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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Machine Harvesting and Rice Milling Quality

Harvesting affects yield and milling quality of rice so growers must harvest rice as carefully as
they grow it. Value for most classes of rice in the United States is determined primarily by the
percent of whole milled grain (head rice) and total milled grain, although additional quality
characteristics related to appearance and eating quality may also be used in certain markets. For
example, the 1998 crop USDA loan values for medium and short grain rice average $.043/cwt.
for each point of head rice. At a yield of 80 cwt./ac, this is $3.44/ac for every point of head rice
gained or lost. Total rice is worth about $.049/cwt., or $3.92/ac for every point. As the overall
market value of rice changes, the value of milling quality changes proportionately. The point is
that high milling quality pays dividends. During harvesting, what can growers do to maximize
milling quality?

Harvest at the Optimum Moisture Content


Many studies show that head rice is highest when rice is harvested at moisture content greater
than what is required for safe storage. The optimum harvest moisture content differs with each
variety, as shown in Table 1. Any field of rice at harvest time is a mixture of wet and dry kernels.
Growth of the crop, cultural practices and genetics explain this and are discussed elsewhere in
this workshop. The dry kernels in this mixture, those below approximately 16% moisture, are
the problem. If they are rehydrated, from any source of moisture, they can crack. When these
cracked kernels are milled, they usually break, so you get lower head rice. Every field has some
dry kernels, which are subject to damage from rehydration. This relationship of moisture to
milling yield gives growers a degree of control over head rice by allowing them to time their
harvest according to moisture content. However, while moisture content is very important, there
are many factors determining milling quality so that it is possible to get high or low head rice over
a wide range of harvest moisture[4]. Dry fields dont always give low quality if they are not
exposed to rehydrating conditions.

Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Milling yield for California medium and short grain varieties tends to drop as moisture goes
below 20% and both head and total rice decrease above 27- 30% moisture content. Long grain
rice is an exception and produces highest quality at lower harvest moisture (Table 1).
Table 1. California rice varieties and suggested optimum harvest moisture for maximizing milling
quality.

Variety

Comment

CM-101

Dries rapidly during ripening, uniform maturity; best head rice at 23-26%

S-102

Watch carefully, pubescent variety that looses moisture rapidly; has high head potential; cut at 2023%.

Calhikari-201

High milling yield potential but somewhat less than Japanese varieties; harvest in 22-24% moisture
range. Quality assessment for this and other Japanese-type varieties goes beyond milling yields

Akitakomachi

High milling yield potential; harvest at 23-24% moisture to minimize fissuring.

Koshihikari

High milling yield potential; harvest at 23-24% moisture; to minimize fissuring.

M-103

Very good milling quality; yield and quality may be reduced by early planting in warm areas; head
rice stable over a wide range of harvest moisture, but total increases slightly at lower moisture.

M-202

Ripens uniformly, threshes easily; head rice fairly sensitive to declining moisture, best to cut at 2224%.

M-204

Higher head and total potential than M-202; threshes easily; head more stable over wider moisture
range than M-202.

M-205

Slightly higher head and total potential than M-202 when harvested at similar moisture content;
cool weather delays heading more than M-202 and this could affect milling quality.

M-401

Generally lower milling yields than other medium grains; head rice sensitive to low moisture
harvest; cut in 22-25% range.

M-402

Average 5% higher head rice than M-401; harvest at 22-25% moisture.

L-204

Harvest at 16-17% moisture; avoid early draining; requires 40-45 days after heading to mature. Less
resistant to cold weather blanking than medium grains.

L-205

Harvest at 16-17% moisture but avoid letting moisture drop too low before harvest; dont begin
harvest until grain moisture is below 19% and green grains on the panicles are less than 1%.

A-201

Poor milling yield; use slower cylinder speed; harvest at 18-20%

Calmati 201

Suggest handling similar to L-205.

Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Because wetter rice is more expensive to dry, growers may compromise between cost and quality
and try to harvest at the economically optimum moisture content. No recent studies relate
head rice and drying costs to discover the optimum moisture, but the industry has generally
settled on 22+/- 1% moisture content as the best compromise of when to start cutting standard
short and medium grain rice. However, recent work demonstrated that high head yields at lower
moisture contents at harvest are possible under California conditions (Figure 1). Analysis of
receiving data from a major drying facility revealed that many growers harvested at moisture
contents as low as 20% while maintaining high head yields. In contrast, others harvesting at
optimal moisture produced lower mill quality.

70
65

Head Yield (%)

60
55
50
45
40
35
30
14

16

18

20

22

24

26

Receiving Moisture (% wb)

Figure 1. Grain moisture content as received at the dryer and the corresponding head yield for
M-202 in 1996.

Growers should collect a sample prior to harvest to check its moisture. For best accuracy, use
a harvester to cut your sample. A combine sample will best represent the true moisture.
Alternatively, one can hand strip from random areas, but be sure to take some of the sample from
lower, less mature panicles. Avoid taking just the ripe grains from the topmost panicles.

Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Avoid Delays during Harvest and from Field to Drier


Once harvest has started, a field should be completed as soon as possible unless there are
significant areas that have higher moisture; in such cases, leave them until they are ready.
Because stripper harvesters move so fast, they should theoretically be able to harvest all the
grain in a field at closer to the optimum moisture, compared to cutter bar combines. Over the
long run, this should lend itself to higher milling quality. Start harvesting each day when the dew
is mostly off the rice, to avoid false moisture readings and putting wet rice in the truck. Stop
harvesting when significant moisture accumulates on the plants in the evening and the plants
become tough.

Expedite handling after harvest and through the drying process to reduce head rice losses.
Ideally, rice should not sit in trucks overnight. A delay in aerating wet rice can reduce can reduce
quality characteristics, such as taste, which is important in some export markets (Figure 2).
Studies have shown that nonaerated wet rice begins to produce ethanol within hours of harvest.
The evolution of ethanol corresponds to the development off-flavors and odors in cooked rice,
designated as a sour/silage odor by an USDA taste panel (Figure 3).
Most sunchecking occurs in the field before harvest from dew and rain, but rehydration of dry
kernels can also occur after harvest as grain sits in harvester bins, bankout carts, trucks and
holding bins, as moisture transfers from wet to dry kernels.

Harvesting is to Maximize Profit


Harvesting is a compromise between loss of grain yield, reduction in quality, and speed. The
main routes of grain loss are dropping it on the ground or leaving it on the stalk. Physical damage
includes reducing milling quality by cracking or crushing kernels, shelling kernels and
unacceptable amount of trash (dockage) because of inadequate cleaning. Most adjustments in
combine operators manuals emphasize reducing losses first, which are usually worth more than

Rice Quality Workshop 2003

quality. Acceptable losses are less than 5% (400 lbs/ac at 80 cwt./ac yield). California studies
found that the average rice field after harvest had about 300 lbs/ac grain on the ground. This
suggests growers are doing a good job of adjusting combines to minimize losses. After losses are
minimized, reduction in grain damage is achieved by adjusting the threshing mechanism.

70

65

Taste Score

60

55

50
SE=0.8

45

40
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Time (hr)

Figure 2. Effect of delayed aeration after harvest on the taste quality of Akitakomachi.

Ethanol vs 1,3 butandiol: R2 =


0.90

Sour/silage

Figure 3. Accumulation of ethanol and the development of off-odor in wet rice.


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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Combine speed and variety (Figure 4) influenced grain recovery performance of cutter bar
headers as compared to stripper headers. Based on header performance studies and southern rice
varieties, there were no differences in efficiency between the two header types at speeds less
than 1 mph. However, operating a stripper header above 2 mph resulted in a substantial increase
in harvest loss. Stripper header performance was also decreased when harvesting the shorter
variety with a robust and prominent flag leaf projecting well above the head.

Harvest Speed (mph)

Figure 4. Relative harvest loss of a stripper header compared to a conventional header mounted
on IH 1680 combines in two southern rice varieties. Source: Bennett et al., 1993.

