Source: Details of demands for grants and appropriations 2006-07, GoP, Finance Div. Budget books of the Govt. of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP,
Balochistan and AJ&K for 2006-07. Official communications from various Federal Ministries/Divisions addressed to the MoE. Official
Communications from the District Governments to the MoE.

50

Reforms Undertaken
1. Uniform academic session from 1st of September
2007 throughout the country.
2. Free education upto Matriculation.
3. Provision of free textbooks.
4. Grant of scholarships and incentives to female
students.
5. English language compulsory from Class-1
onwards.
6. Composite examination at Matric level
throughout the country from 2007, province of
Sindh will adopt it in 2008.
7. Provision of missing facilities in schools through
PESR (Rs. 1.05 billion for 2006-07).
Continue

51

8.

Introduction of English as medium of

instruction for Science, Mathematics and
Computer Science. Islamiyat and Pakistan
Studies in Urdu in all schools.

9.

Social Studies for Classes VI-VIII bifurcated

into History and Geography as compulsory
subjects.

10. New Scheme of Studies approved and notified

with effect from 2007.

11. Budgetary allocations for education increased.

Continue

52

12. New curriculum:

Information Technology / Computer Education from
Class-VI.
All duplication in subjects eliminated.

Contents do not reflect thinking of any particular sect

/ school of thought.
Ethics, moral education and Haqooq-ul-ibad
included.

Curriculum upgraded to ensure latest developments /

ideas in science and technology. Progressive with
vertical and horizontal linkages.
New Groups i.e. Medical Technology Group and
Computer Science Group introduced in Class XI-XII.
Continue

53

13. Ordinance issued for regulatory authority for

registration of private sector educational
institutions.
14. Format of the question papers for the Board
examinations revised. The papers will have
three parts:
i.

20% objective questions. The questions will have

multiple choices.

ii. 50% questions for short answers.

iii. 30% questions for descriptive answers.
-

During 2006 teachers being trained to prepare

children to answer questions on this pattern from
2007.
Continue

54

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57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

Education for a
Global
Community

What is Globalization?
Interconnectedness among
people and states, by virtue
of:
Economic systems
Environmental systems
Communication systems
Political systems
Social systems

1985-1991

Cold War Era vs. Globalization

Cold War Era
Division and walls
National loyalties
Friends and enemies
One-on-one
communication
technologies, e.g.,
telegraph, telephone

Globalization
Integration and webs
International loyalties
All are competitors
Multi-person
communication
technologies, e.g., the
Internet, cable TV

Three Overlapping Balances

Traditional balance of power now in the hands
of one nation, the United States
Economic balance between nation-states and
global markets
Sensitive balance between individuals and

technology gives
individuals more power
nation-states;

Education for a Global Perspective

The National Council for the Social
Studies: A Global Perspective
Emphasizes human experience influenced
by transnational and cross-cultural
interaction
Emphasizes the wide variety of actors on
the world stage
Continued

 Emphasizes that the fate of

humankind cannot be separated from
the state of the global environment
Emphasizes that there are linkages
between present social, political, and
ecological realities and alternative
futures
Emphasizes citizen participation at
both local and international levels

Need for Education at Three Levels

(David Hoopes)
The Local-Traditional Level (pre-1750): little
need to understand the perspectives of others
The National-Modern Level (1750-1960): need
to communicate with others increases
The Global-Postmodern Level (1960-future):
great need to interact with and understand
others

Demands of a Global Society

A healthy, well-functioning global society
demands that individuals have the ability
to think, perceive, communicate, and
behave in new and different ways with
people from many different
backgrounds.
The preparation of individuals for these
kinds of interactions is the goal of global
or international education.

Robert Hanveys Five Elements of a

Global Perspective
Perspective Consciousness
State of the Planet Awareness
Cross-Cultural Awareness
Knowledge of Global Dynamics or World
Systems
Awareness of Human Choice

Perspective Consciousness: awareness that ones view of the

world is not universally shared. For example:

Differences in views of the

relationships of human beings and
nature
Differences in views of the role of
women in society
Differences in views regarding people
with disabilities

 State of the Planet Awareness: knowledge of prevailing world

conditions and trends

Population growth and migration

Economic conditions
Resources and the physical environment
Political developments

Advances in science, technology, law,

and health
Awareness of world conflicts

 Cross-Cultural Awareness: knowledge of social and cultural

diversity around the world

Awareness of superficial cultural traits;

often the basis of stereotypes
Awareness of significant but more subtle
cultural traits; often the result of culture
conflict situations
Awareness of other cultures from the
inside; often the result of cultural
immersion

