DRILLING ENGINEERING I

(CGE577)
CHAPTER 4:

FORMATION PRESSURES

Contents
2

Definition of normal pressure, abnormal pressure,

overburden pressure and fracture pressure

Origin of abnormal pressure
Leak Off Test Procedure
Pore Pressure Profile
Prediction and Detection of Abnormal Pressure

Why is Formation Pressure so Important??

3

It is an important consideration in many aspects of

well planning and operations.

To be able to design casing and mud weight
selection.
To be able to predict and detect high pressure zones
where there is the risk of blow-out.
To be able to predict pressure at which the rocks will
fracture losses of large volumes of drilling fluids
influx from shallow formation blow out

Blowout of Deepwater Horizon semi-submersible Mobile Offshore Drilling

Unit (MODU), Off Louisiana, 20th April 2010.
4
Happened on 20 April, 2010 while

drilling Macondo Oil Prospect.

Killed 11 Workers, injured 16 others
Deepwater Horizon Rig (Transocean)
Drilling at 5000 water depth and under
13000 ft seabed
Transocean executive- Abnormal
pressure had accumulated inside
the marine riser and as it came up ,it
expanded rapidly and ignited
(blowout).
BOP failure was blamed by BP.
BOP Manufacturer: Cameron
International Corp.
12,000 19,000 bopd leaks

Formation Pressure
5

Formation pressure/Pore pressure:

Pressure of fluid contained in pore spaces of the

rock (spaces between grains)

Formation Pressure (Cont)

6

The pressure in the formations to be drilled is often measured in

pressure gradient.
In vertical column of fluid, gravity causes the pressure inside the
fluid to change with depth.
The pressure in the fluid at a particular depth has to support the
weight of the fluid above that depth.

Figure 3-3: P-Z Diagram

illustrates how measured
pressure at any point
increases steadily as you move
down a column, in direct
proportion to the depth and
density of fluid. If the density
of the fluid changes, so does the
slope of the curve.

0.1 psi/ft

0.465 psi/ft

0.35 psi/ft

Formula for Pressure

8

Pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid = Density x Height x Constant*

*The constant depends on the units you chose

Density

Height *Constant Answer is in

(depth)

g/cc, kg/l, SG, RD metres

9.81

Kpa kilopascals

g/cc, kg/l, SG, RD metres

1.42

psi (pounds per square inch)

ppg, lbs/gal

0.052

psi (lbs/in2 )

feet

Example; the pressure exerted by a column of seawater 1000 m deep is:

Pressure = 1.03 g/cc X 1000 m X 1.42 = 1,463 psi
Pressure = 1.03 g/cc x 1000 m x 9.81 = 10,104 Kpa
Pressure = 8.58 ppg x 3281 ft x 0.052 = 1463 psi

* Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = 0.052 x f (ppg) x D (ft)

* Pressure gradient (psi/ft) = ppg x 0.052

Subsurface Pressures
9

Normal

Abnormal
(Subnormal)

Abnormal
(Overpressure)
Subsurface
Pressures

Overburden

Fracture

1. Normal Pressure (Hydrostatic Pore Pressure)

10

is a pore pressure created by salt water column

Most of the fluids found in the pore space of

sedimentary formations contains a proportion of salts

(brines).
Dissolved salts may vary between 0 to over
200,000ppm.
Pore Pressure gradient:

Pure water = 0.433psi/ft

Salt water = 0.442-0.478psi/ft
Most geographical area = 0.465 psi/ft (assumes 80,000 ppm
salt content) normal pressure gradient/hydrostatic
pressure.

Example-1
12

Compute the normal formation pressure expected at a depth

8,500 ft in the Malaysian basin area. The normal gradient in
Malaysian Basin is 0.442 psi/ft.
Solution :
HP (psi) = 0.052 x f (ppg) x D (ft)
HP = ?????

Example-2
13

Calculate the pressure gradient of 10 ppg of mud

Solution:

Pressure gradient (psi/ft) = ppg x 0.052

= 10 ppg x 0.052
= 0.52 psi/ft

2. Abnormal Pressures
14
Is a pore pressures which are found to lie above or below the normal pore

pressure gradient line.