Environmental Effects on Head Rice


The differences in grain quality among varieties and at different harvest dates are sometimes
attributed to environmental factors that occur during grain fill and maturity. Among the many
possible factors only a few have been studied under California conditions. One of the important
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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

environmental factors is temperature. A five-year study from 1979 to 1984 based on over 1000
dryer receiving lots found that head yields are not generally affected by temperature immediately
before harvest (Figure 3-A). The exception to this observation is the very early varieties. In
which case, head yield declined with increasing temperatures. The head yield for the very early
varieties improved as the harvest progressed, presumably, due in part to cooler temperatures
(Figure 5 B). Grain moisture content trended downward with increasing temperatures and was
not generally associated with harvest date (Figures 5 C & D). Differences in day and night time
temperatures did not affect head rice yields during the 5-year course of the study.
Understanding Harvester Basics
A

Figures 5 - A to D. Relationship of % head,


% moisture to air temperature and harvest
date. Averaged 1979 1984.
p Very early
n Early
Intermediate
l Late

E
Max temp
Min temp

Figure 5 E. Minimum and maximum


temperatures during the harvest season.
Averaged 1979 1984.

HARVEST WEEK

After: Geng, S et al. 1985.

Rice Quality Workshop 2003

A combine is a machine that harvests (cuts and gathers the rice crop) and threshes (separates out
the grain from the plant and cleans the grain) the crop. All combines used in California rice
production are self-propelled, which means they have on-board engines, which propel the
combine and drive the combine mechanisms. Modern rice combines are powerful with 300+
horsepower and cut a wide swath, 18-22'. There are several types of combines. Cutterbar
headers cut the stems and separate grain and straw internally while stripper headers strip the
grain off the stalk without cutting. Both types are similar in other respects.

Some combines

thresh the rice using a cylinder running against a fixed concave, which is set crosswise in the
travel direction. Axial flow combines have a long rotor which also turns against a fixed surface
but which is set on the long axis of the combine. Separators vary also, including those, which use
a straw walker to pass the grain along a series of fishbacks allowing the grain to fall onto
screens and sieves, and tine separators, which are a kind of secondary cylinder and concave.
Axial flow combines use the rear end of the rotor to separate the straw and grain. Figure 1 shows
the main sections of a cutterbar combine.

Figure 6. Cutter bar combine and its major systems and functions.
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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Cutterbar headers. The parts of a cutterbar header include a reel, as siclebar and either a gathering
auger or cross draper. The reel parts a section of the crop and pushes it against the cutterbar,
which cuts the stalk. Rice reels have fingers that help pick up lodged plants. As the cut stalk
falls backward into the combine, helped by the reel, the draper helps move it toward the
gathering auger which in turn carries it to the center of the header into the feeding mechanism. See
Figure 6. Some aftermarket headers use cross drapers, which replace the function of the gathering
auger. Some feel they provide more even feeding. Reels can be adjusted forward and back and
up and down. In standing grain, the bats should strike the grain just below the lowest grain
heads. The peripheral reel speed should be 1.25 times greater than the ground speed. The
formula for reel speed, RPM in relation to ground speed is:

RPMreel = 366 X 1.25 X ground speed in mph reel diameter in inches


Augers and drapers can be adjusted for clearance from the bottom of the platform and rotational
speed. Auger speed should be sufficient to give a uniform flow of crop into the threshing
mechanism. If too slow, clogging could occur in the feed area of the platform.

Figure 7. Cutterbar type of header and key components.

Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Stripper headers. This type of header uses a rotating drum equipped with stripping fingers
which operate under a cowl or shroud which deflects the crop under it and briefly traps the
heads so the stripping elements can comb off the grain. This header can be attached to standard
combines of all types. With stripper headers, the threshing and separation functions of the
combines are little used and mainly pass the grain on to the cleaning and handling systems (Figure
7). Rotation of rotor is upward so that grain is swept into the header. An auger takes it to the
feeder mechanism.

Figure 7. Stripper header showing rotor and stripper elements (cover not in place).
Feeding mechanism. As the cut material enters the throat of the combine, called the feeder house,
a feed conveyor feeds it into the threshing mechanism.