 Knowledge of Global Dynamics or World Systems: requires at

least a modest understanding of how world ecosystems operate

The interconnectedness of events and

decisions
The unanticipated effects of economic
and political decisions

 Awareness of Human Choice: the emergence of a global

consciousness

Need to consider the implications of

expanded knowledge, economic, and
communication systems
The potential power of individuals in
making change

Characteristics of a Global
Classroom
Pedagogies: Old and New
Traditional practices
Developmentally appropriate practices,
collaborative and cooperative projects
Creative use of technology
Broad use of maps, local and national
newspapers, taped television programs,
United Nations materials

Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New

Broadening of traditional content areas

Use of interdisciplinary lessons and units
Integration of content from international
organizations and associations
Integration of content from international
trends data-bases

Assessments: Old and New

Use of traditional assessments

Use of alternative assessments

Writing or drawing political cartoons,

poems, songs, posters, flyers
Computer-generated tests and
games
Puzzles, solving real-world problems

Requirements of Teaching a
Globally Oriented Curriculum
Global perspective must be integrated
throughout the school curriculum.
Instructional methods and materials must
emphasize intercultural interaction and
culturally appropriate methods of instruction
and assessment.

Ethical Issues
Fair allocation of available resources in the
school
Consideration of local families and communities
when discussing global concerns
The need to balance advocacy with inquiry
The length of time devoted to new ideas
(changing attitudes takes time!)

Something to Think About

The economic, social and environmental
challenges we face today do not respect any
conventional boundaries. They dont respect
geographical boundaries and they dont
respect old definitions.

Announcement

The Sociology of Religion

A religion is a system of roles and norms organized around the

sacred, which binds people together in groups.
Religions can provide social cohesion, social control, and
emotional support.

Religions are characterized by their rituals, symbols, belief

systems, and organizational structures.

The Sociology of Religion

Main Idea
Religion is a socially created set of practices that embody and define a groups
idea about the sacred.

Reading Focus
What is a sociological definition of religion?
What are the functions of religion?
How do sociologists analyze the nature of religion?

In Class Activity

Present an argument: for or

against.

What does religion mean

to you?

ReligionA Sociological Definition

Societies have struggled with the need to give meaning to human existence
and to provide people with the motivation for survival.
Societies make distinctions between the sacred (anything that is
considered to be part of the supernatural world and that inspires awe,
respect, and reverence) and the profane (anything considered to be part of
the ordinary world and, thus, commonplace and familiar).
This distinction is the basis for of all religions (systems of roles and norms
that are organized around the sacred realm and that bind people together
in social groups).
Religion is a basic institution, yet it exists in many different forms because
different societies give sacred meaning to a wide variety of objects, events,
and experiences.

Belief in a particular religion is based on faith rather than on science.

The Functions of Religion

Social Cohesion
Strengthens bonds between people
Can lead to conflict between adherents of different religions
For example, Hajj

Social Control

Encourages conformity to norms

Provides a divine purpose for conformity
May inhibit innovation, freedom of thought, and social reform
For example, simple uniform robes of Buddhists reminds monks that
they must replace individual desires with dedication to faith

Emotional Support
Helps people endure disappointment and suffering by providing a
comfort in believing that harsh circumstances have a special purpose
Attempts to provide answers to the questions concerning life and
death
Example?

The Nature of Religion

Rituals and Symbols

Belief Systems

Ritual: An established pattern of

behavior through which a group of
believers experiences the sacred

Animism: Belief that spirits actively

influence human life; two kinds:
shamanism and totemism

Often used to mark changes in

status such as birth, marriage, and
death
Also used to unite believers and
reinforce faith

Theism: Belief in god or gods; two

kinds: monotheism and polytheism

Often includes sacred symbolic

objectssuch as clothing, herbs,
chalices, or books

Monotheism: The belief in one god,

who is usually seen as the creator
and moral authority
Polytheism: Belief in a number of
gods
Ethicalism: The idea that moral
principles have a sacred quality

Organizational Structures
Ecclesia: Structured bureaucratic
organization, closely allied with the
government, whose officials are highly
trained and wield considerable power

Denomination: Well-established
religious organization in which a
substantial number of the population
are members
Sect: Relatively small religious
organization that typically has split off
from a denomination because of
differences concerning beliefs
Cult: New religion whose beliefs differ
markedly from those of the societys
major religions

Identify Supporting Details

What are the four basic elements
of all religions?

Rituals, symbols, belief system, organizational structure

Religious Participation
Although the majority of Americans claim a religious preference,
only about one-third of people attend religious services on a
regular basis.
Religiosity

Secular

Religiosity is the depth of peoples

religious feelings
Hard to measure
Depth of feeling does not correlate
with participation in services

Secular refers to the non-religious

aspects of society
Decisions based equally on
religious teaching and own beliefs

Find the Main Idea

Why have some sociologists claimed
that the our society is
becoming more secular?

Religion is losing its influence on everyday life