Subnormal/underpressure = pressure gradient < normal pressure gradient
Overpressure/undercompaction = pressure gradient > normal pressure
gradient
The abnormal pressure exist when the pores are isolated (not interconnected)
between each other. The permeability barrier that form avoid the pressures from
being equalized (undercompaction).

Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressure

15

Thermal Expansion

(a)
-

As sediments and pore fluids are buried the temperature rises. If the fluid
is expand, the density will decrease thus reducing the pressure

Formation Foreshortening

(b)
-

During a compression process, there is some bending of strata. The upper

beds bend upward and the lower bed bend downwards. The intermediate
beds must expand to fill the void and create subnormal pressure zone.
This thought apply to some subnormal zones in Indonesia and the U.S.
Notice that this may also cause overpressures in the top and bottom beds.

Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressure

(Cont)
16
(c)

Depletion
When hydrocarbon or water are produced from a competent
formation in which no subsidence occurs, a subnormal
pressure zones may result
This will be important when drilling development wells
through a reservoir which already been producing for some
times.
Some pressure gradients in Texas aquifers have been as low
as 0.36 psi/ft.

Origin of Overpressured Formation

17

(a) Incomplete sediment compaction or undercompaction

In the rapid burial of low permeability clays or shales
there is little time for fluid to escape.
Under normal conditions the initial high porosity is
decreased as the water is expelled through permeable
sand structure.
If the burial is rapid and the sand is enclosed by
impermeable barriers, water in rock is not allowed to
escape accordingly, e.g., due to presence of barrier.
The trapped fluid will help to support the overburden.

How does overpressure occur?

Pressure

Slow deposit of
sand into water

Pore
pressure is
hydrostatic

Water escapes upward

to make room for the
sand

Lithostatic
pressure

18

Pressure

Pore pressure is
hydrostatic
down to A then
increases
abnormally

Rapid deposit of
clay into water
A

Water cannot
escape quickly
enough. Gets
trapped and
pressurized by
overlying deposits

19

Lithostatic
pressure

Origin of Overpressured Formation (Cont)

20

(b) Faulting

Faults may redistribute sediments and place permeable

zones opposite impermeable zones, thus creating barriers
for the fluid to flow

This may prevent water from being expelled from a shale,

which will cause high porosity and pressure within that
shale undercompaction.

Origin of Overpressured Formation (Cont)

21

(c)

(d)

Phase changes during compaction

Minerals may change phase under increasing pressure.
E.g gypsum converts to anhydrate plus free water.
The release of water is about 40% the volume of gypsum
If the water cannot escape, overpressure will be generated.

Massive rock salt deposition

Since salt is impermeable to fluids the
underlying formations become
overpressured. (Plastic behavior)
Deposition of salt can occur over wide areas
(e) Salt diaperism / salt dome
The upward movement of a low density salt
dome due to buoyancy which disturbs the
normal layering of sediments and produces
pressures anomalies.

Origin of Overpressured Formation (Cont)

22

(f)

Tectonic compression
Faulting and uplift have moved a formerly buried
formation from an area of high overburden stress to
one of lower overburden stress

Origin of Overpressured Formation (Cont)

23

(g)

Repressuring from deeper levels

This is caused by migration of fluid from a high to low
pressure zone at shallower depth
High pressure can occur in shallower sand if they are
charged by gas from lower formations

(h)

Generation of hydrocarbon
Shales which are deposited with a large content of
organic material will produce gas.
if it is not allowed to escape the gas will cause
overpressure.

3. Overburden Pressure
24

Also known as geostatic pressure/ lithostatic pressure

Overburden pressure originates from the combined weight

of the formation matrix (rock) and the fluids (water, oil,

and gas) in the pore space overlying the formation of
interest.
In order to calculate overburden, the average density of the
material (rock and fluids) above the point of interest must
be determined:

3. Overburden Pressure (Cont)

25

3. Overburden Pressure (Cont)

26

Overburden pressure varies in different regions and

formations. It may vary with depth because of changing in bulk

density due to compaction and changing lithology.