Cylinders and concaves. These remove the grain from the stems by rubbing and abrasive action.
Both spike tooth and raspbar types are used in rice. The former is more aggressive and may give
more complete threshing but with slightly more grain damage, while the latter is considered more
gentle but with slightly higher losses. California studies suggest that the virtue of one offsets
those of the other (Figure 8).

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Figure 8. Cylinder and concave threshing mechanism.


Axial flow or rotary threshers. These threshers can have either single or double rotors mounted
longitudinally in the combine. Impeller blades at the front draw the crop in from the feeder
house. Rasp bars work against concave sections at the front end of the rotor to provide threshing
action. The crop is threshed as it swirls between the periphery of the rotor and the concaves
(Figure 9).
Separation. Several devices are employed to separate the straw and grain. In cylinder and
concave type machines a beater located directly behind the cylinder deflects the grain onto the
straw walkers. (See Figure 5) The walkers hold up the straw and allow the grain to fall below
while they convey the straw to the rear of the combine. In axial flow machines the rear of the
rotor provides separation and conveyance of the straw, so there are no straw walkers. In all
machines the grain then falls through separator grates onto the cleaning mechanism.

Figure 9. Position and orientation of rotor in axial flow combine.


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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Cleaning. A fan blows air up through the bottom of the chaffer and sieve to aerodynamically
separate the chaff and small stems from the grain. The chaffer and sieve together are called the
cleaning shoe. The chaffer is an oscillating frame, which suspends straw and chaff so it can be
carried out the end of the combine. Next, the sieve, which has smaller openings than the chaffer
and operates in a similar manner, does the final cleaning. See Figure 10.
Handling. Elevators and augers are used to convey the grain, clean grain going into the storage
tank at the top, or, in the case of unthreshed material from the end of the shoe called tailings,
back to the threshing cylinder where it passes through a second time. From the storage tank and
unloading auger moves the grain into bankout wagons driven alongside the combine.

Figure 10. Cleaning and handling mechanisms.

Adjust the Combine for the Conditions


Combines require settings unique to the crop, variety and maturity. Most harvester manuals give
initial settings for the crop, but you must be prepared to adjust these based on conditions in a
given field and the threshing characteristics of the particular variety.

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Proper adjustment = minimum loss and damage to grain

The initial settings in Table 2 are reasonable for long grains, which thresh easily. For more
difficult to thresh short and medium grain varieties, California rice growers should increase
cylinder speed to 550-700, decrease clearance to 19 mm (3/4") and decrease fan speed to 10501150. Varieties that are difficult to thresh, such as Koshihikari, might require higher cylinder
speed and less clearance.

Table 2. Initial settings for long grain varieties recommended by manufacturers. Adjust for
medium and short grains.
With Shelbourne
Operation/Model

JD CTS II

Case/IH 2388

Reynolds header

800

400-500

JD CTS - 450 to 700

Rotor speed, rpm

Cylinder speed

400-550

Concave setting, mm

28

Fan speed, rpm

1200

Screens

Variable - see operators manual

Forward speed

Depends on crop ripeness, moisture, standing or lodged, soil moisture, power available,

Case/IH 2388 - 660

Indicator at 1

3-4 mm minimum

880

Full speed

Full open

combine capacity, crop yield

While harvester settings can affect milling yields, the magnitude is usually not as much as for
harvest moisture content unless they are way off. Settings that are most important to maintaining
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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

milling yields are cylinder speed and cylinder clearance, according to work in California.
Researchers working on common short stature varieties found a significant effect of cylinder
speed on milling yield. An increase of 100 rpm decreased head rice 0 .2, 1.0, 1.0 and 2.6 points
and losses decreased by 1.1, 0.5, 0.5, and 3.0 points for CalBelle, M9, M-201 and M-401,
respectively.