The specific gravity of rock matrix vary from 2.1 (sandstone) to

2.4 (limestone).

Using average of 2.3 and zero porosity the overburden pressure

gradient is
2.3 x 0.433 psi/ft = 0.9959 psi/ft
and rounded up to 1 psi/ft

This is the maximum possible overburden pressure gradient.

4. Fracture Pressure
27

Fracture Pressure is the pressure inside the well/borehole

that would fracture the formation

It also determines the wellbores strength and ability of the
formation to withstand pressure.
If borehole pressure exceed formation fracture pressure,
the formation would break
Exceeding this limit also can cause lost circulation,
resulting in formation damage and induced fractures.
The pressure in the borehole must always lie between the
formation pore pressure and the fracture pressure.

Sandstone and shale

28

1 mm

Shale

Sandstone
Formed by cemented sand
grains/ quartz
Open pore space network
Oil and gas reservoirs
Allows flow (dissipates
pressure quickly)

Formed by clays
Tight pore space network
Oil and gas seals
Retards flow, but allows flow
in long term

Subsurface Pressures

Normal Hydrostatic pressure 0.445 psi/ft

Depth (m)

Pore Pressure (depends on location)

Fracture gradient: pressure at
which the formation will
fracture

Lithostatic
(overburden)

10,000 ft

Pressure (psi)

29

10000

Example 3:
30

a) At depth of 1300 ft, the formation pressure is 650

psi. This formation pressure is:

Normal presssure OR Overpressure OR Subnormal pressure

b) Find pressure at 1500 ft if normal pressure

gradient is occurred between 1300ft 1500ft.

c) Find pressure at 1100 ft if normal pressure gradient

is occurred between 1100ft to 1300ft.

Solution:
31

a) Overpressure: 0.5 psi/ft > 0.465 psi/ft

b) Pressure @ 1300ft + increase P @ 200ft = 743 psi

c) Pressure @ 1300ft - decrease P @ 200ft = 557 psi

Example 4:
32

Consider the gas sand was encountered in the U.S. gulf coast area. If

the water-filled portion of the sand is pressured normally and the

gas/water contact occurred at a depth of 5000 ft, what mud weight
would be required to drill through the top of the sand structure safely at
a depth of 4000 ft? Assume the gas has an average density of 0.8
lbm/gal.

Solution:
33

Solution: P5000ft = P4000ft + PGas1000ft

P4000ft = P5000ft PGas1000ft
P4000ft = 0.465(psi/ft) x 5000 (ft) 0.052 x 0.8 (lbm/gal) x

1000 (ft)

P4000ft = 2283 psi.

The mud density needed to balance this pressure while

drilling

p 4000ft
0.052 h

2283
11 lbm / gal
0.052 4000

Determination of Fracture Gradients

34

Field Determination

1.

Leak Off Test (Formation Integrity Test, FIT) Commonly

used

2. Theoretical Determination
Hubbert & Willis
Mathews & Kelly
Eaton (Commonly used)
Christman

Leak-off test (LOT)

35

The most common procedure used for the field

determination of fracture gradient. It can only be
determined after the formations have been
penetrated.
This test is normally performed at the start of each
new hole section just after drilling out of a casing shoe
of the previous hole section.
In this test, blow-out preventers are closed and then
the pressure is applied incrementally to the shut-in
system until the formation initially accepts fluid
The operation is generally stopped at the first point
which deviates from the straight line portion of the
plot.

Leak-off test (LOT)- Procedure

36

1. Drill 5 to 10 ft below casing shoe

2. Close the BOPs at the surface and

apply pressure down the drill pipe

in small increments, using a lowvolume pump.
3. Record the volume of mud
pumped and the pressure in the
system at each volume increment.
4. Stop pumping when the pressure
in the well does not increase
linearly (formation begins to take
fluid) for an increase in the
volume of fluid pumped into the
well
5. Plot pressure versus the pumped
volume to determine the initial
leak off pressure.

Typical Rig for LOT

37

Why do we need to measure fracture gradient??

38

To investigate the strength of the cement bond

around the casing shoe.

To determine the fracture gradient around the casing
shoe.
To validate / invalidate the setting depth of the next
casing.
To determine the maximum mud weight.

39

Determining Fracture pressure using LOT

40
Fracture pressure/ formation strength pressure/ maximum allowable pressure

at casing shoe is measured in psi or EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT (EMW):

FP

= LOP + P Hyd (psi)

P Hyd = 0.052*OMW*D (psi)

FP = LOP + 0.052*OMW*D (psi)

EMW = LOP + OMW (ppg)

0.052*D
Where:

FP
OMW
D
LOP
P Hyd
EMW

= Fracture Pressure, psi.

= Original Mud weight, ppg.
= Casing Shoe Depth, ft TVD - RKB.
= Leak-off Pressure, psi.
= Mud Hydrostatic Pressure, psi.
= Equivalent Mud Weight,

Determining Maximum Allowable Mudweight

using LOT
41

Maximum Mudweight (ppg) =

LOP + OMW (ppg)

0.052*D

Usually a safety factor of 0.5 ppg (0.026 psi/ft) is subtracted from the
maximum mud weight.

If it is anticipated that a mudweight greater than this is required then

consideration should be given to setting another string of casing prior
to entering the zone that will require this higher mudweight.

Example 5: Leak-off test (LOT)

42

A leakoff test was carried out just below a 13-3/8" casing shoe at 7000 ft. TVD using
10.0 ppg mud. The results of the tests are shown below. Determine the fracture
pressure at the casing shoe and the maximum allowable mudweight for the 12-1/4"
hole section ?
Volume pumped, bbl
0
1
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5

Pressure, psi
0
4
100
190
280
370
460
550
640
730
820
850
880

Using a graph paper, plot Pressure vs Volume graph

Leak-off test (LOT)- Solution

43

Theoretical determination of Fracture

Pressure
It is necessary to estimate the fracture pressure of the formation to ensure safe

operation and to optimize the design of the well.

At the well planning stage, the fracture gradient can be estimated from offset
well data. If no offset data is available the fracture gradient can be predicted
using any of the published models below:
1. Hubbert & Willis
The fracture gradient is a function of overburden stress, formation pressure
and a relationship between horizontal and vertical stresses
2.

3.

4.

Mathews & Kelly

Consider the matrix stress and varies only with the degree of compaction
Eaton
Extended concept from Mathews and Kelly by introducing Poisson ratio
Christman
Accounted for the effect of water depth

Eaton Method (Commonly used)

Eaton proposed the following equation for estimating fracture gradient

G f Go G p
Gp

Gf = fracture gradient (psi/ft)

Go = overburden gradient (psi/ft)
Gp = pore pressure gradient (observed or predicted) (psi/ft)
v = Poissons ratio
Poissons ratio is a rock property that describes the behaviour of rock stresses

in one direction (least principle stress) when pressure is applied in another

direction.
Poissons ratio varies with depth and degree of compaction
In Malaysia: Poison ratio is between 0.4 to 0.5

Example 6: Estimation of Fracture Gradient

Using the data below, calculate the fracture gradient at the various

depths for the following land well. Assume v = 0.4 and overburden
gradient = 1.0 psi/ft. Plot a pore pressure profile consist of pore
pressure, fracture pressure and overburden pressure lines.
TVD (ft)

Pore Pressure (psi)

3000
5000

1320
2450

8300
8500

4067
4504

9000
9500
10000
11000

5984
6810
7800
10171

The Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)

When mud is circulated through the drillstring, the borehole pressure at

the bottom of the annulus will be greater than the hydrostatic pressure of
the mud
The extra pressure is due to the frictional pressure required to pump the
fluid up the annulus.
This frictional pressure must be added to the pressure due to the
hydrostatic pressure from the colom of mud.
An ECD can be calculated from the sum divided by true vertical depth of
the well
Pd
ECD MW

0.052 D

ECD = effective circulating density (ppg)

MW = mud weight (ppg)
Pd = annulus frictional pressure drop at given circulation rate
D = depth (ft)

Example 7: ECD Calculation

If the circulating pressure losses in the

annulus of the above well is 300 psi

when drilling at 7500ft with 9.5ppg mud,
what would be the ECD of the mud at
7500ft.

Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface

Pressure 49(MAASP)

Is an absolute upper limit for the pressure in the annulus of an oil and gas
well as measured at the wellhead.
Is the maximum closed in (not circulating) pressure that can be applied to
the annulus (drillpipe x BOP) at surface before the formation just below
the casing shoe will start to fracture (leak off).
MAASP is calculated to provide a surface pressure, which will produce the
limiting pressure at the shoe.
This is to preserve well integrity to ensure that the annuli remain intact.
One major threat to annulus integrity is overpressure within the annulus,
which could lead to burst or collapse of a casing or damage to the
formation below.
This will happen first at the shoe of the annulus because the pressure will
naturally be higher with the weight of the column of mud.
MAASP = Maximum Allowable pressure at the formation just below the
shoe minus Hydrostatic Pressure of mud at the formation just below the
shoe.

Example 8: MAASP Calculation

50

If a mudweight of 9.5ppg mud is required to drill the

12-1/4 hole section of a 7000ft well, What would be

the MAASP when drilling this hole section?
Given the maximum allowable pressure at casing
shoe is 4900 psi

Drilling Problem Associated with Abnormal

Formation Pressure
51

When drilling through a formation sufficient hydrostatic mud pressure must be

maintained to:
prevent the borehole collapsing and
prevent the influx of formation fluids.
To meet these 2 requirements the mud pressure is kept slightly higher than
formation pressure. This is known as overbalance.

If, however, the overbalance is too great this may lead to:
reduced penetration rates
breakdown of formation (exceeding the fracture gradient) and subsequent lost
circulation (flow of mud into formation)
excessive differential pressure causing stuck pipe.
If the mud pressure is less than the pore pressure then the differential is known
as underbalance pressure.

Drilling Problem Associated with Abnormal Formation

Pressure
52
The abnormal pressure will influence the design of casing string.
If there is a zone with high pressure above a low pressure zone, the same mud

weight cannot be used to drill the low pressure zone otherwise the lower zone
may be fractured.
The upper pressure zone must be cased-off and allowing the mud weight to be
reduced for drilling the lower zone.
A common problem is where the surface casing is set too high, so that when an
overpressured zone is encountered and an influx is experienced.
Each casing string should be set to the maximum depth allowed by the fracture
gradient of the exposed formations.
If this is not done an extra string of protective casing may be required. This will
not only prove expensive, but will also reduce the wellbore diameter. This may
have implications when the well is to be completed since the production tubing
size may have to be restricted.
Having considered some of these problems it should be clear that any
abnormally pressured zone must be identified and the drilling programme
designed to accommodate it.

Pore Pressure Profile

53

54

Basis for all designs

related to drilling
operations.
Mud pressure must
be within the window
during drilling at any
depth.
Consequence of
violation may be
severe.

PREDICTION OF PORE PRESSURE/

ABNORMAL PRESSURE
55

1) Before drilling - for well design and planning

2) While drilling to adjust the design as necessary

1) Predictive techniques (before drilling)

1. Correlation of available data from nearby wells/offset wells
2. Geophysical measurement at surface: Seismic interpretation data

relies on the fact that abnormally pressured rock is less compacted

than normally pressured rock, so has higher porosity.
porosity can be determined from the velocity of sound through rock.
Geologists find it easier to use inverse velocity or transit time
measured in microseconds per foot, instead of velocity.
The higher the transit time, the more porous the rock.

56

2. Detection techniques (whilst drilling)

1.