Generally, the reduction in head rice was offset by the increase in recovery as cylinder speed
increased. Speeding up the cylinder increased revenue for the long grain variety by about 8%,
in a range of 420 - 700 rpm but did not change revenue for M-201 between 500 and 890 rpm or
M9 between 900 and 1100 rpm. Cylinder/concave clearance did not make a great deal of
difference in this study. In comparison tests of rasp and spike tooth cylinder, the rasp bar was
gentler and produced slightly higher milling yields, but had greater losses which offset the head
rice gains. Both cylinder types produced lower head rice and lower losses as cylinder speed
increased in a range of 500-880 rpm on M-201. There was no significant advantage of one over
the other in respect to revenue. Generally, in this study, reducing losses was worth more than
increasing head rice. And, each variety needed its own cylinder speed and forward speed for
optimum performance.

In more recent work in Arkansas rotor harvester settings were studied for their effects on losses
and milling yield. Depending on the variety, the most important factors relating to losses were
feedrate (the amount of material in the harvester at any one time which is affected by forward
speed and cutter bar height) and the ratio of material other than grain (MOG) to grain (G).
MOG/G ratio is the composition of material in the harvester. Grain moisture content,
composition of the material, feedrate and rotor speed had only small impacts on quality in this
study. Field variability was more important than combine settings.

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Troubleshooting Combines
Grain loss and damage troubleshooting guides are usually included in the operators manual.
Identification of problems requires frequent checking for losses on the ground, at the reel and
behind and inside the machine, and for signs of damaged grain in the tank. The following tables
are adapted from operator manuals and provide suggested remedies for various problems.

Table 3. Troubleshooting cutterbar combines, including cylinder and rotor types.


Problem

Possible Adjustments

Excessive free grain in straw

Remove rear concave inserts


Remove tine grate covers
Increase cylinder speed by 30 rpm
Increase tine speed (change drive sprocket)

Unthreshed grain

Close concave
Increase cylinder/rotor speed
Increase tine speed
Add concave fillers

Free grain at rear of shoe or under rear

Change fan speed (could need more or less)

axle

Open chaffer and/or precleaner


Reduce cylinder/rotor speed
Open concave
Decrease tine speed
Reduce ground speed

Excessive grain in lower elevator

Open sieve, chaffer


Reduce fan speed

Damaged grain in tank

Reduce cylinder/rotor speed


Open concave
Remove concave filler strips

Tank sample is not clean

Close pre-cleaner, chaffer, sieve


Increase fan speed
Decrease rotor speed
Open concave

Free grain on ground behind header

Reduce reel speed

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Table 4. Troubleshooting stripper combines.


Problem

Possible Adjustments

Unstripped grain in heads

Increase speed of stripper rotor


Replace stripping elements
Lower rotor
Reduce forward speed

Excessive shelling of seeds at header

Lower header
lower cowl
Increase forward speed

Trash in sample

Close concave
Close sieve

Cracked grainr

Reduce cylinder speed


Increase forward speed

Grain loss over the sieves

Increase fan speed if sieves are blocked


Decrease fan speed if blowing over
Increase forward speed

Stripper torque

limiter

operating

excessively

Raise header
Decrease forward speed
Crop too green
Increase rotor speed

Measuring Grain Losses


Visually.
1. Disengage the straw spreader or straw chopper at the rear of the combine.
2. Harvest a typical area in the field.
3. Stop forward motion of the combine and allow the combine to clear itself of material.
4. Back the combine a distance equal to the length of the combine and stop the combine.
5. Walk the area in front of the combine and observe the ground for rice kernels.

NOTE: California rice is generally heavier than Southern varieties so the operator manual tables
for loss calculations are not accurate. For California varieties, approximately 35 kernels/ft2 is
equal to 100 lbs/ac.

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

By measurement.
First, follow procedures 1 to 4 above.

FOR PREHARVEST LOSSES:


1. Place a frame of known area (usually 1 foot square) at several locations in a typical area of the
unharvested field.
2. Count the number of kernels on the ground laying within the frame.

FOR HEADER LOSSES:


1. Place a frame at several locations in front of the combine.
2. Count the kernels and take an average.
3. Subtract the average found in the pre-harvest test.