Monitoring the drilling parameters

Weight on Bit (WOB): The load put on the bit by the drill
collars to improve penetration rate

RPM: revolutions per minute. Term used to measure the speed

at which the drillstring is rotating.
Rate of Penetration (ROP): As the compaction is increased with
depth, ROP will decrease with
depth. Normally measured in feet
drilled per hour.
Torque: the turning force which is applied to the drillstring
causing it to rotate. Torque is usually measured in ft-lbs.
Drag: The force required to move the drillstring due to the
drillstring being in contact with the wall of the borehole.

57

2. Detection techniques (whilst drilling)

2.

Mud and cuttings returning from the hole (mud logging)

Monitoring the effect of overpressured zone on the mud (influx of oil

or gas). The changes in the drilling mud parameter due to
overpressure zones includes increase gas cutting of mud, decrease in
mud weight, increase in flowline temperature.

Drilled cuttings try to identify cuttings from sealing zone

Overpressured zones are associated with under-compacted shales with
high fluid content. The degree of overpressure can be inferred from the
degree of compaction of the cuttings.
The reduction in shale cuttings density could be an indication of
transition zone.

2.
3.

Electrical properties of the formation (electric logging)

Direct evidence (influx)

58

Typical log responses during drilling

in overpressured intervals
SONIC
VELOCITY

POROSITY

TEMPERATURE

DEPTH

PRESSURE

Top overpressure

Low

High

Low

High

59

Low

High

Low

High

Monitoring the Drilling Parameters

If WOB and RPM are kept constant, and bit does not wear, then
rate of penetration (ROP) will increase in less compacted rock
NOTE: it may also increase because the formation has changed

ROP (ft/hour)

Depth
Something has happened here to cause ROP to increase
Needs further investigation

20 40 60 80

60

Normal pressure

Transition zone to higher pressure

61

Annular velocity of
mud up the hole
AV =

Normal pressure

Q x 24.51

d = 8

D2 d2

D = 12-1/4
AV (in gauge hole) =
180 ft/min
may lift cuttings adequately

Q (flow rate), say, 630 gal / min

Transition zone to higher pressure

D1 = 20

Stuck in the hole

(very bad!)

AV (in gauge hole) =

50 ft/min
May not adequately carry the
sloughings
62

Monitoring the Drilling Parameters

If WOB and RPM are kept constant, rate of penetration

(ROP) will increase in less compacted rock. However,
WOB and RPM are rarely kept constant. So we calculate
the drillability of the formation, called the d exponent
assuming a constant mud weight.

The d exponent =

R = Penetration Rate (ROP)

N = Rotary Speed (rpm)
W = WOB (lb)
B = Bit diameter (in.)
In normal pressure regions, dexp increases with depth. Any sudden decrease
indicates the potential existence of overpressure.
63

Modified d-exponent
It can be seen that the d-exponent equation takes no account of

mudweight.
Modification is necessary to eliminate the effect of changing
mud weight
Done by multiplying by a normalized density (mud weight):

MWn
dc d
MWa
MWn - normal mud weight
MWa actual mud weight
d = d-exponent
dc = modified d-exponent

 The d-exponent is generally used to simply identify the top of

overpressure zone

How to calculate formation pressure from

modified d-exponent??
The value of the formation pressure can be derived from the modified

d-exponent, using a method proposed by Eaton (1976):

Exercise 1
Whilst drilling the 12-1/4" hole section of a well the mudloggers were

recording the data as shown in the table below.

Exercise 1 (Contd)
Assume a normal formation pressure of 0.45 psi/ft, an

overburden gradient of 1.0 psi/ft and a normal mud

weight for this area of 9.5 ppg.
a) Plot the d and dc exponent and determine whether
there are any indications of an overpressured zone.
b) If an overpressured zone exists, what is the depth of
the top of the transition zone.
c) Use the Eaton equation to estimate the formation
pressure at 8600 ft.

Torque and Drag

Torque can be useful for identifying overpressured

zones.
An increase in torque may occur of the decrease in
overbalance results in the physical breakdown of
the borehole wall.
More material than the drilled cuttings is
accumulating in the annulus.
Drag may also increase as a result of these effects.