FOR THRESHING LOSSES:


1. Place a frame at several locations directly behind the separator area of the combine.
2. Count the number of kernels remaining on partially threshed heads. Average the number of
kernels.
3. Count and separately record the number of loose kernels lying on the ground. These will be
used to determine straw walker and cleaning shoe losses.
4. Use the following Table 5 to determine losses attributable to the threshing system:

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Table 5. Loss table for preharvest, header and thresher losses.

Number of rice kernels (medium grain) per foot square to equal 100 lbs/ac

Separator

Cutting Width (ft.)

width (in.)
15'

16'

18'

20'

22'

29"

57

--

--

--

--

38"

43

45

51

57

--

44"

37

39

44

49

54

55"

29

31

35

39

44

FOR STRAW WALKER AND CLEANING SHOE LOSSES


1. Determine the average number of loose kernels from #3 above (Threshing Losses)
2. Subtract from this result the average number of kernels from the pre-harvest field loss tests
as well as the average number of kernels from the header loss tests.
3. Use the Table 5 above to determine the losses attributable to the straw walker and cleaning
shoe.

Once the source of an unacceptable loss has been identified, the information in Table 6 below will
help you identify the cause and correct it.

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Table 6. Source, cause and remedies for rice grain losses.

Source of loss

Cause of loss

Remedy

Preharvest losses

Wind and hail shatter, lodging

Variety selection and cultural


practices

Header losses

Threshing losses

Grain heads missed by cutterbar

Lower cutter bar

Grain shattered by reel

Reduce reel speed

Grain thrown over in front of the reel

Raise reel, reduce reel speed

Unthreshed grain carried over the straw walkers

Slow ground speed

Cracked grain due to overthreshing

Slow cylinder, open concave

Cracked grain due to excessive tailings

Slow forward speed, increase


threshing action

Straw walker losses

Shoe losses

Leakage losses

Caused by feeeding too much material over the straw

Slow ground speed to reduce

alkers

throughput

Grain blown out the rear by high fan speed

Slow fan speed

Too much material on the chaffer

Slow ground speed

Open inspection, cleaning and drainage doors

Close doors

Torn seals, sheet metal holes

Repair seals and holes

In summary, timing of harvest is the most important quality related decision rice growers make.
Harvesters have less impact on milling yield and should be adjusted to minimize losses first then
fine tuned to reduce damage. Growers should also expedite transport of harvested grain to the
drier.

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Rice Quality Workshop 2003

Bibliography
In: Andrews, S.B., T.J.Siebenmorgen,E.D. Vories, D.H. Loewer, and A. Mauromoustakos. 1993.
Effects of combine operating parameters on harvest loss and quality in rice. Amer. Soc. Ag. Eng,
vol 36(6): 1599-1607, Nov-Dec.
Bennett, KE, TJ Siebenmorgan, E Vories, and A Mauromoustakos. 1993. Rice harvesting
performance of Shelbourne Reynolds stripper headers. Arkansas Farm Research, 42(4):4.

Geng, S., J.F. Williams, and J.E. Hill. 1984. harvest moisture effects on rice milling quality. In
California Agriculture, Nov.-Dec. pp 11-12.

Jongkaewwattana, S. 1990. A comprehensive study of factors influencing rice milling quality.


Ph.D. dissertation. Dept. of Agronomy and Range Sci., University of California, Davis. 138 pp.

Kunze, O.R. 1985. Effect of environment and variety on milling qualities of rice. In: Rice grain
quality and marketing. International Rice Research Institute. pp 37-48.

Miller, G.E., B.M. Jenkins, S. Upadhyaya, and J. Knutson. 1985. Rice harvesting research, In
Comprehensive research on rice, annual report. California Rice Research Board. pp 91-98.

Xu, X.B. and B.S. Vergara. 1986. Morphological changes in rice panicle development. A review
of literature. International Rice Research Institute. Res. paper ser. 117. 13 pp.

Yoshida, S. 1981. Fundamentals of rice crop science. International Rice Research Institute.269
pp.

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